Samanea saman (rain tree)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Impact Summary
- Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Wood Products
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr.
Preferred Common Name
- rain tree
Other Scientific Names
- Albizia saman (Jacq.) F. Muell.
- Albizia saman (Jacq.) Merr.
- Calliandra saman (Jacq.) Griseb.
- Enterolobium saman (Jacq.) Prain ex King
- Feuilleea saman (Jacq.) Kuntze
- Inga saman (Jacq.) Willd.
- Microsphaeropsis pittospori
- Mimosa saman Jacq.
- Pithecellobium saman (Jacq.) Benth.
- Zygia saman (Jacq.) A. Lyons
International Common Names
- English: crow bean tree; monkey pod
- Spanish: samán
- French: abre de pluie
Local Common Names
- Central America: carreto; cenízaro; cenízero; dormilón; zarza; zorra
- Bangladesh: rendi koroi
- Colombia: campano; genízaro; samaguare
- Cuba: algarrobo; algarrobo del pais
- Dominican Republic: guannegoul
- Germany: Regenbaum
- Grenada: coco tamarind; cow tamarind
- Guyana: French tamarind
- Haiti: guannegoul; samán
- India: belati-siris; guango; majhamaram; nidra-ganneru; thoongh moonjii
- Indonesia: Dutch tamarind; kihujan; mungur; slubin; trembesi
- Italy: albero delle pioggia
- Jamaica: guango
- Netherlands: regenboom
- Peru: huacamayo chico
- Puerto Rico: crow bean tree; dormilón; giant thibet; guango
- Thailand: monkey pod
- Trinidad and Tobago: coco tamarind; cow tamarind; samán guerra
- United States Virgin Islands: giant thibet; licorice
- Venezuela: campano; carabelí; coují; lara; uero
EPPO code
- PIFSA (Albizia saman)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageS. saman possesses some of the characters of other species known to have become invasive, e.g. prolific seeding, livestock as effective dispersers of seed, nitrogen fixation and adaptation to a variety of soil types. However, reference sources are somewhat conflicting as to the degree of naturalization and invasion, especially where it spreads on disturbed sites often in Pacific and Caribbean islands. It is also known to be present in Kenya and Malawi. Binggeli (1999) classified this species as only moderately invasive.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Fabales
- Family: Fabaceae
- Subfamily: Faboideae
- Genus: Samanea
- Species: Samanea saman
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageSamanea is a small genus of three species. S. saman is, however, sharply defined and, in most features, a stable species. The silvicultural potential of the closely related S. tubulosa and S. inopinata remains unknown.
Description
Top of pageDistribution
Top of pageDistribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Feb 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Planted | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
||||||||
Benin | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Burundi | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Cameroon | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Central African Republic | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Congo, Democratic Republic of the | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Congo, Republic of the | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Côte d'Ivoire | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Equatorial Guinea | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Gabon | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Gambia | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Ghana | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Guinea | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Guinea-Bissau | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Kenya | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Liberia | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Madagascar | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Malawi | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Mauritius | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Mozambique | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Nigeria | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Réunion | Present | Introduced | 1881 | |||||
Rwanda | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
São Tomé and Príncipe | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Seychelles | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Sierra Leone | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Sudan | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Tanzania | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Zanzibar Island | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Togo | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Uganda | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Zambia | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Asia |
||||||||
Bangladesh | Present | Introduced | Planted | Original citation: Serajuddoula and et al. (1995) | ||||
Bhutan | Present | Introduced | 1987 | As: Albizia saman | ||||
Brunei | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Cambodia | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
China | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | ||||||
-Fujian | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Guangdong | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Guangxi | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Hong Kong | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
India | Present | Introduced | 1880 | |||||
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Andhra Pradesh | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Assam | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Bihar | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Gujarat | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Karnataka | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Kerala | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Madhya Pradesh | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Maharashtra | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Odisha | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Tamil Nadu | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Tripura | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Uttar Pradesh | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-West Bengal | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Indonesia | Present | Introduced | First reported: 1870s | |||||
-Irian Jaya | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Java | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Maluku Islands | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Sulawesi | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Sumatra | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Laos | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Macau | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Malaysia | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Peninsular Malaysia | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Sabah | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Sarawak | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Maldives | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Myanmar | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Pakistan | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Philippines | Present | Introduced | First reported: pre-1815 | |||||
