Albizia saman
(rain tree)

Pictures

Top of page

Identity

Top of page

Preferred Scientific Name

• Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr.

Preferred Common Name

• rain tree

Other Scientific Names

• Albizia saman (Jacq.) F. Muell.
• Calliandra saman (Jacq.) Griseb.
• Enterolobium saman (Jacq.) Prain ex King
• Feuilleea saman (Jacq.) Kuntze
• Inga saman (Jacq.) Willd.
• Microsphaeropsis pittospori
• Mimosa saman Jacq.
• Pithecellobium saman (Jacq.) Benth.
• Zygia saman (Jacq.) A. Lyons

International Common Names

• English: crow bean tree; monkey pod
• Spanish: samán
• French: abre de pluie

Local Common Names

• : carreto; cenízaro; cenízero; dormilón; zarza; zorra
• Bangladesh: rendi koroi
• Colombia: campano; genízaro; samaguare
• Cuba: algarrobo; algarrobo del pais
• Dominican Republic: guannegoul
• Germany: Regenbaum
• Grenada: coco tamarind; cow tamarind
• Guyana: French tamarind
• Haiti: guannegoul; samán
• India: belati-siris; guango; majhamaram; nidra-ganneru; thoongh moonjii
• Indonesia: Dutch tamarind; kihujan; mungur; slubin; trembesi
• Italy: albero delle pioggia
• Jamaica: guango
• Netherlands: regenboom
• Peru: huacamayo chico
• Puerto Rico: crow bean tree; dormilón; giant thibet; guango
• Thailand: monkey pod
• Trinidad and Tobago: coco tamarind; cow tamarind; samán guerra
• United States Virgin Islands: giant thibet; licorice
• Venezuela: campano; carabelí; coují; lara; uero

EPPO code

• PIFSA (Albizia saman)

Summary of Invasiveness

Top of page

S. saman possesses some of the characters of other species known to have become invasive, e.g. prolific seeding, livestock as effective dispersers of seed, nitrogen fixation and adaptation to a variety of soil types. However, reference sources are somewhat conflicting as to the degree of naturalization and invasion, especially where it spreads on disturbed sites often in Pacific and Caribbean islands. It is also known to be present in Kenya and Malawi. Binggeli (1999) classified this species as only moderately invasive.

Taxonomic Tree

Top of page

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Dicotyledonae
•                     Order: Fabales
•                         Family: Fabaceae
•                             Subfamily: Mimosoideae
•                                 Genus: Albizia
•                                     Species: Albizia saman

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Top of page Generic delimitation within the tribe Ingeae of family Fabaceae, subfamily Mimosoideae has long been known to present particular difficulties. This has resulted in a tumultuous taxonomic history, extreme lack of nomenclatural stability, and successive transfers of species such as Samanea saman from genus to genus (Barneby and Grimes, 1996). S. saman has been placed in no fewer than nine different genera by different authors, making this a notoriously confusing species for foresters. It has often been referred to as Pithecellobium saman or Albizia saman in recent years. A new generic system for the Ingeae, including a detailed taxonomic account of Samanea, has recently been completed (Barneby and Grimes, 1996), clarifying the identity of Samanea saman and providing a more stable classification for the future.

Samanea is a small genus of three species. S. saman is, however, sharply defined and, in most features, a stable species. The silvicultural potential of the closely related S. tubulosa and S. inopinata remains unknown.

Description

Top of page S. saman is a medium-sized or large tree of potentially great size, often reaching 25-30 m tall, occasionally 45 m, with a short stout bole to 2-3 m dbh and a wide, low, spreading crown, often twice as wide as the tree is high. It is a stately tree, with heavy, nearly horizontal branches and an umbrella-shaped crown. One notable old S. saman tree near Government House in Trinidad was recorded to shade approximately a hectare, and reach 50 m in height, a stem 2.6 m in diameter, with a crown diameter of 60 m (Allen and Allen, 1981; Raintree, 1987). The bark is grey-brown, rough and furrowed into ridges. A full botanical description is provided by Barneby and Grimes (1996). Leaves are large, 6-25 mm long x 3-8 cm wide, bipinnate, with 3-6 pairs of pinnae per leaf, 6-9 pairs of leaflets per pinna and large leaflets, 24-62 mm long x 10-25 mm wide. Leaflets are unequal in size, becoming larger towards the distal end of the pinnae. The new growth and leaf rachis are covered in short, velvety, tawny pubescence. The leaflets are rhombic-oblong or elliptic in shape, unequal at the base, dark olive-green, glabrous and slightly glossy above, dull grey-green and hairy below. The flowers are arranged in loose umbelliform heads, which develop in groups of 2-5 in the axils of leaves on actively growing shoots. The terminal or central flower on each head is sessile and enlarged compared to the peripheral flowers. The exposed and conspicuous stamen filaments are bright or pale pink and showy. The fruits are broadly linear, compressed pods, 10-22 cm long x 1.5-2.2 cm wide x 0.5-1 cm thick. They are green and fleshy when unripe, and turn dark blackish-brown when ripe. The thick mesocarp is filled with dry pitch-like, sweet, nutritious pulp. The pods are indehiscent and contain 5-10 mature seeds, 8-11.5 mm long x 5-7.5 mm wide.

