Phakopsora pachyrhizi (soyabean rust)

Pictures

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Picture

Title

Caption

Copyright

Uredosori

Uredosori of P. pachyrhizi.

©Weerasak Saksirirat/Khon Kaen University

Pustules

Pustules of P. pachyrhizi on leaf.

©Weerasak Saksirirat/Khon Kaen University

Teliospores

Teliospores of P. pachyrhizi.

©Weerasak Saksirirat/Khon Kaen University

Telial stage

Telial stage of soybean rust on leaf.

©Weerasak Saksirirat/Khon Kaen University

Symptoms

Soybean rust, symptoms on leaf.

©Weerasak Saksirirat/Khon Kaen University

Telium

P. pachyrhizi on Glycine max: telium.

Yoshitaka Ono

Urediniospores

P. pachyrhizi on Glycine max: urediniospores.

Yoshitaka Ono

Urediniospore

P. pachyrhizi on Glycine max: urediniospore showing four equatorial germ pores.

Yoshitaka Ono

Uredinial paraphyses

P. pachyrhizi on Glycine max: uredinial paraphyses arisen from peridioid pseudoparenchyma.

Yoshitaka Ono

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Phakopsora pachyrhizi Syd. & P. Syd.

Preferred Common Name

soyabean rust

Other Scientific Names

Malupa sojae (Henn.) Ono et al.
Phakopsora calothea Syd.
Phakopsora erythrinae Gäum.
Phakopsora sojae Fujik.
Phakopsora sojae Sawada
Phakopsora vignae (Bres.) Arthur
Physopella pachyrizi (Syd. & P. Syd.) Azbukina
Uredo erythrinae Henn.
Uredo sojae Henn.
Uromyces sojae (Henn.) Syd. & P. Syd.

International Common Names

English: rust of soyabean; rust of soybean; rust: soyabean; rust: soybean; soyabean rust fungus; soybean rust; soybean rust fungus
Spanish: roya de la soja; roya de la soya
French: rouille; rouille du soja
Chinese: dà do ù xiù jún
Portuguese: ferrugem da soja

Local Common Names

Brazil: ferrugem da soja
Germany: Rost: Sojabohne; Sojabornenrostpilz
Japan: daizu-sabibyokin

EPPO code

PHAKPA (Phakopsora pachyrhizi)

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Basidiomycota
Subphylum: Pucciniomycotina
Class: Pucciniomycetes
Order: Pucciniales
Family: Phakopsoraceae
Genus: Phakopsora
Species: Phakopsora pachyrhizi

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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Fungi that cause rust disease of soyabeans and other legumes have long been confused taxonomically largely due to a lack of appropriate comparative studies of their morphological variations and host specificity (Ono et al., 1992). Uredo sojae Henn. was the first to be reported as the soyabean rust fungus in Japan (Hennings, 1903). Subsequently, U. sojae was connected to the telial Phakopsora state on soyabean plants in Taiwan (Sawada, 1931). The fungus was named Phakopsora sojae Sawada (but without a formal description). Meanwhile, another Phakopsora was found on Pachyrhizus erosus in Taiwan and was described and named as Phakopsora pachyrhizi Syd. & P. Syd. (Sydow and Sydow, 1914). Later, Hiratsuka (1932) compared both species and concluded both to be taxonomically identical, with P. pachyrhizi having the nomenclatural priority.

Prior to the correct anamorph-teleomorph connection being discovered, U. sojae was erroneously connected to Uromyces sojae Syd. & P. Syd. (Sydow et al., 1906). Thereafter, the soyabean rust fungus had been reported as Uromyces sojae from various locations in Asia. However, the fungus so described and named was later found to be Uromyces mucunae Rabenh. and the correct host was Mucuna (Butler and Bisby, 1931).

Meanwhile, in the Americas, a new rust fungus was found to occur on Lablab purpureus and another on Eriosema sp., Phaseolus spp., Teramnus uncinatus and species of Vigna. The former was first named as Uredo concors Arthur (Arthur, 1915) and later as Physopella concors (Arthur) Arthur (Arthur, 1917a). The latter fungus was first identified as Uredo vignae Bres. and later as Phakopsora vignae (Bres.) Arthur (Arthur, 1917b). Both fungi are, however, uredinial and no telial state was found when Arthur made nomenclatural changes. Subsequently, by morphological comparisons, Arthur (1925) and Hiratsuka (1935b) concluded both fungi to be conspecific with P. pachyrhizi.

The Phakopsora (telial) state of the fungus that was referred to as P. vignae was found for the first time on Canavalia villosa in Guatemala (Cummins, 1943a). Cummins (1943a) noticed morphological differences between P. vignae and P. pachyrhizi and questioned their taxonomic identity. Further, an additional Phakopsora rust was found on Desmodium incanum in Puerto Rico and named Phakopsora meibomiae (Arthur) Arthur (Arthur, 1917a, b). Cummins (1978) treated P. vignae as a synonym of P. meibomiae which was in turn treated as a synonym of P. pachyrhizi although he stated the need for more detailed study to confirm this conclusion. In the Americas, the rust fungus on cultivated soyabeans was reported for the first time in 1976 in Puerto Rico (Vakili and Bromfield, 1976) and in 1979 in Brazil (Deslandes, 1979) under the name of P. pachyrhizi.

