Aleurites moluccanus
(candlenut tree)

Pictures

Picture	Title	Caption	Copyright
Title Tree habit Caption Aleurites moluccanus (kukui, kukui nut); tree habit. Hana Highway, Maui., Hawaii. June 18, 2009 Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Tree habit	Aleurites moluccanus (kukui, kukui nut); tree habit. Hana Highway, Maui., Hawaii. June 18, 2009	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Typical habit in a grove Caption Aleurites moluccanus (kukui, kukui nut); typical yhabit in a grove. Honomanu Hana Highway, Maui, Hawaii, June 18, 2009 Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Typical habit in a grove	Aleurites moluccanus (kukui, kukui nut); typical yhabit in a grove. Honomanu Hana Highway, Maui, Hawaii, June 18, 2009	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Trunk and bark Caption Aleurites moluccanus (kukui, kukui nut); trunk. Iao, Maui, Hawaii. April 30, 2010 Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Trunk and bark	Aleurites moluccanus (kukui, kukui nut); trunk. Iao, Maui, Hawaii. April 30, 2010	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Foliage Caption Aleurites moluccanus (kukui, kukui nut); foliage. Kula Botanical Garden, Maui. March 07, 2011 Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Foliage	Aleurites moluccanus (kukui, kukui nut); foliage. Kula Botanical Garden, Maui. March 07, 2011	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Fruits and foliage Caption Aleurites moluccanus (kukui, kukui nut); Fruits and foliage. Wahinepee, Maui, Hawaii. August 03, 2002 Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Fruits and foliage	Aleurites moluccanus (kukui, kukui nut); Fruits and foliage. Wahinepee, Maui, Hawaii. August 03, 2002	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Flowers Caption Aleurites moluccanus (kukui, kukui nut); flowers at Keopuolani Park, Maui. July 03, 2006 Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Flowers	Aleurites moluccanus (kukui, kukui nut); flowers at Keopuolani Park, Maui. July 03, 2006	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Fruits as beach flotsam Caption Aleurites moluccanus (kukui, kukui nut); beach flotsam at Kanaha Beach, Maui. March 23, 2004 Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Fruits as beach flotsam	Aleurites moluccanus (kukui, kukui nut); beach flotsam at Kanaha Beach, Maui. March 23, 2004	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Mature Tree Caption Aleurites moluccanus (kukui, kukui nut); mature tree habit. Copyright ©Rafael T. Cadiz	Mature Tree	Aleurites moluccanus (kukui, kukui nut); mature tree habit.	©Rafael T. Cadiz
Title Wildlings Caption Aleurites moluccanus (kukui, kukui nut); wildlings. Copyright ©Rafael T. Cadiz	Wildlings	Aleurites moluccanus (kukui, kukui nut); wildlings.	©Rafael T. Cadiz
Title Wildling Caption Aleurites moluccanus (kukui, kukui nut); wildling. Copyright ©Rafael T. Cadiz	Wildling	Aleurites moluccanus (kukui, kukui nut); wildling.	©Rafael T. Cadiz

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Aleurites moluccanus (L.) Willd.