Singapore | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Introduced | First reported: c. 1850 | |||||
Taiwan | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Thailand | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Vietnam | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
North America |
||||||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Aruba | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Barbados | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Belize | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Bermuda | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
British Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Cayman Islands | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Costa Rica | Present | Native | ||||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Curaçao | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Dominica | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
El Salvador | Present | Native | Planted | |||||
Grenada | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Guadeloupe | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Guatemala | Present | Native | Planted | |||||
Haiti | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Honduras | Present | Native | Planted | |||||
Jamaica | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Martinique | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Mexico | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Montserrat | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Netherlands Antilles | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Nicaragua | Present | Native | Planted | |||||
Panama | Present | Native | Planted | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Saint Kitts and Nevis | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Saint Lucia | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Saint Pierre and Miquelon | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | Introduced | 1860 | Planted | ||||
Turks and Caicos Islands | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | ||||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | 1847 | Invasive | ||||
Oceania |
||||||||
American Samoa | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | 1956 | |||||
-Northern Territory | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Queensland | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Christmas Island | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Cook Islands | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Federated States of Micronesia | Present | Introduced | Original citation: Space and Falanruw (1999) | |||||
Fiji | Present | Introduced | ||||||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Guam | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Marshall Islands | Present | Introduced | ||||||
New Caledonia | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
New Zealand | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Niue | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Northern Mariana Islands | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Palau | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Samoa | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Solomon Islands | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Tonga | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Vanuatu | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
South America |
||||||||
Argentina | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Bolivia | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Brazil | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Acre | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Alagoas | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Amapa | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Amazonas | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Bahia | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Espirito Santo | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Fernando de Noronha | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Goias | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Mato Grosso | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Minas Gerais | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Para | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Rio de Janeiro | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Rondonia | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Roraima | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Colombia | Present | Native | Planted | |||||
Ecuador | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
French Guiana | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Guyana | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Peru | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Suriname | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Venezuela | Present | Native |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageS. saman is naturalized, and in the southern foothills Puerto Rico and on neighbouring Vieques, but by 1990 was only localized, occurring over less than 10 hectares (Francis and Liogier, 1991). It is described as common or weedy in several Pacific islands; American Samoa (Space and Flynn, 1999), Rota (Space et al., 2000) and Micronesia (Space and Falanruw, 1999), and common, weedy or cultivated in Niue (Space and Flynn, 2000), Tonga (Space and Flynn, 2001) and Chuuk (Space et al., 2000); and naturalized in disturbed sites in Hawaii (Smith, 1998) and Fiji (PIER, 2002). However a risk assessment conducted by University of Hawaii (see PIER, 2002), did not predict that S. saman would become a pest.
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageHabitat
Top of pageHabitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
There have been few, if any, attempts to systematically explore, evaluate and improve the genetic material used in planting of S. saman. Currently used seed sources are derived from land race material comprising, in most areas, an extremely narrow genetic base. Many early introductions are known to be from one or a few trees. For example, two seeds of S. saman were originally introduced to Hawaii from Mexico in 1847 (Little and Skolmen, 1989). No comprehensive provenance studies have been attempted although two different seed sources (e.g. Hughes and Pottinger, 1997) were collected and tested in a small number of trials. Two seed orchards comprising 46 and 50 half-sib families have been established in Honduras (Mejia, 1997). Little or nothing is known about patterns of genetic diversity in S. saman.
Physiology and Phenology
Flowering and reproductive biology of S. saman have been observed in natural populations in Central America and trees begin fruiting from an early age. Trees bear tens of thousands of small flowers during the late dry season. Pod set is low with fruit:flower ratios of <0.001 (Bawa and Buckley, 1989). S. saman is generally deciduous, but may be evergreen where planted in wet forest areas or as an ornamental in humid climates, when flowering occurs towards the end of the dry season as the tree refoliates. Tiny immature pods persist for 8-10 months before expanding, ripening and falling, nearly a year after flowering, in the mid dry season (Janzen, 1982, 1983). Pods are shed indehiscent.