Comparative morphology made possible by the increased number of telial collections of the Phakopsora state both in Asia and the Americas has shown consistent differences between the Asian population (P. pachyrhizi) and the American population (P. meibomiae) of the soyabean rust fungi (Ono et al., 1992). It has also been shown by cross inoculations of isolates on different hosts to various legume species that the American population is less virulent to cultivated soyabeans than is the Asian population (Bromfield, 1984) and that both populations have different host ranges in the field although both have the potential to infect a large number of legume species as common hosts under experimental/greenhouse conditions. Accordingly, Ono et al. (1992) concluded that P. pachyrhizi and P. meibomiae are taxonomically distinct.

Description

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Pycnia and aecia are unknown. Uredinia are amphigenous, mostly hypophyllous, minute, scattered or in groups on discoloured lesions, subepidermal in origin, surrounded by paraphyses arising from peridioid pseudoparenchyma, also with hymenial paraphyses, opening through a central aperture, pulverulent, and yellowish-brown or pale cinnamon-brown. Paraphyses are cylindric to clavate, 25-50 µm long and 6-14 µm wide, slightly to conspicuously thickened (up to 18µm) apically, pale yellowish-brown to colourless. The urediniospores are almost sessile, obovoid to broadly ellipsoid, and 18-34 x 15-24 µm. The spore wall is uniformly ca 1 µm thick, minutely and densely echinulate, and colourless to pale yellowish-brown. Four to eight (mostly six, rarely two or ten) germ pores are equatorial or scattered on the equatorial zone, or occasionally scattered on and above the equatorial zone of the spore wall. Telia are hypophyllus, often intermixed with uredinia, pulvinate and crustose, chestnut-brown to chocolate-brown, subepidermal in origin, and 2- to 7-spore layered. The teliospores are one-celled, irregularly arranged, angularly subglobose, oblong to ellipsoid, and (10-)15-26 x 6-12 µm. The wall is uniformly ca 1 µm thick, sometimes slightly thickened (up to 3 µm) apically in the uppermost spores, colourless to pale yellowish-brown (Ono et al., 1992).

Distribution

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P. pachyrhizi is widespread in Asia and Oceania (but not in New Zealand). In the neotropics, another soyabean rust fungus, Phakopsora meibomiae, occurs, which was once treated as synonymous with P. pachyrhizi but has now been taxonomically segregated (Ono et al., 1992).

African specimens of a Phakopsora species on legumes were retained in P. pachyrhizi. However, the taxonomic decision has been based on morphological comparisons with a limited number of specimens and, therefore, must be confirmed by morphological comparisons with additional specimens and by host-specificity/pathogenicity studies.

The occurrence of P. pachyrhizi in Sri Lanka requires confirmation. Phakopsora mangalorica occurs on Desmodium heterocarpon and Pteroloma triquetrum in Sri Lanka (Petch, 1917; Ono et al., 1992). This species has been reported, as Physopella meibomiae, also on Teramnus labialis from India by Patil and Thirumalachar (1972) who considered that Physopella meibomiae and P. mangalorica were conspecific.

A fungus reported on Desmodium sp. and Uraria lagopoides in Papua New Guinea under the name of P. meibomiae is P. mangalorica (Ono et al., 1992).

P. pachyrhizi has been reported on G. max together with P. meibomiae on Crotalaria incana in Hawaii, USA (Killgore and Heu, 1994). However, the taxonomic identity of the two fungi in Hawaii needs further detailed investigation.

P. pachyrhizi was found in Africa in the late 1990s and spread to South America in 2001. It was detected for the first time in North America in Louisiana in November 2004 and, soon after, in other southeastern states of the USA (Hernández, 2005). It was found on the alternate host kudzu (Pueraria montana var. lobata) in Florida in March 2005 (SPDN, 2005). Many earlier reports of P. pachyrhizi in the Americas are erroneous. Reports prior to 1992 refer instead to the similar looking P. meibomiae (Hernández, 2005).

The occurrence of soyabean rust in a trap crop in south-eastern Zimbabwe in January 2001 was reported by C. Levy, Commercial Farmers' Union, Harare, in a ProMED-mail posting on 7 March 2001 (http://www.promedmail.org). ProMED-mail in 2001 also includes observations of Phakopsora sp. in South Africa. These reports require further confirmation.