Preferred Common Name

• candlenut tree

Other Scientific Names

• Aleurites ambinux Pers
• Aleurites angustifolius Vieill
• Aleurites commutata Geiseler
• Aleurites cordifolia Steud
• Aleurites cordifolius (Gaertn.) Steud.
• Aleurites erratica O. Deg., I. Deg. & K. Hummel
• Aleurites integrifolia Vieill. ex Guillaumin
• Aleurites integrifolius Vieill.
• Aleurites javanicus Gand.
• Aleurites lanceolatus Blanco
• Aleurites lobatus Blanco
• Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd.
• Aleurites moluccanus var. aulanii O.Deg. & I.Deg.
• Aleurites moluccanus var. floccosa Airy Shaw
• Aleurites moluccanus var. katoi O.Deg., I.Deg. & Stone
• Aleurites moluccanus var. remyi (Sherff) Stone
• Aleurites moluccanus var. serotina O.Deg. & Sherff
• Aleurites moluccanus var. serotinus O. Deg. & Sherff
• Aleurites remyi Sherff
• Aleurites trilobus J. R. Forst. & G. Forst.
• Camirium cordifolium Gaertn
• Camirium moluccanum (L.) Ktze.
• Camirium oleosum Reinw. ex Blume
• Camirium oleosum Reinw. ex Müll. Arg.
• Dryandra oleifera Lam.
• Jatropha moluccana L.
• Juglans camirium Lour
• Mallotus moluccanus (L.) Müll.Arg.
• Manihot moluccana (L.) Crantz
• Ricinus dicoccus Roxb.
• Rottlera moluccana (L.) Scheff.
• Telopea perspicua Sol. ex Seem.

International Common Names

• English: balucanat; Belgaum walnut; candle nut tree; candleberry; candlenut; candlenut oil tree; Candle-nut tree; Indian walnut; kukui nut; lumbangtree; Otaheite walnut; varnish tree; varnishtree
• Spanish: Arbol de la cera; arbol llorón; avellano; avellano criollo; camirio; nogal de la India; nuez
• French: aleurites; bancoulier; Bancoulier des Moluques; noisette; noix; noyer; noyer de bancoul; noyer des Indes; noyer des Moluques; noyer des Moluques
• Chinese: shi li
• Portuguese: calumbàn; lumbàn; noz da India

Local Common Names

• Brazil: nogueira-de-igape; noz-da-índia; saboneteira
• Cook Islands: tuitui
• Cuba: árbol de la luz; nogal prieto; nogel de jardín
• Fiji: lauci; nggerenggere; sikeci; sikeli; sikethi; toto; tuitui; tutui; waiwai
• French Polynesia: ama; rama; tahii; tahiri; ti'a'iri; tiaiti; tuitui; tutu'i
• Germany: Kerzennussbaum; Lichtnussbaum
• Greece/Crete: lerit
• Guam: lumbang
• Indonesia: anoi; berau; bontalo dudulaa; boyau; buwa kare; kamere; kamiri; kembiri; kemili; kemiling; keminting; kemiri; kemwiri; kereh; komere; kumiri; lana; madang ijo; mi; midi; miri; muncang; nena; nyenga; pidekan; saketa; tanoan; tenu; wiau
• Indonesia/Sumatra: kemiri
• Italy: Albero della vernice
• Micronesia, Federated states of: raguar; sakan; shakan
• Niue: tuitui
• Palau: sakan
• Philippines: biau; kalumban; kami; kapili; lumbang; rumbang
• Portugal: calumban; noz da India
• Puerto Rico: nogal; nuez de la India; palo de nuez
• Samoa: lama
• Spain: arbol lloron; avellano; avellano criollo; nogal de la India; nuez
• Tonga: tuitui
• USA/Hawaii: kuikui; kukui
• Vanuatu: kandeltri
• Wallis and Futuna Islands: tuitui

EPPO code

• ALEMO (Aleurites moluccana)

Trade name

• tung

Summary of Invasiveness

A. moluccanus, native to the Indo-Malaya region, is a distinctive medium-sized tree, recognisable by its silvery green leaves. It has been intentionally introduced, and is subsequently, widespread throughout the tropics. The species has occasionally escaped from cultivation into the wild, most prominently in Hawaii, but also in the Dominican Republic, Florida and sites in New South Wales, Queensland and Christmas Island (University of Queensland, 2011). It is reported to be invasive on American Samoa, the Cook Islands, Brazil, Ecuador, Paraguay, Dominican Republic, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, French Polynesia, New Caledonia, Niue, Pitcairn, Samoa, Tonga, Singapore and Mayotte and to be a pest in parts of Australia, including Christmas Island (Kairo et al., 2003; University of Queensland, 2011; PIER, 2013).