Plant Type

Top of page Broadleaved
Perennial
Seed propagated
Tree
Woody

Distribution

Top of page S. saman is extensively cultivated both within and outside its presumed natural range in northern South America and Central America. Its present-day distribution in the Americas is also in part, probably generated by seed dispersal following introduction of horses and cattle (Janzen and Martin, 1982). Its dissemination in the West Indies certainly followed the growth of the cattle industry, as shipments of cattle from Venezuela were often accompanied by bags of S. saman pods for animal feed during the voyage (Pertchik and Pertchik, 1951). This means that the true natural range can no longer be demonstrated without doubt (Barneby and Grimes, 1996). The native range recorded in the distribution table is the presumed natural range based on field observations by the author, and includes only Central and northern South America, from Mexico to Colombia and Venezuela. Streets (1962) reported S. saman being introduced to Trinidad from Venezuela before 1860, supporting this view. This is, however, contradicted in part by a number of other authorities. For example, ILDIS (2002) includes presume nativity also in Brazil, French Guiana, Guyana and Peru (though origin unknown in Ecuador), and unknown origin in mainland Central America and Caribbean islands.

Distribution Table

Top of page

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

Top of page S. saman was one of the first roadside exotic trees to be widely planted in many tropical countries and it is now so widely cultivated, particularly in South-East and south Asia, that it is often mistaken as native to that area. It was planted principally as a shade or ornamental tree in streets, parks and in coffee plantations. It was introduced from Mexico to the Philippines before 1815 aboard one of the annual Spanish government galleons which sailed between Acapulco and Manila between 1521 and 1815 (Merrill, 1912). Historical records also suggest an early introduction to many other countries: 1847 to Hawaii from Mexico (Neal, 1965; Little and Skolmen, 1989); in around 1850 to Sri Lanka, from West Africa (Streets, 1962); in the 1870s to Indonesia (Djogo, 1997) and 1880 to India (Troup and Joshi, 1983). The abundance, extent of naturalization and wide distribution of S. saman in many countries such as Papua New Guinea (Verdcourt, 1979), Indonesia and southern India, along with numerous records of extremely large, stately, and presumably old (>100 years) trees, are further witness to its early pantropical introduction.

S. saman is naturalized, and in the southern foothills Puerto Rico and on neighbouring Vieques, but by 1990 was only localized, occurring over less than 10 hectares (Francis and Liogier, 1991). It is described as common or weedy in several Pacific islands; American Samoa (Space and Flynn, 1999), Rota (Space et al., 2000) and Micronesia (Space and Falanruw, 1999), and common, weedy or cultivated in Niue (Space and Flynn, 2000), Tonga (Space and Flynn, 2001) and Chuuk (Space et al., 2000); and naturalized in disturbed sites in Hawaii (Smith, 1998) and Fiji (PIER, 2002). However a risk assessment conducted by University of Hawaii (see PIER, 2002), did not predict that S. saman would become a pest.

Risk of Introduction

Top of page Classification of S. saman as invasive or naturalized is ambigious among authors, and none of the sources listed provided unequivocal data on impacts of the species where introduced. A precautionary approach should be adopted therefore, with attention being paid to the similarity between the environmental/climatic character of regions where S. saman is reported naturalized and that of the proposed site of introduction. However, it is noted that this species has already been widely introduced and so any risk is likely to be associated with existing plantings. Therefore, monitoring of introduction sites for signs of invasiveness may be prudent.

Habitat

Top of page The native habitat of S. saman is dry forest and grass savannah (World Agroforestry Centre, 2002), or at the margins of seasonally dry deciduous and semi-deciduous forest as well as moister evergreen woodland and savannah. In its exotic range this species commonly naturalizes on disturbed areas e.g. road verges, riverbanks, and forest areas (PIER, 2002).

Habitat List

Top of page

Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial
	Terrestrial – Managed	Rail / roadsides	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
	Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural	Natural forests	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
		Riverbanks	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)

Biology and Ecology

Top of page In many respects S. saman is similar to its close relative, the ear-pod tree, Enterolobium cyclocarpum. General reviews of S. saman are provided by Streets (1962), Allen and Allen (1981), National Academy of Sciences (1979), Raintree (1987), Little and Skolmen (1989), Little and Wadsworth (1989), and Roshetko (1995).

Genetics

There have been few, if any, attempts to systematically explore, evaluate and improve the genetic material used in planting of S. saman. Currently used seed sources are derived from land race material comprising, in most areas, an extremely narrow genetic base. Many early introductions are known to be from one or a few trees. For example, two seeds of S. saman were originally introduced to Hawaii from Mexico in 1847 (Little and Skolmen, 1989). No comprehensive provenance studies have been attempted although two different seed sources (e.g. Hughes and Pottinger, 1997) were collected and tested in a small number of trials. Two seed orchards comprising 46 and 50 half-sib families have been established in Honduras (Mejia, 1997). Little or nothing is known about patterns of genetic diversity in S. saman.