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 25 Feb 2021

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	Reference
Africa
Cameroon	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Congo, Democratic Republic of the	Present				Ojiambo et al. (2007) EPPO (2020) CABI (Undated)
Congo, Republic of the	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015)
Ethiopia	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) Tesfay et al. (2017) EPPO (2020)
Ghana	Present				Ono et al. (1992) Bandyopadhyay et al. (2007) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Kenya	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Malawi	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) Murithi et al. (2015) EPPO (2020)
Mozambique	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Nigeria	Present, Widespread				Eboh (1986) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Rwanda	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
São Tomé and Príncipe	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Sierra Leone	Present				Ono et al. (1992) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
South Africa	Present				Preez et al. (2005) Pretorius et al. (2007) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Sudan	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Tanzania	Present				Murithi et al. (2014) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020) CABI (Undated)
Uganda	Present		1996		HANSFORD (1937) Kawuki et al. (2003) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Zambia	Present				Javaid and Ashraf (1978) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Zimbabwe	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Asia
Bangladesh	Present				Bromfield and Pennypacker (1980) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Cambodia	Present				Litzenberger et al. (1962) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
China	Present, Localized				Cummins and Ling (1950) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Anhui	Present				CUMMINS (1950) Tai (1979) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Fujian	Present				Tai (1979) Zhuang (1983) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Gansu	Present				Tai (1979) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Guangdong	Present				Tai (1979) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Guangxi	Present				CUMMINS (1950) Tai (1979) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Guizhou	Present				CUMMINS (1950) Tai (1979) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Hainan	Present				Tai (1979) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Hebei	Present				Tai (1979) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Heilongjiang	Absent, Unconfirmed presence record(s)				EPPO (2020)
-Henan	Present				Tai (1979) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Hunan	Present				Tai (1947) Tai (1979) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Jiangxi	Present				Tai (1979) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020) CABI (Undated)
-Jilin	Present				Tai (1979) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Liaoning	Absent, Unconfirmed presence record(s)				EPPO (2020)
-Sichuan	Present				Tai (1979) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Yunnan	Present				Tai (1947) Tai (1979) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Zhejiang	Present				Tai (1979) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Hong Kong	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
India	Present, Localized				Ramakrishnan and Sundaram (1954) Sarbhoy et al. (1972) Maiti et al. (1981) Kumar and Verma (1985) Satish Chandra et al. (1987) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Arunachal Pradesh	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020) CABI (Undated)
-Assam	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Chhattisgarh	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Karnataka	Present				Dadke et al. (1997) Patil and Basavaraja (1997) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020) CABI (Undated)
-Madhya Pradesh	Present				Awadhiya (1996) Sharma and Mehta (1996) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Maharashtra	Present				Rao et al. (1995) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020) CABI (Undated)
-Manipur	Present				Prasad et al. (2003)
-Meghalaya	Present				Maiti et al. (1981) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020) CABI (Undated)
-Mizoram	Present				Prasad et al. (2003)
-Nagaland	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020) CABI (Undated)
-Rajasthan	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Sikkim	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020) CABI (Undated)
-Tamil Nadu	Present				Babu and Rajasekaran (1989) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Tripura	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020) CABI (Undated)
-Uttar Pradesh	Present				Sarbhoy et al. (1972) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Uttarakhand	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Indonesia	Present, Widespread				BOEDIJN (1960) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020) CABI (Undated)
-Java	Present				BOEDIJN (1960) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020) CABI (Undated)
-Lesser Sunda Islands	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015)
-Sulawesi	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Sumatra	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Japan	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Honshu	Present				Dietel (1905) Hiratsuka (1935) Ito (1938) Hiratsuka (1944) HIRATSUKA (1960) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Kyushu	Present				Hiratsuka (1935) Ito (1938) Hiratsuka (1944) HIRATSUKA (1960) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Ryukyu Islands	Present				Hiratsuka (1935) Ito (1938) Hiratsuka (1944) HIRATSUKA (1960) Ono (1991) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Shikoku	Present				Hennings (1903) Hiratsuka (1935) Hiratsuka and Yoshinaga (1935) Ito (1938) Hiratsuka (1944) HIRATSUKA (1960) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Laos	Present				Yang (1977) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Malaysia	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Peninsular Malaysia	Present				Thompson and Johnston (1953) Singh (1980) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Sabah	Present				Williams and Liu (1976) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Sarawak	Present				Turner (1971) Singh (1980) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Myanmar	Present				Ono et al. (1992) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Nepal	Present				Joshi (1985) Ono et al. (1990) Ono (1991) Ono et al. (1992) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
North Korea	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Philippines	Present				Baker (1914) Sydow (1923) Sydow and Petrak (1928) BAKER (1931) Sydow and Petrak (1931) Arthur and Cummins (1936) Ono et al. (1992) Cueva et al. (1994) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020) CABI (Undated)
Singapore	Present, Few occurrences				Yik (1988) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
South Korea	Present				Hiratsuka (1935) Ito (1938) Kim (1963) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Sri Lanka	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Taiwan	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) Sydow and Sydow (1914) Sawada (1931) HIRATSUKA and HASHIOKA (1933) Hiratsuka (1935) Ito (1938) Hiratsuka (1943) Tai (1979) EPPO (2020)