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Dicotyledonae
•                     Order: Euphorbiales
•                         Family: Euphorbiaceae
•                             Genus: Aleurites
•                                 Species: Aleurites moluccanus

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Aleurites moluccanus, the 'candlenut tree', is a culturally significant species of tree in the genus Aleurites of the family Euphorbiaceae. The genus contains two species: A. moluccanus (L.) Willd and Aleurites rockinghamensis (Baill.) P.I.Forst. The economically important tung oil tree, A. fordii, which was widely planted in South America and elsewhere during the twentieth century (Arce and Paull, 2008) is now recognized in the genus Vernicia.

The species was described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 work Species Plantarum as two species in separate genera: Croton moluccanus and Jatropha moluccana. The two names are now considered synonyms, with the name in Croton being disregarded (Stuppy et al., 1999). When the genus Aleurites was erected by naturalists Johann Reinhold Forster and Georg Forster, they nominated Aleurites triloba to be the type species. This is a junior subjective synonym of A. moluccanus. A range of other synonyms exist for A. moluccanus, as well as several nomina nuda.

The name Aleurites derives from a Greek word meaning floury, in reference to the underside of the leaves. A. moluccanus is morphologically variable, and a number of taxa have been recognised as various ranks, from varieties to separate species. Although none were accepted as valid by Stuppy et al. (1999), listed varieties of the species may include A. moluccanus var. aulanii, A. moluccanus var. floccose, A. moluccanus var. katoi, A. moluccanus var. remyi, A. moluccanus var. serotina and A. moluccanus var. serotinus. Due to its cultural significance and broad geographical range, A. moluccanus is known by a great variety of vernacular names. In English it is generally known as the 'candlenut tree' or 'Indian walnut', or by its Hawaiian name, kukui.

Description

A. moluccanus is a medium-sized tree, reaching 20 m tall, with a diameter at breast height of up to 90cm. It has a large, spreading crown, and often has irregular branches, frequently spreading wide or drooping downwards to ground level. The tree is distinctive from a distance (Scott and Thomas, 2000) due to the silvery–green colour of the leaves. This pale colour is caused by a thick covering of stellate hairs, which often diminishes as the leaf ages.

The leaves are very distinctively shaped but also quite variable in gross morphology. Young leaves and leaves on lower branches are often three-lobed or five-lobed, while older leaves and those on higher branches, tend to be a simpler triangular or oval shape. They are typically 10–20cm long with wavy margins, and are arranged alternately. Where the leaf stalk joins the blade of the leaf, there are a pair of glands that produce a sweet secretion.

Flowers are in terminal cymes, each about 10–15cm long. Each female flower is surrounded by several smaller male flowers. The female (pistillate) flowers are up to 13mm long, with five separate creamy–white petals. The male (staminate) flowers are similar to the pistillate flowers, but are longer and thinner. The fruit are hard, round drupes, about 5–6 cm long and 5–7 cm wide. The seeds are contained within a tough black shell that resembles that of a walnut; de-husked seeds number approximately 100–120 per kilogram (Elevitch and Manner, 2006).

Plant Type

Distribution

A. moluccanus was introduced aboriginally throughout the Pacific Islands and is now a common tree of the Pacific. To the Polynesians it is an important cultural tree, and they transported it across much of South-east Asia and Oceania in prehistoric times as a so-called “canoe plant”. This ancient transportation makes it difficult to distinguish between the natural range of the species and the areas where it has been introduced by man. Therefore, there is some debate as to the limits of its true native range. Its native distribution is, however, reported as centred on the Indo-Malaya region, and probably extends from Myanmar and China throughout the Malay Archipelago, and as far east as French Polynesia (PIER, 2013).

