Phthorimaea operculella (potato tuber moth)

Pictures

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Picture	Title	Caption	Copyright
Title Damage symptoms Caption Phthorimaea operculella (potato tuber moth); damage symptoms, showing final instar larva in a leaf mine on tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). North Carolina Department of Agriculture, USA. Copyright ©Jessica Louque/Smithers Viscient/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US	Damage symptoms	Phthorimaea operculella (potato tuber moth); damage symptoms, showing final instar larva in a leaf mine on tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). North Carolina Department of Agriculture, USA.	©Jessica Louque/Smithers Viscient/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US
Title Larva and pupa Caption Phthorimaea operculella (potato tuber moth); final instar larva and, pupa. Copyright ©Merle Shepard, Gerald R.Carner & P.A.C Ooi/Insects and their Natural Enemies Associated with Vegetables and Soybean in Southeast Asia/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US	Larva and pupa	Phthorimaea operculella (potato tuber moth); final instar larva and, pupa.	©Merle Shepard, Gerald R.Carner & P.A.C Ooi/Insects and their Natural Enemies Associated with Vegetables and Soybean in Southeast Asia/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US
Title Adult Caption Phthorimaea operculella (potato tuber moth); adults are small elongate Gelechiid moths, measuring about 1cm in length when at rest, coloured pale brown with darker marbling. Wingspan 15-17 mm. Museum set specimen. Copyright ©David Agassiz	Adult	Phthorimaea operculella (potato tuber moth); adults are small elongate Gelechiid moths, measuring about 1cm in length when at rest, coloured pale brown with darker marbling. Wingspan 15-17 mm. Museum set specimen.	©David Agassiz

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

• Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller 1873)

Preferred Common Name

• potato tuber moth

Other Scientific Names

• Bryotropha solanella Boisduval
• Gelechia operculella Zeller
• Gelechia tabacella Ragonot
• Gelechia terella Walker
• Gnorimoschema operculella Zeller
• Lita operculella
• Lita solanella Boisduval
• Phthorimaea solanella
• Phthorimaea terrella
• Scrobipalpa operculella
• Scrobipalpulus solanivora
• Scrobipalpus solanivora

International Common Names

• English: potato moth; potato tuber worm; stem end grub; tobacco leafminer; tobacco split worm; tobacco splitworm
• Spanish: gusano de la papa; gusano del tubérculo de la papa; minador común de la papa; minador de la hoja del tabaco; oruga barrenadora del tallo; palomilla de la patata; polilla de la papa (Arg); polilla de la patata
• French: teigne de la pomme de terre

Local Common Names

• Brazil: traca da batatinha
• Denmark: kartoffelmol
• Germany: kartoffel-motte; rübenmotte
• Israel: ash habulbusin
• Italy: tignola della patata
• Japan: zyagaimoga
• Netherlands: aardappel-knollenruspje
• Norway: potetmoll
• Sweden: potatismal
• Turkey: patetes guvesi

EPPO code

• PHTOOP (Phthorimaea operculella)

Taxonomic Tree

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• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Metazoa
•         Phylum: Arthropoda
•             Subphylum: Uniramia
•                 Class: Insecta
•                     Order: Lepidoptera
•                         Family: Gelechiidae
•                             Genus: Phthorimaea
•                                 Species: Phthorimaea operculella

Description

Top of page Adult

A small elongate gelechiid moth, measuring about 1 cm in length when at rest, coloured pale brown with darker marbling. Wingspan 15-17 mm. Head and thorax pale brown, palpi curved, ascending, terminal segment about as long as second. Antennae brown, 0.7 x wing length. Front wings pale brown with small blotches of mid brown, and hind wings pale grey. The tip of the male abdomen is spinose, and distinctive when viewed through a microscope.

Egg

Broadly oval, smooth and yellowish, iridescent.

Larva

When fully grown, P. operculella larvae are about 15 mm in length. Head dark brown; prothoracic plate sometimes pinkish; body greyish-white or pale greenish-grey. Pinacula small, dark brown or black. Anal plate brown.

