Aleurites moluccanus (candlenut tree)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Soil Tolerances
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Threatened Species
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Wood Products
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
- References
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Aleurites moluccanus (L.) Willd.
Preferred Common Name
- candlenut tree
Other Scientific Names
- Aleurites ambinux Pers
- Aleurites angustifolius Vieill
- Aleurites commutata Geiseler
- Aleurites cordifolia Steud
- Aleurites cordifolius (Gaertn.) Steud.
- Aleurites erratica O. Deg., I. Deg. & K. Hummel
- Aleurites integrifolia Vieill. ex Guillaumin
- Aleurites integrifolius Vieill.
- Aleurites javanicus Gand.
- Aleurites lanceolatus Blanco
- Aleurites lobatus Blanco
- Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd.
- Aleurites moluccanus var. aulanii O.Deg. & I.Deg.
- Aleurites moluccanus var. floccosa Airy Shaw
- Aleurites moluccanus var. katoi O.Deg., I.Deg. & Stone
- Aleurites moluccanus var. remyi (Sherff) Stone
- Aleurites moluccanus var. serotina O.Deg. & Sherff
- Aleurites moluccanus var. serotinus O. Deg. & Sherff
- Aleurites remyi Sherff
- Aleurites trilobus J. R. Forst. & G. Forst.
- Camirium cordifolium Gaertn
- Camirium moluccanum (L.) Ktze.
- Camirium oleosum Reinw. ex Blume
- Camirium oleosum Reinw. ex Müll. Arg.
- Dryandra oleifera Lam.
- Jatropha moluccana L.
- Juglans camirium Lour
- Mallotus moluccanus (L.) Müll.Arg.
- Manihot moluccana (L.) Crantz
- Ricinus dicoccus Roxb.
- Rottlera moluccana (L.) Scheff.
- Telopea perspicua Sol. ex Seem.
International Common Names
- English: balucanat; Belgaum walnut; candle nut tree; candleberry; candlenut; candlenut oil tree; Candle-nut tree; Indian walnut; kukui nut; lumbangtree; Otaheite walnut; varnish tree; varnishtree
- Spanish: Arbol de la cera; arbol llorón; avellano; avellano criollo; camirio; nogal de la India; nuez
- French: aleurites; bancoulier; Bancoulier des Moluques; noisette; noix; noyer; noyer de bancoul; noyer des Indes; noyer des Moluques; noyer des Moluques
- Chinese: shi li
- Portuguese: calumbàn; lumbàn; noz da India
Local Common Names
- Brazil: nogueira-de-igape; noz-da-índia; saboneteira
- Cook Islands: tuitui
- Cuba: árbol de la luz; nogal prieto; nogel de jardín
- Fiji: lauci; nggerenggere; sikeci; sikeli; sikethi; toto; tuitui; tutui; waiwai
- French Polynesia: ama; rama; tahii; tahiri; ti'a'iri; tiaiti; tuitui; tutu'i
- Germany: Kerzennussbaum; Lichtnussbaum
- Greece/Crete: lerit
- Guam: lumbang
- Indonesia: anoi; berau; bontalo dudulaa; boyau; buwa kare; kamere; kamiri; kembiri; kemili; kemiling; keminting; kemiri; kemwiri; kereh; komere; kumiri; lana; madang ijo; mi; midi; miri; muncang; nena; nyenga; pidekan; saketa; tanoan; tenu; wiau
- Indonesia/Sumatra: kemiri
- Italy: Albero della vernice
- Micronesia, Federated states of: raguar; sakan; shakan
- Niue: tuitui
- Palau: sakan
- Philippines: biau; kalumban; kami; kapili; lumbang; rumbang
- Portugal: calumban; noz da India
- Puerto Rico: nogal; nuez de la India; palo de nuez
- Samoa: lama
- Spain: arbol lloron; avellano; avellano criollo; nogal de la India; nuez
- Tonga: tuitui
- USA/Hawaii: kuikui; kukui
- Vanuatu: kandeltri
- Wallis and Futuna Islands: tuitui
EPPO code
- ALEMO (Aleurites moluccana)
Trade name
- tung
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageA. moluccanus, native to the Indo-Malaya region, is a distinctive medium-sized tree, recognisable by its silvery green leaves. It has been intentionally introduced, and is subsequently, widespread throughout the tropics. The species has occasionally escaped from cultivation into the wild, most prominently in Hawaii, but also in the Dominican Republic, Florida and sites in New South Wales, Queensland and Christmas Island (University of Queensland, 2011). It is reported to be invasive on American Samoa, the Cook Islands, Brazil, Ecuador, Paraguay, Dominican Republic, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, French Polynesia, New Caledonia, Niue, Pitcairn, Samoa, Tonga, Singapore and Mayotte and to be a pest in parts of Australia, including Christmas Island (Kairo et al., 2003; University of Queensland, 2011; PIER, 2013).