Rapid early growth of S. saman on some sites, e.g. in Papua New Guinea (Brook et al., 1992), is comparable with other fast-growing legumes such as Acacia angustissima, A. auriculiformis, Gliricidia sepium, Leucaena leucocephala and Schleinitzia novoguineensis. However, most trials suggest that early growth is generally slower than commonly planted fast-growing species, e.g. Rourke and Suardika (1990) in Timor (Indonesia); Glover and Heuveldop (1985) in Costa Rica; Hossain et al. (1992) in Bangladesh; Jama et al. (1989) in Kenya; Akkasaeng et al. (1989) in Thailand. S. saman does not appear to rank amongst the fastest-growing tropical trees, and trees with a dbh of >100 cm are generally estimated to be >100 years old.
Reproductive Biology
There is a hermaphroditic reproductive system (World Agroforestry Centre, 2002). Flowers are believed to be pollinated by large night-flying hawk and noctuid moths, the central, enlarged flower of the inflorescence providing nectar. Pollen is dispersed as large 32-grained polyads and the species is thought to be predominantly outcrossing (Bawa and Buckley, 1989). Flowering occurs towards the end of the dry season and the small immature pods persist for 8-10 months before expanding, ripening and falling nearly a year after flowering in the mid dry season (Janzen, 1982, 1983). There are between 4,400 and 7,700 seeds/kg. The seed coat is hard.
Environmental Requirements
S. saman is a truly tropical species, intolerant of frost. It thrives in both the seasonally dry and wet tropics (Allen and Allen, 1981; Raintree, 1987; Little and Wadsworth, 1989; Djogo, 1997) but is faster-growing where rainfall is >1000 mm. A modified description of climatic requirements was prepared by CSIRO (Booth and Jovanovic, 2000). The mean annual rainfall is estimated to be 600 - 3000mm, with a dry season duration of 0 - 6 months. S. saman needs well-drained alluvial, fertile, neutral to moderately acid (>pH 4.6) soils for best growth (Franco et al., 1995), but can also tolerate heavy clays (vertisols) and infertile, or seasonally waterlogged soils. It grows from sea level of to 1500 m altitude.
Associations
S. saman has the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. Trees have been shown to nodulate effectively in Hawaii, Malaysia and the Philippines with a wide range of strains of Rhizobium (Allen and Allen, 1981).
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
15 | 3 | 0 | 1500 |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) | 8 | |
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 20 | 28 |
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC) | 24 | 35 |
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC) | 15 | 22 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Dry season duration | 0 | 6 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
Mean annual rainfall | 600 | 3000 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
- seasonally waterlogged
Soil reaction
- acid
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- medium
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageMeans of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageImpact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Animal/plant collections | None |
Animal/plant products | None |
Biodiversity (generally) | Negative |
Crop production | None |
Environment (generally) | Negative |
Fisheries / aquaculture | None |
Forestry production | None |
Human health | None |
Livestock production | None |
Native fauna | None |
Native flora | None |
Rare/protected species | None |
Tourism | None |
Trade/international relations | None |
Transport/travel | Negative |
Impact
Top of pageEnvironmental Impact
Top of pageRisk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Highly mobile locally
- Has high reproductive potential
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Damaged ecosystem services
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Top of pageThe wood of S. saman is strong, durable or very durable, with a light yellow sapwood and rich dark chocolate-brown heartwood. The rich colour and beautiful but subtle grain of the heartwood, resembling black walnut (Juglans nigra), makes wood from larger trees highly prized for furniture (e.g. in Trinidad and Malaysia), panelling, decorative veneers, turnery, platters, and other handicrafts. In Hawaii and Thailand the wood is used to make the famous, albeit mis-named, 'monkey-pod' bowls. The wood is often very cross-grained, making it difficult to work when dry, though remains easy to work when green. The wood is also used for fencing, construction timber, plywood, making crates, boats, and cart wheels made from single cross-sections of the thickest trunks which are said to be very durable and were a common sight on two-wheeled oxcarts in parts of Central America (Standley and Steyermark, 1946). The wood is particularly important in Zulia State in Venezuela where it comprised >80% of the timber produced between 1982 and 1988 (Escalante, 1997). The wood also makes good quality fuelwood (Ryan, 1994) and charcoal (Roshetko, 1995). S. saman trees resprout vigorously and can be managed for fuelwood by pollarding in agricultural areas, as in the Philippines (Raintree, 1987).