Thailand	Present				Poonpolgul and Surin (1980) Lorsuwan et al. (1984) Poolpol and Pupipat (1985) Ono et al. (1992) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Vietnam	Present				Tryakhov et al. (1989) Ono et al. (1992) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Europe
Russia	Present, Localized				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Russian Far East	Present				Azbukina (1984) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
North America
Belize	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Costa Rica	Present, Localized				CABI and EPPO (2015) Murillo-Williams et al. (2015) EPPO (2020)
Cuba	Present, Localized				CABI and EPPO (2015) Pérez-Vicente et al. (2010) Santana Torres et al. (2012) EPPO (2020) CABI (Undated)
Mexico	Present, Localized				CABI and EPPO (2015) NAPPO (2005) Cárcamo Rodríguez et al. (2006) IPPC (2006) Yáñez Morales et al. (2009) NAPPO (2011) EPPO (2020)
Puerto Rico	Present				Jensen et al. (2013) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
U.S. Virgin Islands	Present				Barnes et al. (2009) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
United States	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-ARS, SBML. Hernández, J. R. (2004) Harmon et al. (2005) Schneider et al. (2005) Hershman et al. (2006) Isakeit et al. (2006) Koenning et al. (2006) Lynch et al. (2006) Mullen et al. (2006) Sconyers et al. (2006) Hartman et al. (2007) Jurick et al. (2007) Koenning et al. (2007) Li et al. (2007) Gevens et al. (2008) Li et al. (2008) Delaney et al. (2011) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Alabama	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	USDA (2005) Mullen et al. (2006) Delaney et al. (2011) Sikora et al. (2011) Delaney et al. (2012) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Arkansas	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	USDA (2005) Barnes et al. (2009) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-California	Present				Schneider et al. (2005)
-Florida	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Harmon et al. (2005) SPDN (2005) USDA (2005) Harmon et al. (2006) Barnes et al. (2009) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Georgia	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	USDA (2005) Sconyers et al. (2006) Barnes et al. (2009) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Hawaii	Present		1994		USDA-ARS, SBML. Hernández, J. R. (2004) Hernández (2005) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Illinois	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) Hartman et al. (2007) Bradley et al. (2010) EPPO (2020)
-Indiana	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Iowa	Present				Li et al. (2008) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Kansas	Present				Barnes et al. (2009) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Kentucky	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) Hershman et al. (2006) Barnes et al. (2009) EPPO (2020)
-Louisiana	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Hernández (2005) Schneider et al. (2005) Barnes et al. (2009) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Michigan	Present				Barnes et al. (2009)
-Minnesota	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) Barnes et al. (2009) EPPO (2020)
-Mississippi	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	USDA (2005) Li et al. (2007) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Missouri	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	USDA (2005) Barnes et al. (2009) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Nebraska	Present				Barnes et al. (2009) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-New York	Present				Barnes et al. (2009)
-North Carolina	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) Koenning et al. (2006) Koenning et al. (2007) Barnes et al. (2009) EPPO (2020)
-North Dakota	Present				Barnes et al. (2009)
-Ohio	Absent, Unconfirmed presence record(s)				CABI and EPPO (2015) Baysal-Gurel et al. (2008) Barnes et al. (2009)
-Oklahoma	Present				Barnes et al. (2009) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Pennsylvania	Present				Barnes et al. (2009)
-South Carolina	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	USDA (2005) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-South Dakota	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) Barnes et al. (2009) EPPO (2020)
-Tennessee	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Texas	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) Isakeit et al. (2006) Isakeit and Jo (2008) Barnes et al. (2009) EPPO (2020)
-Virginia	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) Barnes et al. (2009) EPPO (2020)
-West Virginia	Present				Barnes et al. (2009)
-Wisconsin	Present				Barnes et al. (2009)
Oceania
Australia	Present, Localized				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-New South Wales	Present				Keogh (1976) Keogh (1979) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Northern Territory	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Queensland	Present				Ogle et al. (1979) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020) CABI (Undated)
-Western Australia	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Cook Islands	Present				Dingley et al. (1981) McKenzie and Jackson (1990) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Federated States of Micronesia	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Guam	Present				McKenzie and Jackson (1990) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
New Caledonia	Present				Mouchacca and Horak (1998) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Niue	Present				Dingley et al. (1981) McKenzie and Jackson (1990) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Papua New Guinea	Present				Cummins (1941) Cummins (1943) Shaw (1963) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Tonga	Present				Dingley et al. (1981) McKenzie and Jackson (1990) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Vanuatu	Present				McKenzie and Jackson (1990) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
South America
Argentina	Present, Localized	Introduced			Carmona et al. (2005) Hernández (2005) Ploper et al. (2005) Ivancovich et al. (2007) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Bolivia	Present	Introduced			Hernández (2005) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Brazil	Present, Widespread				Hernández (2005) CABI and EPPO (2015) Dorighello et al. (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Bahia	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Goias	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Maranhao	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020) CABI (Undated)
-Mato Grosso	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Mato Grosso do Sul	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Minas Gerais	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Parana	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Piaui	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020) CABI (Undated)
-Rio Grande do Sul	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Rondonia	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Santa Catarina	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Sao Paulo	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
-Tocantins	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Colombia	Present				CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Paraguay	Present		2001		Hernández (2005) Morel et al. (2007) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Uruguay	Present	Introduced			Hernández (2005) Stewart et al. (2005) Stewart et al. (2005a) CABI and EPPO (2015) EPPO (2020)
Venezuela	Present				EPPO (2020)