As an introduced species, A. moluccanus is now widespread across the tropics, being found in Bangladesh, Kenya, Uganda, Madagascar, the Comoros, South Africa, Brazil and many islands in the Caribbean (Elevitch and Manner, 2006; Oyen, 2007), and has even been planted on isolated oceanic islands such as Pitcairn and St Helena (Varnham, 2006). In Brazil, it is abundant in southern and south-eastern states, from São Paulo to Rio Grande do Sul (Quintão et al., 2011). In Hawaii, A. moluccanus is widespread, and has been designated as the official state tree (Little and Skolmen, 2003).

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

This species has been widely introduced to South and Central America, the Caribbean, Japan and Africa. In the tropical oceanic islands of the Pacific, A. moluccanus was intentionally introduced as a useful plant by the first Polynesian migrants at least 1000 years ago and is now widely naturalized (Larrue et al., 2010). In the West Indies, this species first appears in herbarium collections made in Puerto Rico in 1885, in Cuba in 1889 and in Guadeloupe in 1892 (US National Herbarium). 

Risk of Introduction

The large seeds of A. moluccanus are poorly suited to long-distance dispersal. Although it is capable of surviving in new areas outside its native range, its rate of unaided spread is generally low, and it “is rarely considered a harmful invasive or pest species” (Elevitch and Manner, 2006). It is, however, widely planted across a very large geographical area, which significantly increases the potential for it to escape into the wild. It is reported to be invasive in the Dominican Republic (Kairo et al., 2003) and to be a pest in parts of Australia, including Christmas Island (University of Queensland, 2011).

Habitat List

Biology and Ecology

Physiology and Phenology

There is only weak seasonality to flowering and fruiting in A. moluccanus, with plants above 3–4 years old producing flowers and fruit continuously, and with all stages of the fruiting cycle often present on a single tree at the same time. The flowers are, however, more abundant in the spring. It is estimated that individual trees of A. moluccanus can live for 40–60 years (Elevitch and Manner, 2006). There are few pests of A. moluccanus, none which are serious (Krisnawati et al., 2011).

Associations

The tree species associated with A. moluccanus vary across its natural and introduced range. In the Cook Islands, they include the native species Elaeocarpus floridanus and Hernandia moerenhoutiana and the introduced species Cocos nucifera, Morinda citrifolia, Hibiscus tiliaceus and Psidium guajava; in French Polynesia, they include H. tiliaceus and Rhus taitensis on forested slopes, and a wider range of native species on rocky slopes. In Hawaii, the native species associated with A. moluccanus include species of Diospyros and Pisonia, and introduced species include Syzygium cumini, Schinus terebinthifolia and Eucalyptus species (Elevitch and Manner, 2006).

Environmental Requirements

A. moluccanus grows chiefly on well-drained, moist, slightly acidic soils. It can reach elevations of 1200 m (3900 ft.) close to the Equator, but only reaches 700 m (2300 ft.) in Hawaii. It typically grows in mesic environments, but is apparently unaffected by varying patterns of rainfall, especially since it often grows close to streams. It generally grows in areas with a mean annual rainfall range of 640-4290 mm and a mean of 1940 mm (Elevitch and Manner, 2006). However, it can tolerate as little as 200 mm annual rainfall in Indonesia and once fully grown, A. moluccanus tolerates drought reasonably well (Krisnawati et al., 2011). It grows in areas with a mean annual temperature of 19–27°C and is estimated to tolerate temperatures no colder than 8°C (Elevitch and Manner, 2006).

Climate

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

Air Temperature

Rainfall

Soil Tolerances

Soil drainage

• free

Soil reaction

• acid
• alkaline
• neutral

Soil texture

• heavy
• light
• medium

Special soil tolerances

• infertile
• shallow

Impact Summary

Economic Impact

A. moluccanus provides a number of useful products, although few of economic significance (see Uses).

Environmental Impact

The direct impact of A. moluccanus on native ecosystems is not well known. Simply by virtue of its abundance, it must reduce the abundances of native species, but few specific interactions have been documented. On Christmas Island, its spread into the natural forest vegetation causes attrition of the forest edges and interrupts the natural succession (University of Queensland, 2011).