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Euphorbiales
- Family: Euphorbiaceae
- Genus: Aleurites
- Species: Aleurites moluccanus
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageAleurites moluccanus, the 'candlenut tree', is a culturally significant species of tree in the genus Aleurites of the family Euphorbiaceae. The genus contains two species: A. moluccanus (L.) Willd and Aleurites rockinghamensis (Baill.) P.I.Forst. The economically important tung oil tree, A. fordii, which was widely planted in South America and elsewhere during the twentieth century (Arce and Paull, 2008) is now recognized in the genus Vernicia.
The species was described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 work Species Plantarum as two species in separate genera: Croton moluccanus and Jatropha moluccana. The two names are now considered synonyms, with the name in Croton being disregarded (Stuppy et al., 1999). When the genus Aleurites was erected by naturalists Johann Reinhold Forster and Georg Forster, they nominated Aleurites triloba to be the type species. This is a junior subjective synonym of A. moluccanus. A range of other synonyms exist for A. moluccanus, as well as several nomina nuda.
The name Aleurites derives from a Greek word meaning floury, in reference to the underside of the leaves. A. moluccanus is morphologically variable, and a number of taxa have been recognised as various ranks, from varieties to separate species. Although none were accepted as valid by Stuppy et al. (1999), listed varieties of the species may include A. moluccanus var. aulanii, A. moluccanus var. floccose, A. moluccanus var. katoi, A. moluccanus var. remyi, A. moluccanus var. serotina and A. moluccanus var. serotinus. Due to its cultural significance and broad geographical range, A. moluccanus is known by a great variety of vernacular names. In English it is generally known as the 'candlenut tree' or 'Indian walnut', or by its Hawaiian name, kukui.
Description
Top of pageA. moluccanus is a medium-sized tree, reaching 20 m tall, with a diameter at breast height of up to 90cm. It has a large, spreading crown, and often has irregular branches, frequently spreading wide or drooping downwards to ground level. The tree is distinctive from a distance (Scott and Thomas, 2000) due to the silvery–green colour of the leaves. This pale colour is caused by a thick covering of stellate hairs, which often diminishes as the leaf ages.
The leaves are very distinctively shaped but also quite variable in gross morphology. Young leaves and leaves on lower branches are often three-lobed or five-lobed, while older leaves and those on higher branches, tend to be a simpler triangular or oval shape. They are typically 10–20cm long with wavy margins, and are arranged alternately. Where the leaf stalk joins the blade of the leaf, there are a pair of glands that produce a sweet secretion.
Flowers are in terminal cymes, each about 10–15cm long. Each female flower is surrounded by several smaller male flowers. The female (pistillate) flowers are up to 13mm long, with five separate creamy–white petals. The male (staminate) flowers are similar to the pistillate flowers, but are longer and thinner. The fruit are hard, round drupes, about 5–6 cm long and 5–7 cm wide. The seeds are contained within a tough black shell that resembles that of a walnut; de-husked seeds number approximately 100–120 per kilogram (Elevitch and Manner, 2006).
Distribution
Top of pageA. moluccanus was introduced aboriginally throughout the Pacific Islands and is now a common tree of the Pacific. To the Polynesians it is an important cultural tree, and they transported it across much of South-east Asia and Oceania in prehistoric times as a so-called “canoe plant”. This ancient transportation makes it difficult to distinguish between the natural range of the species and the areas where it has been introduced by man. Therefore, there is some debate as to the limits of its true native range. Its native distribution is, however, reported as centred on the Indo-Malaya region, and probably extends from Myanmar and China throughout the Malay Archipelago, and as far east as French Polynesia (PIER, 2013).