Pupa

Yellowish or reddish brown, eighth abdominal segment with spiracles on slightly raised, backward pointing spiracles; cremaster with a median, dorsal, thorn-like spine and eight slender hooks.

Distribution

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P. operculella is a cosmopolitan pest, especially in warm temperate and tropical regions where host plants are grown. During recent years the species has been inadvertently introduced into Georgia (Markosyan, 1992) and the Ukraine and there is a threat of its spreading to neighbouring states (Sikura and Shendaraskaya, 1983). It has also been newly recorded from the Arabian peninsula (Povolny, 1986; Kroschel and Koch, 1994) and more widely in East Africa (Parker and Hunt, 1989). It was also observed in Germany (OP Karsholt, Zoologiste Museum, Copenhagen, Denmark, personal communication, 1996).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Last Reported	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Asia
Bangladesh	Widespread					APPPC, 1987; CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
China	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Guizhou	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012
-Yunnan	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Georgia (Republic of)	Present, few occurrences			1938		Markosyan, 1992; CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
India	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Assam	Present					Debnath and Borah, 2002
-Bihar	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Gujarat	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Himachal Pradesh	Widespread					Trivedi et al., 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2012
-Indian Punjab	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Karnataka	Present					Trivedi et al., 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Madhya Pradesh	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012
-Maharashtra	Present					Pokharkar et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Meghalaya	Widespread					Lakshman Lal, 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2012
-Odisha	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Tamil Nadu	Present					Trivedi et al., 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Uttar Pradesh	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-West Bengal	Present					Amitava and Mohasin, 2004; CABI/EPPO, 2012
Indonesia	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Java	Present					Kalshoven and van der Laan, 1981; Waterhouse, 1993; CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Sulawesi	Present					Kalshoven and van der Laan, 1981; Waterhouse, 1993; CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Sumatra	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012
Iran	Present					Ajamhasani and Salehi, 2004; CABI/EPPO, 2012
Iraq	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Israel	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Japan	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Honshu	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Kyushu	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Shikoku	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Jordan	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Korea, Republic of	Present					APPPC, 1987; CABI/EPPO, 2012
Lebanon	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Myanmar	Present					Waterhouse, 1993; CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Nepal	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Oman	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012
Pakistan	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Philippines	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Saudi Arabia	Present					Povolny, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2012
Sri Lanka	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Syria	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Thailand	Present					APPPC, 1987; Waterhouse, 1993; CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Turkey	Present, few occurrences					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Vietnam	Present					Waterhouse, 1993; CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Yemen	Widespread					Kroschel and Koch, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Africa
Algeria	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Burundi	Present					Parker and Hunt, 1989; CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Cape Verde	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012
Congo	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Congo Democratic Republic	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Egypt	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Eritrea	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012
Ethiopia	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Kenya	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Libya	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Madagascar	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Malawi	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Mauritius	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Morocco	Restricted distribution					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Réunion	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Rwanda	Present					Parker and Hunt, 1989; CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Saint Helena	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Senegal	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Seychelles	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
South Africa	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Spain
-Canary Islands	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Sudan	Present					Ali, 1993; CABI/EPPO, 2012
Tanzania	Present					Parker and Hunt, 1989; CABI/EPPO, 2012
Tunisia	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Zambia	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Zimbabwe	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
North America
Bermuda	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Canada	Absent, formerly present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-British Columbia	Absent, formerly present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Mexico	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
USA	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Alabama	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Arizona	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-California	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Colorado	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Delaware	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-District of Columbia	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012
-Florida	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Georgia	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Hawaii	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Idaho	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Illinois	Absent, formerly present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Indiana	Absent, formerly present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Iowa	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Kansas	Absent, formerly present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Kentucky	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Louisiana	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Maryland	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Massachusetts	Absent, formerly present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Michigan	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012