Threatened Species

Risk and Impact Factors

• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Has a broad native range
• Abundant in its native range
• Highly adaptable to different environments
• Pioneering in disturbed areas
• Tolerant of shade
• Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
• Long lived
• Fast growing
• Has high reproductive potential
• Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
• Has high genetic variability

• Altered trophic level
• Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
• Modification of nutrient regime
• Modification of successional patterns
• Reduced native biodiversity
• Soil accretion
• Threat to/ loss of native species

• Competition - monopolizing resources
• Competition - shading
• Competition - smothering
• Poisoning
• Rapid growth

• Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Uses

Social Benefit

A. moluccanus has a vast number of uses, and almost every part of the plant can be used for some purpose. The living plant is used as an ornamental tree, or as a living fence or windbreak. The bark is used to make an infusion that preserves fishing nets. The wood is not resistant to rot but can be used as an effective substrate for growing mushrooms, as low-quality fuel, or for making floats or short-lived canoes. The sap has been used to waterproof cloth. The leaves have been used in poultices, or in leis (garlands), either with or without the flowers (Elevitch and Manner, 2006).

Elevitch and Manner (2006) however, highlight that the majority of uses of A. moluccanus derive from their seeds. They are edible in small quantities when cooked, but are otherwise generally toxic. However, there is a variety growing in Vanuatu that appears to lack the toxic effect. The empty seed shells can be used to make jewellery or as part of a lei, or can be burned to produce soot that can be used in tattooing and dyeing. An oil can be extracted from the seeds which is used for protecting cotton bolls from insect attack, as a laxative or general folk remedy, for preserving surfboards, for waterproofing paper, in making varnishes and paints, or which can be burnt for illumination. This traditional use explains the tree’s name in Polynesian languages, which comes from a root meaning ‘light’.

Economic Value

The tree’s chief commercial product is probably a soap substitute produced from the seed oil. Once the oil has been harvested, the remaining seed cake can be used for animal fodder or as fertiliser.

Uses List

Animal feed, fodder, forage

• Fodder/animal feed

Environmental

• Agroforestry
• Amenity
• Boundary, barrier or support
• Windbreak

Fuels

• Fuelwood

General

• Ornamental
• Sociocultural value

Human food and beverage

• Fruits
• Oil/fat
• Seeds
• Spices and culinary herbs

Materials

• Bark products
• Cosmetics
• Dyestuffs
• Essential oils
• Lipids
• Oils
• Poisonous to mammals
• Resins
• Wood/timber

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

• Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
• Traditional/folklore

Wood Products

Boats

Sawn or hewn building timbers

• For light construction

Woodware

• Industrial and domestic woodware
• Matches

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

The related species Aleurites trisperma resembles A. moluccanus, but has entire (unlobed) leaves, and its three-sided fruits have prominent ridges (Elevitch and Manner, 2006).

Prevention and Control

Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Where required, populations of A. moluccanus can be controlled by felling and treating the stumps with glyphosate to prevent the tree from re-sprouting. Seedlings can be sprayed with Roundup [glyphosate] plus Pulse in clean water and saplings and trees either cut stump treated or stem injected with Roundup in clean water or basal bark treated with Garlon 600 [triclopyr] in diesel oil (Swarbrick, 1997).

The tree is a conspicuous and distinctive species that is unlikely to be overlooked or misidentified.

Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs

The ecological impact of A. moluccanus on native habitats requires further research. Although it is generally considered a beneficial tree, it may have detrimental effects that have not yet come to light. Compared to the relative depth of study afforded to the species in Hawaii, little is known about its spread in other areas, such as the Dominican Republic and many other countries, where it is reported to be invasive.

References

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Distribution References

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Contributors

18/06/14 Updated by:

Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

Pedro Acevedo-Rodríguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

03/01/13 Original text by:

Christopher J. Dixon, University of Oxford, Department of Plant Sciences, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3RB, UK

Distribution Maps