Risk of Introduction

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In any country and region where soyabean production is of great economic importance, great care must be taken not to introduce races from other soyabean-growing areas. In particular, the reciprocal introduction of the soyabean rusts between Asia and the Americas must be avoided.

Hosts/Species Affected

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P. pachyrhizi has been known to infect and sporulate, in the field, on 35 species in 18 genera of the subfamily Papilionoideae in the Fabaceae. Glycine max, G. soja, Pachyrhizus erosus, Pueraria lobata and Vigna unguiculata are the principal hosts. Among the naturally infected hosts, only Crotalaria anagyroides, G. max, P. erosus, Phaseolus lunatus and V. unguiculata serve as hosts of another soyabean rust fungus, Phakopsora meibomiae, which occurs exclusively within the Americas.

P. pachyrhizi has been proven, by artificial inoculations under greenhouse conditions, to infect and sporulate on the following plant species:

Alysicarpus glumaceus, Delonix regina, Glycines canescens, G. falcata, G. tabacina, Lotus purshianus, Lupinus hirsutus, Macrotyloma axillare, Medicago arborea, Melilotus officinalis, Melilotus speciosa, Mucuna cochinchinensis, Neonotonia wightii, Phaseolus vulgaris, Rhynchosia minima, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Vicia dasycarpa, Sesbania exaltata and S. vesicaria (Bromfield, 1984); Alysicarpus vaginalis, Cassia occidentalis, Clitoria ternatea, Coronilla varia, Crotolaria spectabilis, Kummerowia stipulacea, K. striata, Lupinus albus, L. luteus, Macroptilium lathyroides, Pisum sativum, Sesbania sericea, Trifolium incarnatum and T. repens (Rytter et al., 1984); Cajanus cajan, Lablab purpureus, Macroptilium atropurpureum, Psophocarpus tetragonolobus, Vicia faba, Vigna luteola, V. mungo and V. radiata (Poolpol and Pupipat, 1985); Calopogonium mucunoides, Centrosema pubescens and Crotalaria anagyroides (Cueva et al., 1994); Canavalia gladiata (Poonpolgul and Surin, 1980); Canavalia maritima (Kurata, 1960); Crotalaria aff. dissaromoensis, C. linifolia, Desmodium rhytidophyllum, D. varians, Dolichos axillaris, Lespedeza juncea, Lotus major, L. angustifolius, Psoralea tenax and Rhynchosia sp. (Keogh, 1974); Desmodium triflorum (McLean, 1981); Glycine argyrea, G. curvata, G. cyrtoloba, G. latifolia and G. microphylla (Hartman et al., 1992); Glycine latrobeana (Burdon and Marshall, 1981b); and Lespedeza bicolor and Vigna angularis (Sato and Sato, 1982).

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context	References
Afzelia xylocarpa	Fabaceae	Other
Alysicarpus rugosus		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Astragalus canadensis		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Astragalus cicer (Cicer milkvetch)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Astragalus crassicarpus		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Astragalus glycyphyllos (sweet milkvetch)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Baptisia alba var. macrophylla		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Baptisia australis	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Baptisia bracteata var. laevicaulis		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Cajanus cajan (pigeon pea)	Fabaceae	Main	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Calopogonium caeruleum (jicama)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Calopogonium mucunoides (calopo)	Fabaceae	Other	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Caragana arborescens (Siberian pea-tree)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Centrosema virginianum		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Cologania obovata		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Crotalaria incana	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Crotalaria lanceolata	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Crotalaria ochroleuca		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Crotalaria pallida (smooth crotalaria)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Crotalaria sagittalis		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Crotalaria spectabilis (showy rattlepod)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Crotalaria verrucosa (blue-flower rattlepod)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Crotalaria virgulata subsp. grantiana		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Desmodium canadense		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Desmodium cuspidatum		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Desmodium perplexum		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Desmodium rigidum		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Desmodium tortuosum (Florida beggarweed)	Fabaceae	Other	Sconyers et al. (2006)
Erythrina herbacea	Fabaceae	Other
Erythrina subumbrans (December tree)	Fabaceae	Other
Erythrina variegata (Indian coral tree)	Fabaceae	Other
Genista tinctoria (Dyers broom)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Glycine max (soyabean)	Fabaceae	Main	Isakeit et al. (2006); Koenning et al. (2007); Li et al. (2007); Mullen et al. (2006); Ojiambo et al. (2007); Bandyopadhyay et al. (2007); Ploper et al. (2005); Cárcamo et al. (2006); Schneider et al. (2005); Slaminko et al. (2008); Stewart et al. (2005)
Glycine soja	Fabaceae	Wild host
Glycyrrhiza lepidota		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Indigofera miniata		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Indigofera spicata (creeping indigo)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Indigofera suffruticosa (Anil indigo)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Indigofera tinctoria (true indigo)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Kennedia prostrata	Fabaceae	Other
Kennedia rubicunda	Fabaceae	Other
Kummerowia striata (Japanese lespedeza)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Lablab purpureus subsp. uncinatus		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Lathyrus aphaca	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Lathyrus sylvestris	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Lespedeza bicolor (bicolor lespedeza)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Lespedeza capitata		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Lespedeza cyrtobotrya	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Lespedeza juncea var. sericea (Sericea lespedeza)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Lespedeza stipulacea (Korean lespedeza)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Lespedeza thunbergii	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Lespedeza virgata		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Lotus corniculatus (bird's-foot trefoil)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Lotus glaber		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Lotus tenuis		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Lotus uliginosus (greater lotus)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Lotus unifoliolatus	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Lupinus (lupins)	Fabaceae	Main
Lupinus albus (white lupine)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Lupinus angustifolius (narrow-leaf lupin)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Lupinus luteus (yellow lupin)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Lupinus perennis	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Lupinus texensis		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Medicago falcata (yellow alfalfa)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Medicago laciniata	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Medicago lupulina (black medick)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Medicago minima (small medick)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Medicago orbicularis	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Medicago polymorpha (bur clover)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Medicago sativa (lucerne)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Mucuna (velvetbeans)	Fabaceae	Other
Neonotonia wightii (perennial soybean)	Fabaceae	Other	Morel et al. (2007); Slaminko et al. (2008)
Pachyrhizus erosus (yam bean)	Fabaceae	Main	NAPPO (2010)
Phaseolus (beans)	Fabaceae	Main	Ivancovich et al. (2007)
Phaseolus coccineus (runner bean)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Lynch et al. (2006)
Phaseolus lathyroides (Phasey bean)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Phaseolus lunatus (lima bean)	Fabaceae	Main	Lynch et al. (2006)
Phaseolus vulgaris (common bean)	Fabaceae	Main	Lynch et al. (2006)
Pseudovigna argentea		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Pueraria	Fabaceae	Unknown	Li et al. (2007)
Pueraria montana		Unknown	Lynch et al. (2006)
Pueraria montana var. lobata (kudzu)	Fabaceae	Main	Isakeit et al. (2006); Pretorius et al. (2007); Hershman et al. (2006); Koenning et al. (2007)
Pueraria phaseoloides (tropical kudzu)	Fabaceae	Other
Robinia pseudoacacia (black locust)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Robinia viscosa var. hartwigii		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Senna sophera		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Sesbania punicea (red sesbania)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Sesbania virgata	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Tephrosia cinerea		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Tephrosia purpurea (purple tephrosia)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Teramnus labialis (blue wiss)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Teramnus micans		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Teramnus repens		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Teramnus uncinatus	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Trifolium aureum (hop clover)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Trifolium cernuum	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Trifolium incarnatum (Crimson clover)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Trifolium lappaceum	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Trifolium reflexum		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Trifolium resupinatum (Shaftal clover)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Trifolium striatum	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Trifolium tomentosum	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Vigna adenantha		Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Vigna luteola	Fabaceae	Unknown	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Vigna unguiculata (cowpea)	Fabaceae	Main	Slaminko et al. (2008)
Voandzeia subterranea (bambara groundnut)	Fabaceae	Other