Physiology and Phenology

Flowering and reproductive biology of S. saman have been observed in natural populations in Central America and trees begin fruiting from an early age. Trees bear tens of thousands of small flowers during the late dry season. Pod set is low with fruit:flower ratios of <0.001 (Bawa and Buckley, 1989). S. saman is generally deciduous, but may be evergreen where planted in wet forest areas or as an ornamental in humid climates, when flowering occurs towards the end of the dry season as the tree refoliates. Tiny immature pods persist for 8-10 months before expanding, ripening and falling, nearly a year after flowering, in the mid dry season (Janzen, 1982, 1983). Pods are shed indehiscent.

Rapid early growth of S. saman on some sites, e.g. in Papua New Guinea (Brook et al., 1992), is comparable with other fast-growing legumes such as Acacia angustissima, A. auriculiformis, Gliricidia sepium, Leucaena leucocephala and Schleinitzia novoguineensis. However, most trials suggest that early growth is generally slower than commonly planted fast-growing species, e.g. Rourke and Suardika (1990) in Timor (Indonesia); Glover and Heuveldop (1985) in Costa Rica; Hossain et al. (1992) in Bangladesh; Jama et al. (1989) in Kenya; Akkasaeng et al. (1989) in Thailand. S. saman does not appear to rank amongst the fastest-growing tropical trees, and trees with a dbh of >100 cm are generally estimated to be >100 years old.

Reproductive Biology

There is a hermaphroditic reproductive system (World Agroforestry Centre, 2002). Flowers are believed to be pollinated by large night-flying hawk and noctuid moths, the central, enlarged flower of the inflorescence providing nectar. Pollen is dispersed as large 32-grained polyads and the species is thought to be predominantly outcrossing (Bawa and Buckley, 1989). Flowering occurs towards the end of the dry season and the small immature pods persist for 8-10 months before expanding, ripening and falling nearly a year after flowering in the mid dry season (Janzen, 1982, 1983). There are between 4,400 and 7,700 seeds/kg. The seed coat is hard.

Environmental Requirements

S. saman is a truly tropical species, intolerant of frost. It thrives in both the seasonally dry and wet tropics (Allen and Allen, 1981; Raintree, 1987; Little and Wadsworth, 1989; Djogo, 1997) but is faster-growing where rainfall is >1000 mm. A modified description of climatic requirements was prepared by CSIRO (Booth and Jovanovic, 2000). The mean annual rainfall is estimated to be 600 - 3000mm, with a dry season duration of 0 - 6 months. S. saman needs well-drained alluvial, fertile, neutral to moderately acid (>pH 4.6) soils for best growth (Franco et al., 1995), but can also tolerate heavy clays (vertisols) and infertile, or seasonally waterlogged soils. It grows from sea level of to 1500 m altitude.

Associations

S. saman has the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. Trees have been shown to nodulate effectively in Hawaii, Malaysia and the Philippines with a wide range of strains of Rhizobium (Allen and Allen, 1981).

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

Top of page

Air Temperature

Top of page

Rainfall

Top of page

Rainfall Regime

Top of page Bimodal
Summer

Soil Tolerances

Top of page

Soil drainage

• free
• seasonally waterlogged

Soil reaction

• acid
• neutral

Soil texture

• heavy
• medium

Notes on Natural Enemies

Top of page A number of minor insect pests affect S. saman in different areas, but none of these have so far caused serious problems. Two psyllid insects, Heteropsylla cubana and Psylla acacia-baileyanae [Acizzia acaciaebaileyanae], are minor defoliators causing curling of leaves, minor defoliation, stunted shoot growth and development of numerous branches where young shoots die back (Braza, 1987; 1990; Braza and Calilunga, 1981). In the native range, S. saman resprout shoots from cut stumps often have clusters of bright red, orange and blue-black nymphs of a coreid bug feeding on the shoot tips, leafcutter ants occasionally harvest some leaves, and howler monkeys eat flowers and young leaves (Janzen, 1983). The bean maggot, Hylemya platura [Delia platura] infests cotyledons of S. saman seedlings and may kill them in nurseries in Haiti (Timyan, 1996). Seeds of S. saman in Costa Rica are predated by two bruchid beetles, Merobruchus columbinus and Stator limbatus which oviposit on the fruits as they reach full size and may kill 50-70% of the seeds (Janzen, 1977). In Costa Rica, parrots may harvest up to a third of the expanded green fruits of S. saman (Janzen, 1982).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Top of page In the native range, S. saman seeds are dispersed by rodents, tapirs, peccaries, cattle and horses, which eat the pods. Whenever livestock are around fruits never accumulate beneath the tree. This species has been widely planted in agroforestry systems as a shade tree leading to its intentional international distribution and it has been so widely cultivated that the precise native range is now uncertain.