-Minnesota	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Mississippi	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Missouri	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Nebraska	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Nevada	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-New Jersey	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-New Mexico	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-New York	Absent, formerly present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-North Carolina	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Ohio	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Oregon	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Pennsylvania	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Rhode Island	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-South Carolina	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-South Dakota	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Tennessee	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Texas	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Utah	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Virginia	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Washington	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Wisconsin	Absent, formerly present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Central America and Caribbean
Antigua and Barbuda	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Costa Rica	Widespread					Hilje, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Cuba	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Dominican Republic	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Haiti	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Honduras	Present					EPPO, 2014
Jamaica	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Puerto Rico	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
South America
Argentina	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Bolivia	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Brazil	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Bahia	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Goias	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012
-Minas Gerais	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Parana	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Rio Grande do Sul	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Sao Paulo	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012
Chile	Restricted distribution					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Colombia	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Ecuador	Present, few occurrences					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Paraguay	Restricted distribution					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Peru	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Uruguay	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Venezuela	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Europe
Albania	Absent, reported but not confirmed					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Austria	Absent, reported but not confirmed					CABI/EPPO, 2012
Belgium	Absent, reported but not confirmed					CABI/EPPO, 2012
Bulgaria	Restricted distribution			195*		CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Croatia	Restricted distribution					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Cyprus	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Czech Republic	Absent, intercepted only					EPPO, 2014
Denmark	Absent, intercepted only					IPPC, 2013; EPPO, 2014
Finland	Absent, intercepted only					EPPO, 2014
France	Restricted distribution					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Corsica	Absent, reported but not confirmed					CABI/EPPO, 2012
-France (mainland)	Restricted distribution					CABI/EPPO, 2012
Germany	Absent, intercepted only					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Gibraltar	Absent, reported but not confirmed					CABI/EPPO, 2012
Greece	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Crete	Absent, reported but not confirmed					CABI/EPPO, 2012
-Greece (mainland)	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012
Hungary	Absent, intercepted only					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Italy	Restricted distribution					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Italy (mainland)	Restricted distribution					CABI/EPPO, 2012
-Sardinia	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Sicily	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Macedonia	Absent, reported but not confirmed					CABI/EPPO, 2012
Malta	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Netherlands	Absent, formerly present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Portugal	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Azores	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Madeira	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Portugal (mainland)	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012
Romania	Present, few occurrences					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Russian Federation	Present, few occurrences					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Northern Russia	Absent, intercepted only					CABI/EPPO, 2012
-Southern Russia	Present, few occurrences					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Serbia	Restricted distribution					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Slovakia	Absent, intercepted only					EPPO, 2014
Slovenia	Absent, unreliable record					EPPO, 2014
Spain	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Balearic Islands	Absent, reported but not confirmed					CABI/EPPO, 2012
-Spain (mainland)	Restricted distribution					CABI/EPPO, 2012
Sweden	Absent, intercepted only					EPPO, 2014
Switzerland	Absent, formerly present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
UK	Absent, reported but not confirmed					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Channel Islands	Absent, reported but not confirmed					CABI/EPPO, 2012
-England and Wales	Absent, intercepted only					CABI/EPPO, 2012
Ukraine	Present, few occurrences					Baklanova et al., 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2012
Oceania
Australia	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Australian Northern Territory	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012
-New South Wales	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Queensland	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-South Australia	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Tasmania	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Victoria	Widespread					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
-Western Australia	Restricted distribution					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Fiji	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
French Polynesia	Restricted distribution					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Guam	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
New Caledonia	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
New Zealand	Widespread					APPPC, 1987; CABI/EPPO, 2012; EPPO, 2014
Norfolk Island	Present					CABI/EPPO, 2012
Papua New Guinea	Present					APPPC, 1987; CABI/EPPO, 2012