As an introduced species, A. moluccanus is now widespread across the tropics, being found in Bangladesh, Kenya, Uganda, Madagascar, the Comoros, South Africa, Brazil and many islands in the Caribbean (Elevitch and Manner, 2006; Oyen, 2007), and has even been planted on isolated oceanic islands such as Pitcairn and St Helena (Varnham, 2006). In Brazil, it is abundant in southern and south-eastern states, from São Paulo to Rio Grande do Sul (Quintão et al., 2011). In Hawaii, A. moluccanus is widespread, and has been designated as the official state tree (Little and Skolmen, 2003).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 17 Dec 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Planted | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
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Comoros | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Congo, Democratic Republic of the | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Gabon | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Kenya | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Madagascar | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Mayotte | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Rwanda | Present | Introduced | ||||||
South Africa | Present | Introduced | Planted | KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga | ||||
Tanzania | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Uganda | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Asia |
||||||||
Bangladesh | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Brunei | Present | Native | ||||||
Cambodia | Present | Native | ||||||
China | Present | Native | Planted | |||||
-Fujian | Present | Native | ||||||
-Guangdong | Present | Native | ||||||
-Guangxi | Present | Native | ||||||
-Hainan | Present | Native | ||||||
-Yunnan | Present | Native | ||||||
Hong Kong | Present | Introduced | ||||||
India | Present | Native | Planted | |||||
-Assam | Present | Native | ||||||
-Karnataka | Present | Native | ||||||
-Kerala | Present | Native | ||||||
-Maharashtra | Present | Native | ||||||
-Odisha | Present | Native | ||||||
-Tamil Nadu | Present | Native | ||||||
-West Bengal | Present | Native | ||||||
Indonesia | Present | Native | Planted | |||||
-Java | Present | |||||||
-Sulawesi | Present | Native | ||||||
Japan | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Laos | Present | Native | ||||||
Malaysia | Present | Native | Planted | |||||
-Peninsular Malaysia | Present | Native | ||||||
-Sabah | Present | Native | ||||||
-Sarawak | Present | Native | ||||||
Maldives | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Malè Atoll | ||||
Myanmar | Present | Native | ||||||
Philippines | Present | Native | Planted | |||||
Singapore | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Native | ||||||
Taiwan | Present | Native | Planted | |||||
Thailand | Present | Native | ||||||
Vietnam | Present | Native | ||||||
North America |
||||||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Bahamas | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Barbados | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Costa Rica | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Planted | Naturalized | |||
Dominica | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Grenada | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Guadeloupe | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Haiti | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Honduras | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Jamaica | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Martinique | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Mexico | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Montserrat | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Netherlands Antilles | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Saint Kitts and Nevis | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Saint Lucia | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | Introduced | ||||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | ||||||
United States | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Hawaii | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Oceania |
||||||||
American Samoa | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Reported as an aboriginal introduction and an invasive species on Tau Island, Tutuila Island | ||||
Australia | Present | Native | ||||||
-New South Wales | Present | Escaped cultivation and recognised as a weed | ||||||
-Queensland | Present | Native | ||||||
Christmas Island | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Cook Islands | Present | Invasive | Present on many islands but reported as aboriginal introductions and invasive on Mangaia Island, Ma‘uke Island, Miti'aro Island and Rarotonga Island | |||||
Federated States of Micronesia | Present | Invasive | Possibly introduced to some parts of Pohnpei Island where it is invasive. Native to Yap (Waqab) Island | |||||
Fiji | Present | Invasive | Present on many islands but reported as introduced and invasive on Kandavu Island, Koro Island, Lakemba Island, Ovalau Island, Taveuni Island, Vanua Levu Island and Viti Levu Island. Most reported as aboriginal introductions | |||||
French Polynesia | Present | Invasive | Reported as native to some islands but introduced and invasive on many. Mainly cited as aboriginal introductions | |||||
Guam | Present | Introduced | Aboriginal introduction. Cultivated | |||||
Kiribati | Present | Native | ||||||
Marshall Islands | Present | Native | ||||||