Impact Summary

Top of page

Impact

Top of page The large crown and heavy branches are susceptible to hurricane damage and can be top-heavy and dangerous near houses, while the far-reaching root system can lift foundations and road surfaces, making it an unsuitable urban amenity tree (Allen and Allen, 1981; Little and Wadsworth, 1989). It can also be messy as an ornamental tree, dropping sticky flower parts and pods on parked cars (Little and Skolmen, 1989). However, there are no recorded economic impacts resulting from invasion of young trees in the literature.

Environmental Impact

Top of page There are reports of allelopathic effects caused by sap which exudes and drips from injured limbs, causing damage to grass or other understorey plants (Magnus and Seaforth, 1965), although this appears to be a localized problem. This species fixes atmospheric nitrogen and the nutritional status of soil is therefore likely to increase.

Risk and Impact Factors

Top of page Invasiveness

• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Highly adaptable to different environments
• Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
• Highly mobile locally
• Has high reproductive potential
• Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year

Impact outcomes

• Damaged ecosystem services
• Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration

Likelihood of entry/control

• Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Uses

Top of page S. saman has been most widely planted as a shade, ornamental and roadside tree. Its canopy, with crowns of great diameter is unsurpassed for shade in silvopastoral systems, parks or roadsides. In addition, the pink flowers add to its value as an ornamental.

The wood of S. saman is strong, durable or very durable, with a light yellow sapwood and rich dark chocolate-brown heartwood. The rich colour and beautiful but subtle grain of the heartwood, resembling black walnut (Juglans nigra), makes wood from larger trees highly prized for furniture (e.g. in Trinidad and Malaysia), panelling, decorative veneers, turnery, platters, and other handicrafts. In Hawaii and Thailand the wood is used to make the famous, albeit mis-named, 'monkey-pod' bowls. The wood is often very cross-grained, making it difficult to work when dry, though remains easy to work when green. The wood is also used for fencing, construction timber, plywood, making crates, boats, and cart wheels made from single cross-sections of the thickest trunks which are said to be very durable and were a common sight on two-wheeled oxcarts in parts of Central America (Standley and Steyermark, 1946). The wood is particularly important in Zulia State in Venezuela where it comprised >80% of the timber produced between 1982 and 1988 (Escalante, 1997). The wood also makes good quality fuelwood (Ryan, 1994) and charcoal (Roshetko, 1995). S. saman trees resprout vigorously and can be managed for fuelwood by pollarding in agricultural areas, as in the Philippines (Raintree, 1987).

The mesocarp of the pod of S. saman contains a sweet nutritious pulp which smells of honey when the pods are broken and which contains 12-18% crude protein (Chicco et al., 1973; Escalante, 1985; 1997) and is highly digestible (40% digestibility), making the pods a good source of proteins, carbohydrates and minerals for livestock. The pods, which are produced in the middle of the dry season, may equal good quality hay in nutritive value and are avidly consumed by cattle, goats pigs and other herbivores. The pods can also be dried and milled into a meal that makes an excellent animal feed, which is exported on a small scale in some South American countries. As a prime source of dry season feed and an unsurpassed shade tree, S. saman is one of the foremost trees to be incorporated into silvopastoral systems in the seasonally dry tropical zones of northern South America (especially Venezuela) (Escalante, 1985; 1997) and Central America. The leaves are not widely used for livestock fodder, but have been reported to be of high quality (Larbi et al., 1996) with 22-28% crude protein (Norton, 1994), no detectable tannins and high in vitro dry matter digestibility (Ahn et al., 1989).

The sticky sweet-flavoured pulp of the pods is often eaten by children and can be used in fruit drinks. S. saman is an important lac host plant in, for example, Thailand. It is also a good honey plant (Verdcourt, 1979; Roshetko, 1995). Although S. saman bark lacks tannin, it does yield an inferior gum (Allen and Allen, 1981).

Uses List

Top of page

Animal feed, fodder, forage

• Fodder/animal feed
• Invertebrate food for lac/wax insects

Environmental

• Agroforestry
• Shade and shelter
• Soil improvement

Fuels

• Charcoal
• Fuelwood

General

• Ornamental

Human food and beverage

• Honey/honey flora

Materials

• Carved material
• Dye/tanning
• Miscellaneous materials
• Wood/timber

Wood Products

Top of page

Boats

Charcoal

Containers

• Crates

Furniture

Sawn or hewn building timbers

• Beams
• Carpentry/joinery (exterior/interior)
• Engineering structures
• For heavy construction
• For light construction
• Wall panelling

Veneers

Woodware

• Turnery
• Wood carvings

Prevention and Control

Top of page No information on the control of S. saman is available from the published literature.