Risk of Introduction

Top of page This is such a cosmopolitan pest that there are few countries where it is an external or potential threat. It is intercepted occasionally in Europe on imported plant material; however it is doubtful whether it will survive severe cold winters of temperate countries.

Hosts/Species Affected

Top of page Potato is the principal host for P. operculella, but other Solanaceae are attacked, especially tomato, tobacco, chilli, aubergine and cape gooseberry. There are many related wild hosts; 60 plant species are listed by Das and Raman (1994).

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context
Beta vulgaris var. saccharifera (sugarbeet)	Chenopodiaceae	Other
Capsicum annuum (bell pepper)	Solanaceae	Other
Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco)	Solanaceae	Other
Physalis peruviana (Cape gooseberry)	Solanaceae	Other
Solanaceae	Solanaceae	Other
Solanum lycopersicum (tomato)	Solanaceae	Main
Solanum melongena (aubergine)	Solanaceae	Other
Solanum tuberosum (potato)	Solanaceae	Main

Growth Stages

Top of page Post-harvest, Vegetative growing stage

Symptoms

Top of page On growing plants, leaf mines betray the presence of larvae, and in addition the stem is weakened or broken. On tubers, detection is more difficult without cutting open some tubers, when galleries and larvae will be apparent within the potatoes.

List of Symptoms/Signs

Top of page

Sign	Life Stages	Type
Leaves / internal feeding
Leaves / wilting
Roots / internal feeding
Stems / internal feeding
Stems / wilt

Biology and Ecology

Top of page Carter (1984) reviewed P. operculella with reference to Europe; Trivedi and Rajagopal (1992) gave a review of all aspects of the species, with special reference to India. A review of the knowledge of the pest over 50 years in South Africa was given by Daiber (1991).

The eggs are laid singly or in batches on the leaves of the host plant, or on exposed tubers near the eye buds. A total of 40-290 eggs are laid which take 3-15 days to hatch. In winter this stage can last up to 58 days, but eggs cannot tolerate low temperatures; eggs kept at 1-4°C for 4 months failed to hatch (Langford and Cory, 1932).

The larva at first bores into the petiole, or a young shoot or main leaf vein, and mines the leaf making a blotch. Later it bores into a tuber, making a long irregular gallery. On stored tubers feeding on the tubers begins immediately. The larval stage lasts 13-33 days.

Pupation normally takes place in the soil; the pupal period is 6-29 days.

Adults fly chiefly by night and are attracted to light. They live for up to 10 days. The moth breeds continuously where conditions permit; up to 13 generations a year have been recorded in India (Mukherjee, 1948). The complete life cycle ranges from 17 to 125 days. Development of all stages is greatly influenced by temperature: the maximum fecundity has been recorded at 28°C and temperatures tolerated are in the range 15-40°C.