The mesocarp of the pod of S. saman contains a sweet nutritious pulp which smells of honey when the pods are broken and which contains 12-18% crude protein (Chicco et al., 1973; Escalante, 1985; 1997) and is highly digestible (40% digestibility), making the pods a good source of proteins, carbohydrates and minerals for livestock. The pods, which are produced in the middle of the dry season, may equal good quality hay in nutritive value and are avidly consumed by cattle, goats pigs and other herbivores. The pods can also be dried and milled into a meal that makes an excellent animal feed, which is exported on a small scale in some South American countries. As a prime source of dry season feed and an unsurpassed shade tree, S. saman is one of the foremost trees to be incorporated into silvopastoral systems in the seasonally dry tropical zones of northern South America (especially Venezuela) (Escalante, 1985; 1997) and Central America. The leaves are not widely used for livestock fodder, but have been reported to be of high quality (Larbi et al., 1996) with 22-28% crude protein (Norton, 1994), no detectable tannins and high in vitro dry matter digestibility (Ahn et al., 1989).
The sticky sweet-flavoured pulp of the pods is often eaten by children and can be used in fruit drinks. S. saman is an important lac host plant in, for example, Thailand. It is also a good honey plant (Verdcourt, 1979; Roshetko, 1995). Although S. saman bark lacks tannin, it does yield an inferior gum (Allen and Allen, 1981).
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Fodder/animal feed
- Invertebrate food for lac/wax insects
Environmental
- Agroforestry
- Shade and shelter
- Soil improvement
Fuels
- Charcoal
- Fuelwood
General
- Ornamental
Human food and beverage
- Honey/honey flora
Materials
- Carved material
- Dye/tanning
- Miscellaneous materials
- Wood/timber
Wood Products
Top of pageBoats
Charcoal
Containers
- Crates
Furniture
Sawn or hewn building timbers
- Beams
- Carpentry/joinery (exterior/interior)
- Engineering structures
- For heavy construction
- For light construction
- Wall panelling
Veneers
Woodware
- Turnery
- Wood carvings
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
No information on the control of S. saman is available from the published literature.References
Top of pageBawa KS, Buckley D, 1989. Seed/ovule ratios and mating systems in the Leguminosae. In: Stirton CH, Zarucchi JL eds. Advances in Legume Biology. Monographs in Systematic Botany 29. Missouri Botanical Garden, St Louis, U.S.A., 243-262
Booth TH, Jovanovic T, 2000. Improving descriptions of climatic requirements in the CABI Forestry Compendium. A report for the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research. CSIRO - Forestry and Forest Products, Client Report No. 758
Braza RD, Calilunga VJ, 1981. Some Philippine psyllids. Philippine Entomologist, 4: 319-360
Chicco CF, Garbati ST, Muller-Haye B, 1973. A note on the use of saman fruit (Pithecellobium saman) in pig food rations. Agronomia Tropical (Maracay, Venezuela), 23: 263-267
Corniaux C, Durand N, Sarraihl JM, Guerin H, 1996. Composition chimique et dégradabilité enzymatique et in vitro d'espèces ligneuses arbustives utilisables par les ruminants dans les parcours extensifs de la Nouvelle Calédonie. I. Typologie [Chemical components and enzyme and in vitro digestibility of woody shrubs used by ruminants in New Caledonian rangelands. I. Typology.]. Revue d'Elevage et de Médecine Vétérinaire des Pays Tropicaux, 49(1): 60-67
Datta M, 1996. Potassium changes in soil upon incorporation of leaf prunings of multipurpose tree species in an acid soil of Tripura. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science, 44(3): 398-401
Datta M, 1997. Growth performance and biomass production in twelve multipurpose three [tree] species in Tripura. Journal of Hill Research, 10(1): 51-56
Devarnavadagi SB, Murthy BG, 1995. Performance of different tree species on eroded soils of northern dry zone of Karnataka. Advances in Agricultural Research in India, 4: 73-77