References

Top of page

Ahn JH, Robertson BM, Elliott R, Gutteridge RC, Ford CW, 1989. Quality assessment of tropical browse legumes: tannin content and protein degradation. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 27(1-2):147-156; 25 ref

Akkasaeng R, Gutteridge RC, Wanapat M, 1989. Evaluation of trees and shrubs for forage and fuelwood in northeast Thailand. International Tree Crops Journal, 5(4):209-220; 13 ref

Allen ON, Allen EK, 1981. The Leguminosae. A source book of characteristics, uses and nodulation. London, UK: MacMillan Publishers Ltd

Amara DS, Mansaray SD, 1989. Fast-growing trees for agroforestry in Sierra Leone. Trees for development in Sub-Saharan Africa. Proceedings of a regional seminar held by the International Foundation for Science (IFS), ICRAF House, Nairobi, Kenya, February 20-25, 1989., 58-65; 11 ref

Athar M, Mahmood A, 1985. Qualitative study of the nodulating ability of legumes of Pakistan. List 3. Tropical Agriculture, UK, 62(1):49-51; 25 ref

Barneby RC, Grimes J, 1996. Silk tree, guanacaste, monkey's earring: a generic system of the synandrous Mimosaceae of the Americas. Part I. Abarema, Albizia, and allies. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, 74(1):292 pp.; 79 ref

Bawa KS, Buckley D, 1989. Seed/ovule ratios and mating systems in the Leguminosae. In: Stirton CH, Zarucchi JL eds. Advances in Legume Biology. Monographs in Systematic Botany 29. Missouri Botanical Garden, St Louis, U.S.A., 243-262

Booth TH, Jovanovic T, 2000. Improving descriptions of climatic requirements in the CABI Forestry Compendium. A report for the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research. CSIRO - Forestry and Forest Products, Client Report No. 758

Bowen MR, Jama AI, Jama AM, Hussein IA, 1989. Field trials 1987-1989. British Forestry Project Somalia and National Range Agency. Working Paper National Range Agency British Forestry Project Somalia, No. 12, 30 pp.; 3 ref

Braza RD, 1987. Studies on the Leucpna psyllid, Heteropsylla cubana, in Surigao del Sur, Philippines. Leucpna Research Reports, 8:1-6

Braza RD, 1990. Psyllids on nitrogen fixing trees in the Philippines. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 8:62-63; 6 ref

Braza RD, Calilunga VJ, 1981. Some Philippine psyllids. Philippine Entomologist, 4: 319-360

Brook RM, Kanua MB, Woruba MG, 1992. Multipurpose tree species evaluations in Papua New Guinea: early results. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, No. 10: 77-80; 3 ref

Cable WJ, Breen JA, Taogaga T, Tacadao A, Peters A, Cahusac AB, Williams DB, 1983. Preliminary results of intercropping nitrogen fixing trees with taro (Colocasia esculenta) in Western Samoa. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, No.1: 13-14; 2 ref

Cascante A, Quesada M, Lobo JJ, Fuchs EA, 2002. Effects of dry tropical forest fragmentation on the reproductive success and genetic structure of the tree Samanea saman. Conservation Biology, 16(1):137-147

Chaplin GE, Neumann AJ, 1987. Afforestation on the Guadalcanal grasslands. Forestry Note Forest Division, Solomon Islands, No. 18-2-87, ix + 17 pp.; 24 ref

Chicco CF, Garbati ST, Muller-Haye B, 1973. A note on the use of saman fruit (Pithecellobium saman) in pig food rations. Agronomia Tropical (Maracay, Venezuela), 23: 263-267

Corniaux C, Durand N, Sarraihl JM, Guerin H, 1996. Composition chimique et dégradabilité enzymatique et in vitro d'espèces ligneuses arbustives utilisables par les ruminants dans les parcours extensifs de la Nouvelle Calédonie. I. Typologie [Chemical components and enzyme and in vitro digestibility of woody shrubs used by ruminants in New Caledonian rangelands. I. Typology.]. Revue d'Elevage et de Médecine Vétérinaire des Pays Tropicaux, 49(1): 60-67

Dadwal VS, Jamaluddin, 1991. A new canker disease of Samanea saman.. Indian Forester, 117(1):77; 2 ref

Datta M, 1996. Potassium changes in soil upon incorporation of leaf prunings of multipurpose tree species in an acid soil of Tripura. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science, 44(3): 398-401

Datta M, 1997. Growth performance and biomass production in twelve multipurpose three [tree] species in Tripura. Journal of Hill Research, 10(1): 51-56

Devarnavadagi SB, Murthy BG, 1995. Performance of different tree species on eroded soils of northern dry zone of Karnataka. Advances in Agricultural Research in India, 4: 73-77

Djogo APY, 1997. Use of Albizia species in small-scale farming systems in Indonesia. In: Zabala NQ, ed. Proceedings of an International Workshop on Albizia and Paraserianthes species. Forest, Farm and Community Tree Research Reports (Special Issue). Morrilton, USA; Winrock International. pp. 27-36

Durr PA, 2001. The biology, ecology and agroforestry potential of the raintree, Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr. Agroforestry Systems, 51(3):223-237

Escalante E, 1997. Saman (Albizia saman) in agroforestry systems in Venezuela In: Zabala NQ, ed. Proceedings of an International Workshop on Albizia and Paraserianthes species. Forest, Farm and Community Tree Research Reports (Special Issue). Morrilton, USA; Winrock International. pp. 93-97

Escalante EE, 1985. Promising agroforestry systems in Venezuela. Agroforestry Systems, 3(2):209-221; 4 pl.; 7 ref