Growth Stages

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Flowering stage, Fruiting stage, Vegetative growing stage

Symptoms

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Infections occur mostly on leaves, often on petioles, and less frequently on stems. On susceptible species/cultivars, infections result in small yellowish-brown or greyish-brown spots or lesions (TAN-type) which are delimited by vascular bundles. Several pustules of urediniospores are formed on both adaxial and abaxial surfaces of the lesion, but more frequently on the abaxial surface. The lesions coalesce, become dark brown and are covered by buff or pale-brown spore masses as sporulation progresses. Later in the season, the lesions become dark reddish-brown and crust-like; these are subepidemal telial clusters. When resistant species/cultivars are infected, minute, reddish-brown spots (RB-type) appear, on which only a few uredinial pustules are formed. Sporulation on RB-type lesions is much less than on TAN-type lesions.

List of Symptoms/Signs

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Sign	Life Stages	Type
Fruit / reduced size
Leaves / fungal growth
Leaves / yellowed or dead
Whole plant / early senescence

Biology and Ecology

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P. pachyrhizi is believed to have a heteroecious life cycle. However, pycnial and aecial stages have not been found. In warm regions, volunteer crops, supplementary legume crops and wild species may harbour the fungus throughout the year or during seasons in which soyabeans are not cultivated, and may serve as the primary infection source. In colder regions where above-ground parts of annual hosts die during winter, no source of new infections in the soyabean-growing season has been identified.

A temperature regime at which the maximum rate of urediniospore germination takes place seems to be 15-25°C. At optimum temperatures, urediniospores germinate in 1-1.5 hours. Optimum temperatures for urediniospore germination were reported to be 15-24°C with a minimum of 10 and a maximum of 28.5°C for Indian, Australian, Indonesian and Taiwanese isolates studied, although the optimum temperatures for the Indian isolate was narrower than other isolates (Marchetti et al., 1976). Wang and Hartman (1992) obtained a similar result where the optimum temperatures for urediniospore germination were 15-25°C. Singh and Thapliyal (1977) reported that, in an Indian isolate, the minimum, optimum and maximum temperatures for urediniospore germination on a glass slide were 20, 25 and 30°C, respectively.

Urediniospore infection of soyabean leaves requires at least 6 hours of dew period at optimum temperatures. Extended dew periods are needed for successful infection by urediniospores at temperatures higher or lower than the optimum. Using urediniospores of Indian, Australian, Indonesian and Taiwanese isolates, Marchetti et al. (1974) reported that the maximum infection of Wayne soyabean leaves occurred at 20-25°C with 10-12 hour dew periods and at 15-17.5°C with 16-18 hour dew periods. Kochman (1979) reported that optimum temperatures for rust development from the urediniospore infection were 17-27°C. According to Wang and Hartman (1992), the minimum dew period for infection was 6 hours at 20-25°C and 8-10 hours at 15-17.5°C. A minimum night temperature below 15°C greatly reduced lesion number or completely prevented lesion development.

Melching et al. (1989) reported that inoculations of susceptible soyabean cultivars with urediniospores at dew periods of less than 6 hours resulted in no infection. In a 6 hour dew period, trace levels of infection occurred at 18-26.5°C. Degrees of infection and intensities of lesion development increased with prolonged dew periods; in an 8 hour dew period at 18-26.5°C, lesion intensities were 10-fold higher than those at 6 hours at the corresponding temperatures. However, increasing dew duration above 13 hours resulted in no significant increase in rust intensity at18-26.5°C. No lesions developed at 9 and 28.5°C, even with dew periods as long as 20 hours.

Germinability and infectivity of urediniospores are reduced by exposure of the spores to dry and high temperature conditions prior to germination. Singh and Thapliyal (1977) reported that, in an Indian isolate, prior exposure of urediniospores to 35°C for 6 hours prevented germination. Similarly, Kochman (1979) reported that germination of urediniospores on water agar at 21°C was significantly reduced by prior exposure of the spores to 28.5-42.5°C for 8 hours. According to Melching et al. (1989), urediniospores on unwetted soyabean leaves progressively lost infectivity during sunny conditions, but exhibited enhanced infectivity after 1 or 2 days on dry foliage under cloudy conditions. After 8 days on dry foliage, no urediniospores were found to cause lesions following a 12 hour dew period at 18°C. Spores on leaves exposed to 4 or 6 hours of dew followed by drying for up to 4 days were able to infect when a 12 hour dew period was provided, but were less infectious than spores that had not been exposed to a brief initial wetting.