Natural enemies

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Natural enemy	Type	Life stages	Specificity	References	Biological control in	Biological control on
Agathis gibbosa	Parasite	Larvae			USA; California	potatoes
Agathis unicolorata	Parasite	Larvae			Australia; Bermuda; Cyprus; India; New Zealand; South Africa; St Helena; USA; Zambia; Zimbabwe	potatoes; tobacco
Anagrus nigriventris	Parasite	Eggs
Anomalochrysa frater	Predator
Apanteles caniae	Parasite	Larvae
Apanteles gelechiidivoris	Parasite	Larvae			California
Apanteles scutellaris	Parasite	Larvae
Apanteles subandinus	Parasite	Larvae			Australia; Bermuda; Chile; Cyprus; India; Madagascar; Mauritius; New Zealand; Queensland; South Africa; St Helena; Tanzania; USA; Zambia; Zimbabwe	potatoes; tobacco
Bacillus thuringiensis	Pathogen	Larvae			Egypt
Bacillus thuringiensis kenyae	Pathogen	Larvae
Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki	Pathogen	Larvae
Bacillus thuringiensis thuringiensis	Pathogen	Larvae
Blattisocius keegani	Predator
Bracon gelechiae	Parasite	Larvae			Australia; Bermuda; Chile; Cyprus; Hawaii; India; Malta; New Zealand; South Africa; St Helena; Zambia; Zimbabwe	potatoes; tobacco
Bracon hebetor	Parasite	Larvae
Bracon instabilis	Parasite				Egypt
Bracon johannseni	Parasite	Larvae			France	Solanaceae
Brinckochrysa scelestes	Predator
Brumoides suturalis	Predator
Campoletis chlorideae
Campoplex haywardi	Parasite	Larvae			Australia; Bermuda; Cyprus; India; Madagascar; Mauritius; New Zealand; South Africa; St Helena; Tanzania; USA; Zambia	potatoes; tobacco
Campoplex phthorimaeae	Parasite				Bermuda; Hawaii	potatoes; tobacco
Chelonus caucasicus	Parasite	Eggs/Larvae
Chelonus curvimaculatus	Parasite	Eggs/Larvae
Chelonus kellieae	Parasite	Eggs/Larvae			India; USA	potatoes; tobacco
Chelonus phthorimaeae	Parasite	Eggs/Larvae			Australia; Bermuda; Chile; Hawaii; South Africa; USA; California	potatoes; tobacco
Chelonus subcontractus	Parasite	Eggs/Larvae
Chrysoperla carnea	Predator
Chrysoperla rufilabris	Predator
Chrysoperla zastrowi	Predator
Copidosoma desantisi	Parasite	Eggs/Larvae			Australia; Queensland	tobacco
Copidosoma koehleri	Parasite	Eggs/Larvae			Australia; Bermuda; Cyprus; Greece; Hawaii; India; Italy; Japan; Kenya; Madagascar; Maharashtra; Mauritius; New Zealand; Seychelles; South Africa; St Helena; Tanzania; USA; Victoria; Zambia; Zimbabwe	potatoes; tobacco
Copidosoma phthorimaeae	Parasite
Diadegma mollipla	Parasite				Bermuda; Egypt; India; Kenya; Madagascar; New Zealand; St Helena; USA	aubergines; potatoes; tobacco
Diadegma stellenboschensis	Parasite
Diadegma turcator	Parasite	Larvae			Bermuda; India; St Helena; Tanzania; Zambia	potatoes; tobacco
Dolichogenidea appellator	Parasite	Larvae
Dolichogenidea litae	Parasite				Egypt
Encarsia porteri	Parasite	Eggs
Eriborus trochanteratus	Parasite	Larvae			Cyprus; New Zealand; St Helena; Zambia	potatoes
Exeristes roborator	Parasite
Geocoris punctipes	Predator
Geocoris tricolor	Predator
Glypta rufiscutellaris	Parasite				Hawaii	tobacco
Goniozus gallicola	Parasite
Granulosis virus	Pathogen	Larvae
Hippodamia variegata	Predator
Labidura riparia	Predator
Lioadalia flavomaculata	Predator
Microchelonus blackburni	Parasite	Larvae			Karnataka
Nythobia koizumii	Parasite
Orgilus jennieae	Parasite	Larvae			India; USA; USA; California	potatoes; tobacco
Orgilus lepidus	Parasite	Larvae			Australia; Bermuda; California; Cyprus; India; New Zealand; Queensland; South Africa; St Helena; Tanzania; USA; Zambia	potatoes; tobacco
Orgilus parcus	Parasite	Larvae			Bermuda; Cyprus; India; New Zealand; St Helena; Zambia	potatoes; tobacco
Orgilus pimpinellae	Parasite	Larvae
Orius albidipennis	Predator
Orius laevigatus	Predator
Steinernema carpocapsae	Parasite				Peru	potatoes
Temelucha	Parasite	Larvae
Temelucha minuta	Parasite
Temelucha picta	Parasite
Temelucha platensis	Parasite				New Zealand	potatoes
Trichogramma brasiliense	Parasite	Eggs
Trichogramma chilonis	Parasite
Trichogramma evanescens	Parasite	Eggs
Trichogramma pretiosum	Parasite	Eggs
Trichogramma semblidis	Parasite	Eggs
Trichogrammatoidea armigera	Parasite	Eggs
Zosterops gouldii	Predator

Notes on Natural Enemies

Top of page P. operculella is attacked by native natural enemies wherever it is found; however, many of these are relatively ineffective. Some are partially effective and have been introduced for biological control into other countries. The area of origin of the pest was first believed to be North America, where some effective parasitoids exist. However, Lloyd (1972) convincingly argued that the pest originated in South America (where it attacks crops such as potato, tobacco, etc.) and in the warm temperate and subtropical areas east of the Andes where it is effectively suppressed by host-specific natural enemies. The List of Natural Enemies includes only species regarded as important and those that have been released as biological control agents.