Esuoso KO, 1996. The nutritive value of monkey pod (Samanea saman). Rivista Italiana delle Sostanze Grasse, 73(4): 165-168

Faridah Hanum I, Maesen LJG van der, eds. , 1997. Plant resources of southeast Asia. No. 11. Auxillary plants. Leiden, Netherlands: Backhuys

Fernandez E, Garcfa O, Perez J, 1988. Susceptibility of several woodland plants to Meloidogyne incognita under nursery conditions. Ciencia y Te^acute~cnica en la Agricultura, Proteccio^acute~n de Plantas, 11(1):89-97; 14 ref

Francis JK, Liogier HA, 1991. Naturalized exotic tree species in Puerto Rico. General Technical Report - Southern Forest Experiment Station, USDA Forest Service, No. SO-82:i + 12 pp.; 2 ref

Franco A, Campello EFC, Dias LE, De Faria SM, 1995. Revegetation of acidic residues from bauxite mining using nodulated and mycorrhizal legume trees. In: Evans D, Szott L, eds. Nitrogen Fixing Trees for Acid Soils. Proceedings of a Workshop, July 1994, Turrialba, Costa Rica. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports (Special Issue). Winrock International and NFTA, Morrilton, Arkansas, USA. 313-320

Ghorpade BR, Patil SP, 1991. Insect pests recorded on forest trees in the Konkan region of Maharashtra State (India). Indian Journal of Forestry, 14(3):245-246

Glover N, Heuveldop J, 1985. Multipurpose tree trials in Acosta-Puriscal, Costa Rica. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 3:4-6

Hossain M, Khan MA, Hossain SN, 1992. Growth and wood characteristics of four fast growing tree species in Bangladesh. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, No. 10: 40-42; 5 ref

Hughes CE, Pottinger AJ, 1997. Albizia species from Mexico and Central America. In: Zabala NQ, ed. Proceedings of an International Workshop on Albizia and Paraserianthes species. Forest, Farm and Community Tree Research Reports (Special Issue). Winrock International, Morrilton, Arkansas, U.S.A., 57-65

Hunter IR, Steward JL, 1993. Foliar nutrient and nutritive content of Central American multipurpose tree species growing at Comayagua, Honduras. Commonwealth Forestry Review, 72(3):193-197

ILDIS, 2002. International Legume Database and Information Service. University of Southampton, UK. http://www.ildis.org/database/

Jagoe RB, 1949. Beneficial effects of some leguminous shade trees on grassland in Malaya. Malayan Agricultural Journal, Kuala Lumpur 32 (2) (77-87)

Jama B, Nair PKR, Kurira PW, 1989. Comparative growth performance of some multipurpose trees and shrubs grown at Machakos, Kenya. Agroforestry Systems, 9(1):17-27; 23 ref

Janzen DH, 1977. Intensity of predation on Pithecellobium saman (Leguminosae) by Merobruchus columbinus and Stator limbatus (Bruchidae) in Costa Rican deciduous forest. Tropical Ecology, 18: 162-176

Janzen DH, 1982. Cenízero tree (Leguminosae: Pithecellobium saman) delayed fruit development in Costa Rican deciduous forest. American Journal of Botany, 69: 1269-1276

Janzen DH, 1983. Pithecellobium saman In: Janzen DH ed, Costa Rican Natural History. University of Chicago Press, 305-307

Janzen DH, Martin PS, 1982. Neotropical anachronisms: the fruits the gomophotheres ate. Science, 215: 19-27

Jashimuddin M, Hossain MM, Hannan MO, 1996. Time and production studies in some private sawmills of Chittagong District. Chittagong University Studies, Science, 20(2): 35-40

Kathaperumal V, Murugan M, Thirumalai S, 1988. Evaluation of rain tree fruit meal (Enterolobium [Samanea] saman) as feed for sheep. Indian Veterinary Journal, 65(5):404-406; 2 ref

Kidd TJ, Taogaga T, 1984. Survival and herbage yield of six nitrogen-fixing trees intercropped with taro in Western Samoa. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 2: 22-23

Kidd TJ, Taogaga T, 1985. Second year growth measurements of five potential woodfuel species. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 3: 69

Kliwon S, Iskandar MI, Sutigno P, 1991. Veneer and plywood properties of nine wood species from West Kalimantan and West Java. [Sifat venir dan kayu lapis sembilan jenis kayu berasal dari Kalimantan Barat dan Jawa Barat.] Jurnal Penelitian Hasil Hutan, 9(7):268-273; English figures and tables.; 8 ref

Larbi A, Smith JW, Adekunle IO, Kurdi IO, 1996. Studies on multipurpose fodder trees and shrubs in West Africa: variation in determinants of forage quality in Albizia and Paraserianthes species. Agroforestry Systems, 33(1):29-39; 29 ref

Little EL Jr, Skolmen RG, 1989. Common forest trees of Hawaii (native and introduced). Agriculture Handbook Washington, 679. Washington, DC, USA: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service