The formation of teliospores seems to be induced when infected plants are subjected to a temperature range below 20°C for at least 15 days. Yeh et al. (1981a) reported that, on 20 soyabean cultivars and nine other legume plants, teliospores were successfully induced when the inoculated plants were subjected to 12 hour photoperiods, under 60-100% RH and at temperatures of 15-24°C. In the field, teliospores were produced only when the average daily temperature was below 20°C and the maximum temperature above 29°C. Yeh et al. (1981b) further reported that telia and teliospores were formed on eight legume species when the infected hosts were inoculated and grown under a 12 hour photoperiod (2060 lux), 60-100% RH, at a maximum day temperature of 24±1°C and a minimum night temperature of 15±1°C. Yeh et al. (1982) found that, by artificial inoculations of two cultivars, TK 5 and PI 230971, more telia were formed on TK 5 than on PI 230971. Sources of inoculum from either cultivar did not influence the production of telia. There was a positive correlation between inoculum concentration and telia production. Telia were formed on leaves after 2 weeks at 10°C and 15°C and 3 weeks at 20°C but not at 25°C. In the field, telia production was common when the daily temperatures remained below 20°C for less than 15 hours and average temperatures did not exceed 25°C for at least 15 days. Poolpol and Pupipat (1985) reported that telia and teliospores were successfully induced only on soyabean cultivar SJ. 2 after soyabeans and 23 other leguminous plants were inoculated and kept in an incubator with a 12 hour photoperiod at 6000 lux, 20-22°C day/17°C night cycle at 100% RH for 60 days.

Dufresne et al. (1987) reported telial production in Taiwanese and Puerto Rican isolates. The two isolates were cultured on Williams soyabeans at two temperature and three light intensities. The Taiwanese isolate produced telia after 21 and 30 days and the Puerto Rican isolate produced telia after 34 and 35 days at 10 and 15°C, respectively. At low light intensity (3.9 µE/m²/sec), the Taiwanese and Puerto Rican isolates produced telia after 29 and 33 days, respectively; at intermediate light intensity (5.3 µE/m²/sec) after 26 and 36 days, respectively; and at high light intensity (6.1 µE/m²/sec) after 22 and 34 days, respectively. The Taiwanese isolate produced larger lesions with a higher percentage of telia than the Puerto Rican isolate.

Saksirirat and Hoppe (1991) reported germination of teliospores. After treatment with 10-12 cycles of 24 hour wetting and 24 hour drying periods at room temperature, 65-70% of teliospores germinated at 20°C under artificial illumination of 5000 lux at 12 hour light/dark intervals. Only 25% of teliospores germinated when the telia were treated with seven wetting and drying cycles. Higher germination rates were observed when telia were stored at 5°C for 5-6 months.

Plant Trade

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Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport	Pest stages	Borne internally	Borne externally	Visibility of pest or symptoms
Leaves	hyphae; spores	Yes	Yes	Pest or symptoms usually visible to the naked eye
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches	hyphae; spores	Yes	Yes	Pest or symptoms usually visible to the naked eye

Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Bark
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx
Growing medium accompanying plants
Roots
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants
True seeds (inc. grain)
Wood

Impact

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Estimated yield losses due to the rust infection were 15-40% in southern Japan and up to 70-80% in individual fields and 20-30% in the total crop in Taiwan (Bromfield, 1976). In field trials in Taiwan, yield losses were 18-57% (Chen, 1989).

In a plot trial in Thailand, yield losses were 100% in the most susceptible cultivars and 0-38% in the most tolerant cultivars (Sangawongse, 1973). In Thailand, seed-yield losses in the wet season were 100% for the most susceptible cultivars, while the losses were reduced to 10-15% in the dry season (Sangawpmgse et al., 1977).

In a field trial in Korea, yield losses were 68.7% in a susceptible cultivar and 22.3% in a tolerant cultivar (Shin and Tschanz, 1986).

In a field trial conducted in Austria, seed-yield losses were 60-70% in the most severely infected plots without chemical control (Ogle et al., 1979).

Kuchler et al. (1984) analysed the potential economic consequences if a virulent race of the soyabean rust fungus were to become established in the USA using an econometric-simulation model under two alternative environmental and grower response assumptions. Total losses to consumers and other sectors of the USA economy are forecast to exceed $7.2 billion/year even with a conservative estimate of potential damage, while profits to some soyabean farmers and producers of other feed grains would rise.

Diagnosis

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The disease is diagnosed both macroscopically by the characteristic symptoms described in Detection and Inspection Methods and microscopically by abundantly paraphysate uredinia with pale yellowish-brown or almost colourless, echinulate urediniospores. However, Harmon et al. (2005) were unable to distinguish between Phakospora pachyrhizi and P. meibomiae on soybean using light microscopy, relying instead on rapid DNA extraction and PCR amplification protocol for diagnosis of the two species. Gevens et al. (2008) diagnosed the pathogen using a real-time PCR protocol.

ELISA protocol has also been used to identify P. pachyrhizi (Koenning et al., 2007). Mendes et al. (2009) developed an electrochemical immunosensor for the early diagnosis of P. pachyrhizi in soybean leaf extract.