Pathway Vectors

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Vector	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Containers and packaging - wood		Yes
Plants or parts of plants		Yes

Plant Trade

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Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport	Pest stages	Borne internally	Borne externally	Visibility of pest or symptoms
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes	larvae; pupae	Yes		Pest or symptoms usually invisible

Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Bark
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx
Fruits (inc. pods)
Growing medium accompanying plants
Leaves
Roots
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches
True seeds (inc. grain)
Wood

Impact

Top of page Potato tuber moth is a serious major pest in areas where the climate favours its development, and where its host plants are grown on a large scale. Ali (1993) recorded in the Sudan a range of damage from 3.3% in deep-planted tubers to 16% in shallow-planted tubers. It is also a significant post-harvest pest on potatoes in the same regions.

Detection and Inspection

Top of page Mines in the leaves, leaf stalks and stems and tunnels in the tuber are clear signs of infestation by P. operculella.

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

Top of page The adult P. operculella moth closely resembles some Scrobipalpa spp. but is readily separated by the spiny structure on the dorsal side of the male genitalia, which is visible without dissection.

Prevention and Control

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Cultural Control

As infested seed tubers are the main cause of re-infestation, the use of healthy tubers will reduce levels of field infestation (Lakshman Lal, 1991).

In New Zealand the greatest tuber damage and economic losses occurred during the peak of the second potato tuber moth generation during February and March. Harvesting the crop as soon as possible during this period is recommended to restrict damage (Herman, 1999).

In Sudan, planting in the second week of November resulted in less insect damage and a significantly greater total yield compared with crops planted 3 weeks later. Greater depth of planting and more frequent hilling-up significantly lowered infestation; for example, insect damage ranged from 3.3% (planting 10 cm deep and hilling-up three times) to 16% (planting 5 cm deep and hilling-up once). Irrigation and mulching both significantly reduced insect damage. Light irrigation every 4 days and mulching with neem leaves during the last 4 weeks before harvest were the most effective treatments (Ali, 1993).

Field trials conducted in Meghalaya, India, during 1987-88 indicated that larval infestations of P. operculella on potatoes were consistently reduced when potatoes were grown with chillies (Capsicum), onions or peas compared to potato alone. Similarly, tuber damage was significantly lower in plots associated with Capsicum, onions and peas (11, 11 and 13%, respectively) compared to 27% in potato alone (Lal, 1993). In Egypt larval populations of P. operculella were significantly reduced by 80 and 91% on tomato intercropped with onion and garlic, respectively, in 1988-89, but not in 1989-90. In both seasons studied, tomato yield was 114-207% and 104-284% higher in plants intercropped with onion and garlic, respectively, compared to plots grown with tomato alone (Afifi et al., 1990).

Host-Plant Resistance

Recent research into the possibility of genetically modified varieties is making some progress as described by Li et al. (1999) and Westedt et al. (1998), these point to future research directions rather than make practical solutions. An overview of current research into the genetic manipulation of potato for insect pest resistance carried out at the New Zealand Institute for Crop and Food Research is given by Conner et al. (1996). Work is focused on transferring the genes for the insecticidal proteins of Bacillus thuringiensis into potato in order to provide resistance.

Fifteen potato cultivars were tested for their reaction to P. operculella by Berlinger et al. (1992) using artificial infestation. There was a good correlation between the rate of larval infestation in the leaves and tubers except for cv. Frisia, which had highly susceptible leaves but a low percentage of infested tubers (8.4%). Ailsa, Escort, Blanka, King Edward and Russet Burbank were fairly resistant. Cara, Maris Piper, Desiree and Nicola were moderately resistant and Frisia, Asterix, Spunta, Pentland Squire, Diamant and Alpha were susceptible.

Biological Control

Biological control of P. operculella has been attempted since 1918 when Bracon gelichiae was imported into France from USA. Lloyd (1972) showed that in northern Argentina and southern Brazil P. operculella causes little damage and is heavily parasitized. Cultures of some of these parasitoids were mass-reared by the Commonwealth Institute of Biological Control (CABI Bioscience) and widely distributed. Three of these parasitoids, Apanteles subandinus, Copidosoma koehleri and Orgilus lepidus, and also B. gelechiae have become established in a number of countries, and in some of them successful biological control has been reported (Sankara and Girling, 1980). In Victoria, Australia, Horne (1990) found that the parasitoids A. subandinus and O. lepidus were the most abundant, but C. koehleri was also recorded from several sites.