Djogo APY, 1997. Use of Albizia species in small-scale farming systems in Indonesia. In: Zabala NQ, ed. Proceedings of an International Workshop on Albizia and Paraserianthes species. Forest, Farm and Community Tree Research Reports (Special Issue). Morrilton, USA; Winrock International. pp. 27-36
Escalante E, 1997. Saman (Albizia saman) in agroforestry systems in Venezuela In: Zabala NQ, ed. Proceedings of an International Workshop on Albizia and Paraserianthes species. Forest, Farm and Community Tree Research Reports (Special Issue). Morrilton, USA; Winrock International. pp. 93-97
Esuoso KO, 1996. The nutritive value of monkey pod (Samanea saman). Rivista Italiana delle Sostanze Grasse, 73(4): 165-168
Faridah Hanum I, Maesen LJG van der, eds. , 1997. Plant resources of southeast Asia. No. 11. Auxillary plants. Leiden, Netherlands: Backhuys
Franco A, Campello EFC, Dias LE, De Faria SM, 1995. Revegetation of acidic residues from bauxite mining using nodulated and mycorrhizal legume trees. In: Evans D, Szott L, eds. Nitrogen Fixing Trees for Acid Soils. Proceedings of a Workshop, July 1994, Turrialba, Costa Rica. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports (Special Issue). Winrock International and NFTA, Morrilton, Arkansas, USA. 313-320
Hughes CE, Pottinger AJ, 1997. Albizia species from Mexico and Central America. In: Zabala NQ, ed. Proceedings of an International Workshop on Albizia and Paraserianthes species. Forest, Farm and Community Tree Research Reports (Special Issue). Winrock International, Morrilton, Arkansas, U.S.A., 57-65
ILDIS, 2002. International Legume Database and Information Service. University of Southampton, UK. http://www.ildis.org/database/
Janzen DH, 1977. Intensity of predation on Pithecellobium saman (Leguminosae) by Merobruchus columbinus and Stator limbatus (Bruchidae) in Costa Rican deciduous forest. Tropical Ecology, 18: 162-176
Janzen DH, 1982. Cenízero tree (Leguminosae: Pithecellobium saman) delayed fruit development in Costa Rican deciduous forest. American Journal of Botany, 69: 1269-1276
Janzen DH, 1983. Pithecellobium saman In: Janzen DH ed, Costa Rican Natural History. University of Chicago Press, 305-307
Janzen DH, Martin PS, 1982. Neotropical anachronisms: the fruits the gomophotheres ate. Science, 215: 19-27
Jashimuddin M, Hossain MM, Hannan MO, 1996. Time and production studies in some private sawmills of Chittagong District. Chittagong University Studies, Science, 20(2): 35-40
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Luna RK, 1996. Plantation trees. Delhi, India: International Book Distributors
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Distribution References
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Djogo APY, 1997. Use of Albizia species in small-scale farming systems in Indonesia. [Proceedings of an International Workshop on Albizia and Paraserianthes species. Forest, Farm and Community Tree Research Reports], [ed. by Zabala NQ]. Morrilton, USA: Winrock International. 27-36.
Escalante E, 1997. Saman (Albizia saman) in agroforestry systems in Venezuela. [Proceedings of an International Workshop on Albizia and Paraserianthes species. Forest, Farm and Community Tree Research Reports (Special Issue)], [ed. by Zabala NQ]. Morrilton, USA: Winrock International. 93-97.
ILDIS, 2002. International Legume Database and Information Service., UK: University of Southampton. http://www.ildis.org/database/
Janzen DH, 1982. Cenízero tree (Leguminosae: Pithecellobium saman) delayed fruit development in Costa Rican deciduous forest. In: American Journal of Botany, 69 1269-1276.
Neal MC, 1965. In gardens of Hawaii. Special Publication 50., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Bernice P. Bishop Museum Press. 924 pp.
PIER, 2002. Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER) (3.3)., Hawaii, USA: Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry. http://www.hear.org/pier
World Agroforestry Centre, 2002. Agroforestree Database., Nairobi, Kenya: ICRAF. http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/Sites/TreeDBS/AFT/AFT.htm
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
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