New Caledonia | Present | Native | Invasive | Aboriginal introduction | ||||
New Zealand | Present | Native | ||||||
-Kermadec Islands | Present | Introduced | 1836 | |||||
Niue | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Aboriginal introduction | ||||
Norfolk Island | Present | Native | ||||||
Palau | Present | |||||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | Native | Planted | |||||
Pitcairn | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Samoa | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Savai‘i Island. Aboriginal introduction | ||||
Solomon Islands | Present | Native | ||||||
Tonga | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Reported as aboriginal introduction and an invasive species on Ha‘apai Islands, Kao Island, Lifuka Island, Tofua Island, ‘Eua Island, Tongatapu Island, Late Island, Niuafo‘ou Island, Tafahi Island, Vava‘u Island | ||||
Vanuatu | Present | Native | ||||||
Wallis and Futuna | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | |||||
South America |
||||||||
Brazil | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Ceara | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
-Parana | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Rio Grande do Sul | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Santa Catarina | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Ecuador | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | ||||||
-Galapagos Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | San Cristóbal Island | ||||
Paraguay | Present | Introduced | Invasive |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageThis species has been widely introduced to South and Central America, the Caribbean, Japan and Africa. In the tropical oceanic islands of the Pacific, A. moluccanus was intentionally introduced as a useful plant by the first Polynesian migrants at least 1000 years ago and is now widely naturalized (Larrue et al., 2010). In the West Indies, this species first appears in herbarium collections made in Puerto Rico in 1885, in Cuba in 1889 and in Guadeloupe in 1892 (US National Herbarium).
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageThe large seeds of A. moluccanus are poorly suited to long-distance dispersal. Although it is capable of surviving in new areas outside its native range, its rate of unaided spread is generally low, and it “is rarely considered a harmful invasive or pest species” (Elevitch and Manner, 2006). It is, however, widely planted across a very large geographical area, which significantly increases the potential for it to escape into the wild. It is reported to be invasive in the Dominican Republic (Kairo et al., 2003) and to be a pest in parts of Australia, including Christmas Island (University of Queensland, 2011).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pagePhysiology and Phenology
There is only weak seasonality to flowering and fruiting in A. moluccanus, with plants above 3–4 years old producing flowers and fruit continuously, and with all stages of the fruiting cycle often present on a single tree at the same time. The flowers are, however, more abundant in the spring. It is estimated that individual trees of A. moluccanus can live for 40–60 years (Elevitch and Manner, 2006). There are few pests of A. moluccanus, none which are serious (Krisnawati et al., 2011).
Associations
The tree species associated with A. moluccanus vary across its natural and introduced range. In the Cook Islands, they include the native species Elaeocarpus floridanus and Hernandia moerenhoutiana and the introduced species Cocos nucifera, Morinda citrifolia, Hibiscus tiliaceus and Psidium guajava; in French Polynesia, they include H. tiliaceus and Rhus taitensis on forested slopes, and a wider range of native species on rocky slopes. In Hawaii, the native species associated with A. moluccanus include species of Diospyros and Pisonia, and introduced species include Syzygium cumini, Schinus terebinthifolia and Eucalyptus species (Elevitch and Manner, 2006).
Environmental Requirements
A. moluccanus grows chiefly on well-drained, moist, slightly acidic soils. It can reach elevations of 1200 m (3900 ft.) close to the Equator, but only reaches 700 m (2300 ft.) in Hawaii. It typically grows in mesic environments, but is apparently unaffected by varying patterns of rainfall, especially since it often grows close to streams. It generally grows in areas with a mean annual rainfall range of 640-4290 mm and a mean of 1940 mm (Elevitch and Manner, 2006). However, it can tolerate as little as 200 mm annual rainfall in Indonesia and once fully grown, A. moluccanus tolerates drought reasonably well (Krisnawati et al., 2011). It grows in areas with a mean annual temperature of 19–27°C and is estimated to tolerate temperatures no colder than 8°C (Elevitch and Manner, 2006).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
20-25 | 27-32 | 0 | 700 |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) | 8 | |
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 27 | |
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC) | 26 | 30 |
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC) | 8 | 13 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Dry season duration | 3 | 5 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
Mean annual rainfall | 640 | 4290 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
Soil reaction
- acid
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- infertile
- shallow
Economic Impact
Top of pageA. moluccanus provides a number of useful products, although few of economic significance (see Uses).
