Pennisetum purpureum (elephant grass)

Pictures

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Picture

Title

Caption

Copyright

Habit

Pennisetum purpureum (elephant grass); habit - plant with inflorescences.

©Smithsonian Institution/P. Acevedo

Habit and foliage

Pennisetum purpureum (elephant grass); habit and foliage.

©Smithsonian Institution/P. Acevedo

Habit

Roadside area in Puerto Rico infested by Pennisetum purpureum

©Smithsonian Institution/P. Acevedo

Inflorescence

Pennisetum purpureum (elephant grass); close-up of inflorescence.

©Smithsonian Institution/P. Acevedo

Inflorescence

Pennisetum purpureum (elephant grass); detail of inflorescence.

©Smithsonian Institution/P. Acevedo

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Pennisetum purpureum Schumach

Preferred Common Name

elephant grass

Other Scientific Names

Cenchrus purpureus (Schumach.) Morrone
Gymnotrix nitens Andersson
Pennisetum benthamii Steud.
Pennisetum benthamii var. nudum Hack.
Pennisetum benthamii var. sambesiense Hack.
Pennisetum benthamii var. ternatum Hack.
Pennisetum blepharideum Gilli
Pennisetum flavicomum Leeke
Pennisetum flexispica K. Schum
Pennisetum gossweileri Stapf & C.E. Hubb.
Pennisetum hainanense H.R.Zhao & A.T. Liu
Pennisetum lachnorrhachis Peter
Pennisetum nitens (Andersson) Hack.
Pennisetum pallescens Leeke
Pennisetum pruinosum Leeke
Pennisetum purpureum subsp. benthamii (Steud.) Maire & Weiller
Pennisetum purpureum subsp. flexispica (K.Schum.) Maire & Weiller

International Common Names

English: cane grass; elephantgrass; merker grass; napier fodder; napier grass; napiergrass; Uganda grass
Spanish: hierba elefante; pasto elefente; pasto Napier; yerba elefante; zacate elefante
French: canne fourragère; fausse canne à sucre; Herbe a elephant; herbe éléphant; Sissongo; z'herbe éléphant
Chinese: xiang cao
Portuguese: capim-elefante

Local Common Names

Africa: mfufu
Australia: barner grass; cane grass; merker grass
Brazil: capim-cameroon; capim-camerron; capim-napier
Colombia: elefante; elefante morado
Cook Islands: 'erepani
Costa Rica: pasto azul; pasto gigante
Dominican Republic: árbol del pan; bufala; búfala; yerba merck; yerba mercury
Germany: Elefantengras
Italy: Erba elefantina; Penniseto rosso
Japan: pokao
Mexico: gigante; merkerón; zacante gigante
Micronesia, Federated states of: acfucsracsracsr
Palau: bokso
Samoa: vao povi
Vietnam: co voi

EPPO code

PESPU (Pennisetum purpureum)

Summary of Invasiveness

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P. purpureum is a robust perennial grass widely naturalized in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. This C₄ grass is included in the Global Compendium of Weeds where it is listed as an agricultural and environmental weed as well as an invasive species (Randall, 2012). P. purpureum is an aggressive grass that grows rapidly, colonizing new areas and forming dense thickets. Once established, it can change features of ecosystem functions by altering fire regimes, hydrology cycles, biophysical dynamics, nutrient cycles, and community composition (D’Antonio and Vitousek, 1992). P. purpureum is well adapted to drought conditions and can also dominate fire-adapted grassland communities (Holm et al., 1979). This species has the capability to resprout easily from small rhizomes left after disturbance, resulting in the out-competing and smothering of native plant communities (Holm et al., 1979; D’Antonio and Vitousek, 1992; Langeland et al., 2008). P. purpureum is considered one of the most successful invasive grasses in the world.

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Monocotyledonae
Order: Cyperales
Family: Poaceae
Genus: Pennisetum
Species: Pennisetum purpureum

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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The genus Pennisetum is included in the subfamily Panicoideae of the Poaceae family. This is a large and variable genus, but the bristly, spike-like inflorescence is always readily recognizable. The only other panicoid genus with a similar bristly inflorescence is Setaria, but in that genus the bristles are not deciduous with the spikelets, instead remaining on the rachis at maturity. The bristles are derived from reduced panicle branches (Gould and Shaw, 1983; Gibson, 2009). The common name of elephant grass reflects it making up the bulk of the diet of forest elephants in West Africa (Francis, 1992).