Little EL Jr, Wadsworth FH, 1964. Common trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Agricultural Handbook, No. 249. Washington DC, US; Department of Agriculture

Lowry JB, 1995. Deciduous trees: a dry season feed resource in Australian tropical woodlands?. Tropical Grasslands, 29(1):13-17; 10 ref

Luna RK, 1996. Plantation trees. Delhi, India: International Book Distributors

Magnus KE, Seaforth CE, 1965. Samanea saman Merrill: the Rain Tree. A review. Tropical Science (London), 7(1): 6-11; 1 photo, 24 refs

Mejia DA, 1997. Albizia research in Honduras: interim growth performance results for nine Mesoamerican species. In: Zabala NQ, ed. Proceedings of an International Workshop on Albizia and Paraserianthes species. Forest, Farm and Community Tree Research Reports (Special Issue). Morrilton, USA; Winrock International. 66-75

Merrill ED, 1912. Notes on the flora of Manila with special reference to the introduced element. Philippine Journal of Sciences, Botany, 7:145-208

Milián C, Bruzón N, Herrero G, Sánchez A, 1992. Trial of forest species on areas degraded by opencast mining. [Prueba de especies forestales en zonas degradadas por la minería a cielo abierto.] Revista Baracoa, 22(1):83-89; 13 ref

Mishra YD, Bhattacharya A, Singh BP, Agarwal SC, 1996. Occurrence of trivoltine lac insects on Samania saman (Jacq.) Merr. in coastal West Bengal. Insect Environment, 2(2):54-55; 2 ref

Morrison BJ, Gold MA, Lantagne DO, 1996. Incorporating indigenous knowledge of fodder trees into small-scale silvopastoral systems in Jamaica. Agroforestry Systems, 34(1):101-117; 42 ref

Muthuchelian K, 1992. Biomass productivity relative to net photosynthetic rate, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase activity, soluble protein and nitrogen contents in ten tree species. Photosynthetica, 26(3):333-339; 20 ref

National Academy of Sciences, 1979. Tropical legumes: resources for the future. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences

Nayak PK, Senapati SC, 1997. Evaluation of tree species under silvipastural system. Environment and Ecology, 15(4): 874-876

Neal MC, 1965. In gardens of Hawaii. Bernice Bishop Museum Special Publication 50. Hawaii, USA: Bishop Museum Press

Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association, 1989. NFTA Cooperative Planting Program. Establishment Guide. A guide to the establishment of research and demonstration plantings of nitrogen-fixing trees. Hawaii, USA; Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association. 36pp

Norton BW, 1994. The nutritive value of tree legumes. Forage tree legumes in tropical agriculture., 177-191; 49 ref

Padma V, Satyanarayana G, Reddy BM, 1994. Effect of scarification treatments on the germination of Leucaena leucocephala, Albizia lebbeck and Samanea saman [Albizia saman]. Seed Research, 22(1):54-57; 9 ref

Pertchik B, Pertchik H, 1951. Flowering trees of the Caribbean. Rinehart, New York. 125pp

PIER, 2002. Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER) (3.3). Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, Hawaii, USA. http://www.hear.org/pier

Poulsen KM, Stubsgaard F, 1995. Three methods for mechanical scarification of hardcoated seed. Technical Note 27. DANIDA Forest Seed Centre. Humlebaek, Denmark

Quirós LM, Chavarría MI, 1990. Storage and germination of seeds, and seedling development in the nursery of fourteen species indigenous to the dry Pacific region of Costa Rica. [Almacenamiento y germinacion de semillas y desarrollo de plantulas en vivero, de catorce especies forestales nativas del Pacifico Seco de Costa Rica.] Noticiero Mejoramiento Genético y Semillas Forestales para América Central, No. 5, 8-14; 3 ref

Raintree JB, 1987. The multipurpose Raintree, Samanea saman. NFT Highlights, No. 87-06. Waimanalo, USA; Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association

Ram Prasad, Parvez Jalil, Manish Mishra, 1992. Effect of various pretreatments on seed germination of some forest tree species. Vaniki Sandesh, 16(1):6-10; 7 ref

Ramsteck OA, 1991. Possibilities and limits of agroforestry: the example of the north-west region of Haiti. [Das Beispiel der Nordwestregion Haitis - Moglichkeiten und Grenzen der Agroforestwirtschaft.] AFZ, Allgemeine Forst Zeitschrift, 46(13):649-651

Robbins AMJ, 1986. Home-made hot-wire seed scarifier. Technical Note, DANIDA Forest Seed Centre, Denmark, No. 29, 4pp

Roshetko JM, 1995. Albizia saman: pasture improvement, shade, timber and more. NFT Highlights, No. 95-02. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association, Arkansas, USA; Winrock International

Roshetko JM, 1997. Seed treatment for Albizia species. In: Zabala NQ, ed. Proceedings of an International Workshop on Albizia and Paraserianthes species. Forest, Farm and Community Tree Research Reports (Special Issue). Morrilton, USA; Winrock International. 37-43

Rourke MK, Suardika IPP, 1990. On-farm species trials to investigate several NFT species for use in terraced hedgerows. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 8:37-39