Detailed analysis of data obtained through regular monitoring revealed that, in an area free from insecticides, parasitoids were a major factor in controlling P. operculella. This result differs from previously published opinions on the effect of parasitoids, and is attributed to this study's analysis of data on a generation basis. The most successful results were claimed in Zimbabwe and Zambia after the establishment of A. subandinus and O. lepidus. In Cyprus A. subandinus and other parasitoids are credited with effective control (see Sankara and Girling, 1980). C. koehleri has also been successfully used in Peru (Raman et al., 1993). However, biological control depends on the proper selection and use of insecticides, and when indiscriminate insecticide application is practised parasitoids are unable to maintain control.

Native parasitoids can also achieve significant rates of parasitism, for example, in Sardinia the ichneumonid Diadegma turcator and the braconids Bracon nigricans, B. properhebetor and a species of Apanteles were recorded as parasitoids of the pest, the first species accounting for 65.1% of the total rate of parasitism (Ortu and Floris, 1989).

The nematodes Steinernema feltiae, S. bibionis, S. carpocapsae and Heterorhabditis heliothidis were used in an experiment in Russia (Ivanova et al., 1994). Potatoes infested with larvae of P. operculella were sprayed with aqueous suspensions. The first three species resulted in 95.5, 93.4 and 93.1% mortality, respectively. Larvae of all instars, within as well as on the surface of the potatoes, were affected, and infection on larvae of the next generation appeared in 6 days.

In Italy, a leaflet was designed to give agricultural extension workers an understanding of the biological control of P. operculella using baculovirus (CIP, 1992). Instructions for low-cost virus multiplication are included. In Israel, in tomato fields adjacent to potato fields, extensive damage was caused by P. operculella and three consecutive applications of Bacillus thuringiensis at a high volume were required for control.

In Peru, Winters and Fano (1997) found that Baculovirus phthorimaea was cost effective.

In southern areas of the Ukraine, B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki and B. thuringiensis subsp. thuringiensis were highly effective against the pest when applied at 10-25°C. Treatment of larvae with these preparations at 9-12°C showed that they were at least as active as Dipel, another formulation of B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki (Baklanova et al., 1990).

In Australia, Baggen and Gurr (1998) found in field trials to investigate the effects of habitat management, parasitism rates were greatest in P. operculella larvae recovered from potato tubers close to flowering plants of dill (Anethum graveolens), borage (Borago officinalis) or coriander (Coriandrum sativum). It is concluded that there may be value in providing non-host foods to C. koehleri by deploying flowering plants in a habitat management strategy.

Botanical Pesticides

Prevention of attack is also assisted by the application of vegetable oils. Sharaby (1988) showed that orange peel oil reduced the fecundity of P. operculella. Reproduction was significantly reduced when either males or females were exposed to the oil vapour. The effect increased with an increase of oil dose and exposure time. Egg hatch ranged from up to 30% when the moths were exposed to 160 µl of oil for 30-120 min. A further pronounced reduction in egg production and egg viability occurred when the moths were exposed to the vapours arising from paper discs treated with a drop of oil.

Salem (1991) showed that neem seed extract was effective for control of P. operculella on potatoes in a store in Egypt. Storage loss after 6 months in potatoes treated with 100 p.p.m. neem oil was 25% (compared to 10% with carbaryl). Adults from larvae treated with neem oil were deformed.

Chemical Control

In a field study in Egypt with potatoes, abamectin was the most effective against P. operculella followed by profenofos, Bacillus thuringiensis and granulosis virus, respectively. Tuber yields with these treatments were 14.26, 14.21, 12.58 and 12.08 t/ha, respectively, compared with the control yield of 9.04 t. Under the storage conditions, abamectin was also the most effective followed by fenitrothion, B. thuringiensis and granulosis virus (Abel-Mageed et al., 1998).