Environmental Impact
Top of pageThe direct impact of A. moluccanus on native ecosystems is not well known. Simply by virtue of its abundance, it must reduce the abundances of native species, but few specific interactions have been documented. On Christmas Island, its spread into the natural forest vegetation causes attrition of the forest edges and interrupts the natural succession (University of Queensland, 2011).
Threatened Species
Top of pageThreatened Species | Conservation Status | Where Threatened | Mechanism | References | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Abutilon sandwicense (greenflower Indian mallow) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service (1998) | |
Isodendrion longifolium (longleaf isodendrion) | EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as threatened species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2011b) | |
Peucedanum sandwicense (makou) | NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species | Hawaii | Competition - shading | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2011a) | |
Pritchardia napaliensis | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010a) | |
Schiedea hookeri (sprawling schiedea) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources; Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2011c) | |
Schiedea kealiae (Waianae Range schiedea) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010b) | |
Stenogyne kanehoana (Oahu stenogyne) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service (1997) | |
Urera kaalae | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Pest and disease transmission | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2011d) | |
Wikstroemia villosa. | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2012a) | |
Zanthoxylum oahuense (Oahu pricklyash) | VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable); USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2012a) |
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Tolerant of shade
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Has high genetic variability
- Altered trophic level
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Modification of nutrient regime
- Modification of successional patterns
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Soil accretion
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - shading
- Competition - smothering
- Poisoning
- Rapid growth
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Top of pageSocial Benefit
A. moluccanus has a vast number of uses, and almost every part of the plant can be used for some purpose. The living plant is used as an ornamental tree, or as a living fence or windbreak. The bark is used to make an infusion that preserves fishing nets. The wood is not resistant to rot but can be used as an effective substrate for growing mushrooms, as low-quality fuel, or for making floats or short-lived canoes. The sap has been used to waterproof cloth. The leaves have been used in poultices, or in leis (garlands), either with or without the flowers (Elevitch and Manner, 2006).
Elevitch and Manner (2006) however, highlight that the majority of uses of A. moluccanus derive from their seeds. They are edible in small quantities when cooked, but are otherwise generally toxic. However, there is a variety growing in Vanuatu that appears to lack the toxic effect. The empty seed shells can be used to make jewellery or as part of a lei, or can be burned to produce soot that can be used in tattooing and dyeing. An oil can be extracted from the seeds which is used for protecting cotton bolls from insect attack, as a laxative or general folk remedy, for preserving surfboards, for waterproofing paper, in making varnishes and paints, or which can be burnt for illumination. This traditional use explains the tree’s name in Polynesian languages, which comes from a root meaning ‘light’.
Economic Value
The tree’s chief commercial product is probably a soap substitute produced from the seed oil. Once the oil has been harvested, the remaining seed cake can be used for animal fodder or as fertiliser.
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Fodder/animal feed
Environmental
- Agroforestry
- Amenity
- Boundary, barrier or support
- Windbreak
Fuels
- Fuelwood
General
- Ornamental
- Sociocultural value
Human food and beverage
- Fruits
- Oil/fat
- Seeds
- Spices and culinary herbs
Materials
- Bark products
- Cosmetics
- Dyestuffs
- Essential oils
- Lipids
- Oils
- Poisonous to mammals
- Resins
- Wood/timber
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Wood Products
Top of pageBoats
Sawn or hewn building timbers
- For light construction
Woodware
- Industrial and domestic woodware
- Matches
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageThe related species Aleurites trisperma resembles A. moluccanus, but has entire (unlobed) leaves, and its three-sided fruits have prominent ridges (Elevitch and Manner, 2006).
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Where required, populations of A. moluccanus can be controlled by felling and treating the stumps with glyphosate to prevent the tree from re-sprouting. Seedlings can be sprayed with Roundup [glyphosate] plus Pulse in clean water and saplings and trees either cut stump treated or stem injected with Roundup in clean water or basal bark treated with Garlon 600 [triclopyr] in diesel oil (Swarbrick, 1997).