Ryan PA, 1994. The use of tree legumes for fuelwood production. Forage tree legumes in tropical agriculture., 257-266; 28 ref

Sae Lee S, Vityakon P, Prachaiyo B, 1992. Effects of trees on paddy bund on soil fertility and rice growth in northeast Thailand. Agroforestry Systems, 18(3):213-223; 9 ref

Serajuddoula MD, Khan MAS, Islam MR, Shahjalal MAH, 1995. Introduction of non mangroves in raised land - a way to maintain sustainable forest on the coastal belt of Bangladesh. Pakistan Journal of Forestry, 45:163-169

Shafi M, Khan MS, 1995. Suitability of village tree species of Bangladesh for hardboard manufacture. Bangladesh Journal of Forest Science, 24(1):36-40

Siddiqi NA, 1987. Preliminary trial of mangrove and mainland species in the Sundarban highlands. Bano Biggyan Patrika, 15(1-2):25-30

Siddiqi NA, Hoque AKF, Alam MS, 1993. The performance of some non-mangrove species in the coastal areas of Bangladesh. Bangladesh Journal of Forest Science, 22(1-2):71-72

Singh AK, Singh RB, Bhowmik AK, Chand S, Banerjee SK, 1995. Relative suitability of different tree species for copper mine overburdens. Van Vigyan, 33(2):122-125; 8 ref

Smith CW, 1998. Pest Plants of Hawaiian Native Ecosystems. University of Hawaii, USA: Department of Botany. http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/cw_smith/aliens.htm

Space JC, Falanruw M, 1999. Observations on invasive plant species in Micronesia. Honolulu, Hawaii: USDA Forest Service, 32 pp

Space JC, Flynn T, 2000. Observations on invasive plant species in American Samoa. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu, 51

Space JC, Flynn T, 2000. Report to the Government of Niue on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu, 34

Space JC, Flynn T, 2001. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service

Space JC, Waterhouse B, Denslow JS, Nelson D, 2000. Invasive plant species on Rota, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. USDA Forest Service Pacific Southwest Research Station, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA. 10 pp

Space JC, Waterhouse B, Denslow JS, Nelson D, Mazawa TR, 2000. Invasive plant species in Chuuk, Federated States of Micronesia. USDA Forest Service, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, Honolulu, Hawai'i, USA

Standley PC, Steyermark JA, 1946. Flora of Guatemala. Fieldiana (Botany), 24(5)

Staples GW, Elevitch CR, 2006. Samanea saman (rain tree). Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry ver. 2.1 [ed. by Elevitch, C. R.]. Holualoa, Hawai'i, USA: Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR)

Streets RJ, 1962. Exotic forest trees in the British Commonwealth. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press

Sunanda Chanda, Sharmistha Das, Bhaduri SK, Dharmadas Sardar, 1993. Chemical evaluation of leaf fibre from four tropical trees: a social forest resource. Bioresource Technology, 46(3):259-261; 19 ref

Takeda S, 1990. Lac cultivation and host tree plantation in northern Thailand. Southeast Asian Studies, 28(2):182-205; [BIDS]

Thamizhchelvan P, Manimaran R, Santhaguru K, 1991. Isolation, characterization and evaluation of rhizobia from tree legumes. Indian Journal of Microbiology, 31(2):209-210; 8 ref

Thole NS, Joshi AL, Rangnekar DV, 1992. Nutritive evaluation of rain tree (Samanea saman) pods. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 62(3):270-272; 6 ref

Timyan J, 1996. Bwa yo: important trees of Haiti. Bwa yo: important trees of Haiti., ix + 418 pp.; 14 pp. of ref

Troup RS, Joshi HB, 1983. The Silviculture of Indian Trees. Vol IV. Leguminosae. Delhi, India; Controller of Publications

Verdcourt B, 1979. A manual of New Guinea legumes. 1979. Botany Bulletin No. 11. Office of Forests, Division of Botany, Lae. pp. 645

Wang SY, 1988. Properties and identification of S.E. Asian woods (IX). Forest Products Industries, 7(1):135-147

Witt, A., Luke, Q., 2017. Guide to the naturalized and invasive plants of Eastern Africa, [ed. by Witt, A., Luke, Q.]. Wallingford, UK: CABI.vi + 601 pp. http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158959 doi:10.1079/9781786392145.0000

World Agroforestry Centre, 2002. Agroforestree Database. Nairobi, Kenya: ICRAF. http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/Sites/TreeDBS/AFT/AFT.htm

Zabala NQ, ed, 1997. International workshop on Albizia and Paraserianthes species. Proceedings of a workshop sponsored by Winrock International for Agricultural Development, United Nations Development Program/Food and Agriculture Organization Regional Forest Tree Improvement Project (FORTIP), PICOP Resources Inc., 13-19 November 1994, Bislig, Surigao del Sur, Philippines. Morrilton, USA; Winrock International, Forest, Farm and Community Tree Network (FACT Net). vii + 164 pp

Links to Websites

Top of page

Distribution Maps

Top of page