An analysis of the various diagnostic protocols for P. pachyrhizi is given by Jurick et al. (2007).

Detection and Inspection

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The disease is detected by inspecting the abaxial surface of the leaves for uredinial pustules that are powdery and buff or pale brown.

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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Bacterial pustules caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. glycines and bacterial blight caused by Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. glycinea produce spots similar to those formed by the soyabean rust fungus on discoloured leaf lesions. However, the bacterial spots are at first water-soaked in appearance and later ooze out slimy bacterial masses instead of powdery spore masses as in the rust.

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Introduction

Successful rust disease management can be achieved by selecting durable resistant/tolerant cultivars with desirable agronomic properties, employing necessary good husbandry, and applying appropriate fungicides at the correct stages of soyabean growth and disease development. No single measure can provide successful disease management. In each of the soyabean-growing areas, a specific management programme must be developed according to the economic factors, the type of soyabeans to be grown (grain vs. vegetable), time when soyabeans are to be grown, climatic conditions, soil types, and the number and frequency of prevalent rust races.

Chemical Control

No single class of fungicides has emerged as uniquely effective in suppressing the rust fungus (Bromfield, 1984). The application of formulations of the zinc ion-maneb complex periodically throughout the growing season gives favourable control (Bromfield, 1984). The application of Piperazin W524, oxycarboxin, mancozeb and maneb spray was effective in reducing seed-yield losses of soyabeans in Thailand (Sangawongse et al., 1977).

References

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===, 2007. Proceedings of the Brazilian symposium on soyabean Asiatic rust, Londrina, 26-27 June, 2007. (Simpósio Brasileiro de Ferrugem Asiática da Soja, Londrina, 26 e 27 de junho de 2007.) Documentos - Embrapa Soja, No.281:131 pp.

Arthur JC, 1915. Uredinales of Puerto Rico based on collections by F L Stevens. Mycologia, 7:315-332.

Arthur JC, 1917. Uredinales of Porto Rico based on collections by H H Whetzel and E W Olive. Mycologia, 9:55-104.

Arthur JC, 1917b. Relationship of the genus Kuehneola. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 44:501-511.

Arthur JC, 1925. North American Flora. Vol. 7. Part 10. New York, USA: New York Botanical Garden, 669-732.

Arthur JC, Cummins GB, 1936. Philippine rusts in the Clemens collection 1923-1926, II. Philippine Journal of Science, 61:463-488.

Awadhiya GK, 1996. Occurrence of rust of soybean-a new report from Madhya Pradesh, India. Journal of Hill Research, 9(1):155; 2 ref.

Azbukina ZM, 1984. Key to rust fungi of the Soviet Far East. Moscow, USSR: Izdatelstvo Nauka, 288 pp.

Babu SC, Rajasekaran B, 1989. Dynamic economic injury levels of soybean rust - a dynamic programming model. Soybean Rust Newsletter, 9:10-14

Baker CF, 1914. The lower fungi of the Philippine Islands. Leaflets of Philippine Botany, 6:2065-2190.

Baker CF, 1931. Second supplement to the list of the lower fungi of the Philippine Islands. Philippine Journal of Science, 46:479-536.

Bandyopadhyay, R., Ojiambo, P. S., Twizeyimana, M., Asafo-Adjei, B., Frederick, R. D., Pedley, K. F., Stone, C. L., Hartman, G. L., 2007. First report of soybean rust caused by Phakopsora pachyrhizi in Ghana. Plant Disease, 91(8), 1057. doi: 10.1094/PDIS-91-8-1057B

Baysal-Gurel F, Ivey MLL, Dorrance A, Luster D, Frederick R, Czarnecki J, Boehm M, Miller SA, 2008. An immunofluorescence assay to detect urediniospores of Phakopsora pachyrhizi. Plant Disease, 92(10):1387-1393. HTTP://www.apsnet.org

Boedijn KB, 1960. The Uredinales of Indonesia. Nova Hedwigia, 1:463-496.

Bradley CA, Hines RA, Pataky NR, Haudenshield JS, Hartman GL, 2010. First report of soybean rust caused by Phakopsora pachyrhizi on kudzu (Pueraria montana var. lobata) in Illinois. Plant Disease, 94(4):477. http://apsjournals.apsnet.org/loi/pdis

Bromfield KR, 1976. World soybean situation. In: Hill LD (ed.) World soybean research. Proceedings of the World Soybean Research Conference. Danville, Illinois, USA: The Interstate Printers and Publishers.

Bromfield KR, 1984. Soybean rust. Monograph, American Phytopathological Society, No.11:65 pp.

Bromfield KR, Pennypacker SP, 1980. Soybean rust: some considerations relevant to threat analysis. Proceedings of the Epidemiology Workshop held from 29 July to 3 August, 1979 at the Pennsylvania State University, University Park and the Plant Disease Research Laboratory, Frederick, Maryland, USA. Protection Ecology, 2:251-257.

Burdon JJ, Marshall DR, 1981. Evaluation of Australian native species of Glycine for resistance to soybean rust. Plant Disease, 65(1):44-45

BUTLER EJ, BISBY GR, 1931. Imper. Council of Agric. Res. xviii+237 pp.

CABI/EPPO, 2015. Phakopsora pachyrhizi. [Distribution map]. Distribution Maps of Plant Diseases, No.October. Wallingford, UK: CABI, Map 504 (Edition 6).

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Phakopsora pachyrhizi (soyabean rust)

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