The tree is a conspicuous and distinctive species that is unlikely to be overlooked or misidentified.
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
Top of pageThe ecological impact of A. moluccanus on native habitats requires further research. Although it is generally considered a beneficial tree, it may have detrimental effects that have not yet come to light. Compared to the relative depth of study afforded to the species in Hawaii, little is known about its spread in other areas, such as the Dominican Republic and many other countries, where it is reported to be invasive.
References
Top of pageAguilar RH, 1917. A comparison of linseed oil and lumbang oil as paint vehicles. Philipinne Journal of Science, 12(5):235
Alambat CF, 1971. Pointers on How to Grow Lumbang Trees. Forests and Farms, Philipinnes, 4-20
Arce RKM, Paull RE, 2008. Aleurites moluccana. In: The encyclopedia of fruit and nuts [ed. by Janick, J. \Paull, R.]. Wallingford, UK: CAB International, 363-364 pp
Bartolome A, Logarita E, 1981. Methods of Stratification on Pili and Lumbang Seeds in nursery production. BS Thesis (Unpublished). Lambunao, Iloilo, Philippines: INCA
Burger WC, Huft MJ, 1995. Family 113. Euphorbiaceae. Fieldiana, 36:1-169. [Flora Costaricensis.]
Chong KY, Tan HTW, Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Singapore: Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore, 273 pp. http://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/nus/pdf/PUBLICATION/LKCNH%20Museum%20Books/LKCNHM%20Books/flora_of_singapore_tc.pdf
Dayan MP, Constantino CH, 1990. Lumbang (Aleurites moluccana (L) Willd.). RISE Compilation (Research Information Series on Ecosystems). College, Laguna, Philippines: ERDB, DENR
Elevitch CR, Manner HI, 2006. Aleurites moluccana (kukui). In: Traditional trees of Pacific islands: their culture, environment and use [ed. by Elevitch, C. R.]. Holualoa, Hawaii, USA: Permanent Agriculture Resources, 41-55 pp. http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Aleurites-kukui.pdf
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2014. Flora of China. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2
Govaerts R, 2014. Family Euphorbiaceae - World Checklist of Euphorbiaceae. London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/
Guzman E de, Umali RM, Sotalbo ED, 1986. Guide to Philippine flora and fauna. Natural Resources Management Center, Ministry of Natural Resources and University of the Philippine. Manila, Philippines: JMC Press Inc
I3N-Brasil, 2014. Base de dados nacional de espécies exóticas invasora (National database of exotic invasive species). Florianópolis - SC, Brazil: I3N Brasil, Instituto Hórus de Desenvolvimento e Conservação Ambiental. http://i3n.institutohorus.org.br
IABIN, 2014. Inter-American Biodiversity Information Network (IABIN). Red de Informacion sobre especies invasoras ([English title not available]). http://www.oas.org/en/sedi/dsd/iabin/
ICRAF, 2012. World Agroforestry Centre: AgroForestryTree Database. Nairobi, Kenya: International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF). http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org
Jacalne DV, 1955. Summary of some germination studies in the Divsion of Forestry. Investigation. Philipinne Journal of Forestry, 11(3 and 4)
Little, EL, Skolmen RG, 2003. Common forest trees of Hawaii (native and introduced), Agriculture Handbook 679. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii at Manoa
ORSTOM, 1988. List of vascular plants of Gabon
Oyen LPA, 2007. Aleuritia moluccensis (L.) Willd. In: Vegetable oils. Plant Resources of Tropical Africa, 14 [ed. by Vossen, H. A. M. van der \Mkamilo, G.]. Wageningen, Netherlands: PROTA Foundation
Pérez J, Sousa Sánchez LAM, Hanan-Alipi AM, Chiang Cabrera F, Tenorio PL, 2005. Terrestrial vegetation. (Vegetación terrestre.) In: Biodiversidad [ed. by Bueno, J. \Álvarez, F. \Santiago, S.]. Tabasco, Mexico: CONABIO-UNAM, 65-110
PIER, 2013. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Scott S, Thomas C, 2000. Candlenut (kukui) (Aleurites moluccana). In: Poisonous plants of paradise: first aid and medical treatment of injuries from Hawaii's plant [ed. by Scott, S. \Thomas, C.]. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: University of Hawaii Press, 25-29 pp
Smith AC, 1981. Flora Vitiensis Nova: A new flora of Fiji. Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. National Tropical Botanical Garden, 2:290