Quinalphos and diflubenzuron reduced damage caused by P. operculella, and the yield was highest in plots treated with quinalphos in India (Chandramonhan and Nanjan, 1993). The efficacy of nine insecticides against P. operculella on potatoes was tested in Maharashtra, India. Treatment with phenthoate, chlorpyrifos, fenitrothion, phoxim, permethrin, cypermethrin, deltamethrin and fenvalerate at fortnightly intervals reduced pest populations. One of these insecticides should be applied on the appearance of pests with two or three repeat applications (Raj and Trivedi, 1993).

Eleven insecticides were tested in sprays against P. operculella on potatoes in Maharashtra, India, in 1983-86. Analysis of the pooled data from three field trials indicated the efficacy of three foliar applications of quinalphos at 15-day intervals, beginning 45 days after planting (Pokharkar et al., 1991). More chemical treatment details are provided by Trivedi and Rajagopal (1992).

For protection of stored potatoes in India Sharma et al. (1998) carried out tests and it was concluded that Plantmix I is a considerable improvement to Neemrich I for preventing infestations of P. operculella. Debnath et al. (1998) found that damage to stored tubers was significantly reduced following the application of dry eucalyptus leaves, and powdered sweet flag (Acorus calamus) rhizomes and eucalyptus leaves. Dusting healthy tubers with fine wood ash controlled infestations for long periods. Seed potatoes were adequately protected by 5% malathion dust and 1.5% quinalphos dust. Potatoes kept in gunny bags impregnated with solutions of malathion 50 EC and azadirachtin 1400 p.p.m. were also free of damage. Although treatment with B. thuringiensis resulted in a low level of infestation and rotting, the percentage tuber damage remained high.

In Tunisia, Das et al. (1998) found that deltamethrin, granulosis virus and B. thuringiensis were equally effective in reducing pest damage. After 3 months' storage the treatments showed no significant effect on sprouting.

Pheromonal Control

Pheromone traps are used both for monitoring populations and for control in the field and in storage (Chernii et al., 1994). The sex pheromone of P. operculella was identified as a mixture of trans-4,cis-7-tridecadienyl acetate (PTM1) and trans-4,cis-7,cis-10 tridecatrienyl acetate (PTM2) (Persoons et al., 1976). Ortu and Floris (1989) baited traps with a mixture of the compounds. The use of a large number of pheromone traps (84/ha) drastically reduced the number of captures within the field, indicating that the mating disruption techniques may be effective for controlling this pest.

In New Zealand Herman and Clearwater (1998) tested delta design DeSIRe, green plastic funnel, water and A-traps and found that DeSIRe sticky traps caught more than eight times more moths per day than the funnel traps (17 and two moths per day, respectively). This was consistent regardless of height or pheromone blend. A blend of PTM1 and PTM2 in the ratio 1:1.5 was most effective.

Tests in 1976-78 at Casablanca in Morocco, both in the field and in vegetable-packing stations, showed that the most effective traps were pans of water over which were hung rubber septa impregnated with synthetic sex pheromone of the moth (Thal, 1979). The best results were obtained with PTM1 and PTM2 at a ratio of 9:1 (Raman, 1983); all ratios tested gave better results than traps baited with virgin females. A 1:1.5 mixture remained attractive for 90 days in the field; storage at -5°C for 2 months did not reduce its efficacy. Water traps and funnel traps gave similar results to each other. Funnel traps were ideal for mass trapping: tuber damage was reduced by 23% in pheromone-treated plots. Funnel traps in stores reduced tuber and sprout damage from 60 to 8%.

Integrated Pest Management

Strategies for integrated management of P. operculella are often contained within the management of the whole complex of potato pests. The International Potato Centre (CIP) in Peru has devised a strategy to develop and implement IPM to overcome some constraints that prevent farmers from adopting such practices. Integrated pest management strategies have been developed in many areas: see also Arx et al. (1987), Das et al. (1992), Fuglie et al. (1993), Cisneros and Gregory (1994) and Berlinger et al. (1992).

Phytosanitary Measures

Because P. operculella is such a cosmopolitan species and is considered to have reached its natural limits, phytosanitary measures are unlikely to have much effect. Where it is warm enough for the moth to survive in the open, or in warm storage, regular inspections for tuber damage should be made.

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