Space J, Flynn T, 2002. Report to the Government of the Cook Islands on Invasive Plant Species of Environmental Concern. Honolulu, USA: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 146
Space JC, Flynn T, 2000. Observations on invasive plant species in American Samoa. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu, 51
Space JC, Flynn T, 2001. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 78 pp
Space JC, Flynn T, 2002a. Report to the Government of Samoa on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Honolulu, USA: USDA Forest Service, 83 pp
Swarbrick JT, 1997. Environmental weeds and exotic plants on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean. Report to Parks Australia. J.T. Swarbrick, Weed Science Consultancy, 131 pp
University of Queensland, 2011. Candle nut, Aleurites moluccana. Weeds of Australia: Biosecurity Queensland Edition. Queensland, Australia: University of Queensland. http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/03030800-0b07-490a-8d04-0605030c0f01/media/Html/Aleurites_moluccana.htm
USDA-ARS, 2012. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
Varnham K, 2006. Non-native species in UK Overseas Territories: a review. JNCC Report, 372. Peterborough, UK: Joint Nature Conservation Committee. http://www.jncc.gov.uk/page-3660
Weidelt HJ, Agpaoa A, Endangan D, Festins S, Gumayagay J, Hoenninger T, Seeber G, Unkel K, eds, 1975. Manual of reforestation and erosion control for the Philippines. Schriftenreihe der GTZ, Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit, German Federal Republic, No. 22, 569 pp
Distribution References
CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2014. Flora of China., St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2
Govaerts R, 2014. Family Euphorbiaceae - World Checklist of Euphorbiaceae., London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/
I3N-Brasil, 2014. National database of exotic invasive species. (Base de dados nacional de espécies exóticas invasora)., Florianópolis - SC, Brazil: I3N Brasil, Instituto Hórus de Desenvolvimento e Conservação Ambiental. http://i3n.institutohorus.org.br
IABIN, 2014. [English title not available]. (Red de Informacion sobre especies invasoras)., Inter-American Biodiversity Information Network (IABIN). http://www.oas.org/en/sedi/dsd/iabin/
ICRAF, 2012. World Agroforestry Centre: AgroForestryTree Database., Nairobi, Kenya: International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF). http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org
ORSTOM, 1988. List of vascular plants of Gabon.,
Oyen LPA, 2007. (Aleuritia moluccensis (L.) Willd). In: Vegetable oils. Plant Resources of Tropical Africa, 14 [ed. by Vossen HAM, van der Mkamilo G]. Wageningen, Netherlands: PROTA Foundation.
Pérez J, Sousa Sánchez LAM, Hanan-Alipi AM, Chiang Cabrera F, Tenorio PL, 2005. Terrestrial vegetation. (Vegetación terrestre). In: Biodiversidad, [ed. by Bueno J, Álvarez F, Santiago S]. Tabasco, Mexico: CONABIO-UNAM. 65-110.
PIER, 2013. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Smith AC, 1981. Flora Vitiensis Nova: A new flora of Fiji. Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii., 2 National Tropical Botanical Garden. 290.
Space J, Flynn T, 2002. Report to the Government of the Cook Islands on Invasive Plant Species of Environmental Concern., Honolulu, USA: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry. 146.
Space JC, Flynn T, 2000. Observations on invasive plant species in American Samoa., Honolulu, USDA Forest Service. 51.
University of Queensland, 2011. Candle nut, Aleurites moluccana. In: Weeds of Australia: Biosecurity Queensland Edition, Queensland, Australia: University of Queensland. http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/03030800-0b07-490a-8d04-0605030c0f01/media/Html/Aleurites_moluccana.htm
USDA-ARS, 2012. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
Contributors
Top of page18/06/14 Updated by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
Pedro Acevedo-Rodríguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
03/01/13 Original text by:
Christopher J. Dixon, University of Oxford, Department of Plant Sciences, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3RB, UK
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