Description

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Robust perennial grass up to 4 metres tall; grows forming thick clumps or colonies from basal offshoots or short rhizomes. Stems often branched above; internodes more or less bluish glaucous; young nodes with white hairs, later becoming smooth, glabrous. Leaf sheaths glabrous, usually shorter than the internodes; ligule a narrow rim densely fringed with long white hairs. Leaf blades linear to tapering, flat, often bluish green, to 1 m long and 3 cm wide, pilose near the base, especially on margins; blade margins generally rough; midvein stout, whitish above, strongly keeled below. Inflorescence a dense terminal bristly spike, tawny to purple-tinged, to about 20 cm long and 2 cm wide. Spikelets 4-6 mm long, solitary or in clusters of 2-6 on hairy axis, surrounded by sparsely plumose bristles to 2 cm long that fall with the spikelets at maturity; outermost glume minute or absent (Langeland et al., 2008).

Plant Type

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Grass / sedge
Herbaceous
Perennial
Seed propagated
Vegetatively propagated

Distribution

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P. purpureum is native to Tropical Africa and the sub-Saharan region (Clayton et al., 2013). It has been widely introduced into tropical and subtropical regions of the Old and New World where it commonly becomes naturalized, and in some cases invasive (see distribution table for details; Duke, 1983; Langeland et al., 2008; FAO, 2013).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 10 Feb 2022

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Africa
Algeria	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013)
Angola	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013)
Benin	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013)
Burkina Faso	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013)
Cameroon	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013) Ndemah et al. (2001)	Weed (Randall, 2012)
Central African Republic	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013)	Weed (Randall, 2012)
Chad	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013)
Congo, Democratic Republic of the	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013) Kankonda et al. (2014)
Congo, Republic of the	Present	Native		Invasive	Mbale (2010)
Côte d'Ivoire	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013)
Egypt	Present				Korayem et al. (2015)
Equatorial Guinea	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013)
Eswatini	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2013)
Ethiopia	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013) Assefa et al. (2006)
Gabon	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013)
Gambia	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013)
Ghana	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013) Nutsugah et al. (2008)
Guinea-Bissau	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013)
Kenya	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013)
Liberia	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013)
Madagascar	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2013)
Malawi	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013)
Mali	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013)
Mauritius	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2013)
-Rodrigues	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Clayton et al. (2013)
Morocco	Present	Introduced			USDA-ARS (2013)
Mozambique	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013)
Nigeria	Present	Native		Invasive	Clayton et al. (2013)	Weed in tree crops (Komolafe, 1976)
Réunion	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-ARS (2013)
Rwanda	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013)
Saint Helena	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2013)
Senegal	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2013)
Seychelles
-Aldabra Islands	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013)
Sierra Leone	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013)
South Africa	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Foxcroft et al. (2007) Seebens et al. (2017)
Tanzania	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013)
Togo	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013)
Uganda	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013)
Zambia	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013)
Zimbabwe	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2013)
Asia
Bangladesh	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2013)
Bhutan	Present	Introduced	1970		Seebens et al. (2017) Clayton et al. (2013)
Cambodia	Present	Introduced			USDA-ARS (2013) Waterhouse (1993)
China	Present				CABI (Undated a) Seebens et al. (2017)	Present based on regional distribution.
Hong Kong	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Wu (2001) Seebens et al. (2017)
India	Present				Basu and Patro (2007)
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands	Present				CABI (Undated b)
-Arunachal Pradesh	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Chandra-Sekar (2012)
-Assam	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Chandra-Sekar (2012)
-Himachal Pradesh	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Chandra-Sekar (2012)
-Jammu and Kashmir	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Chandra-Sekar (2012)
-Manipur	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Chandra-Sekar (2012)
-Meghalaya	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Chandra-Sekar (2012)
-Nagaland	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Chandra-Sekar (2012)
-Odisha	Present				Basu and Patro (2007)
-Sikkim	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Chandra-Sekar (2012)
-Tripura	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Chandra-Sekar (2012)
-Uttar Pradesh	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Khanna (2009)
-Uttarakhand	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Chandra-Sekar (2012)
-West Bengal	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Chandra-Sekar (2012)
Indonesia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-ARS (2013) Waterhouse (1993) Septiadi et al. (2018)	Weed (Holm et al., 1977)
Japan	Present				CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Ryukyu Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Clayton et al. (2013)
Laos	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2013) Waterhouse (1993)
Malaysia	Present				Waterhouse (1993)
-Peninsular Malaysia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Clayton et al. (2013)	Weed (Holm et al., 1977)
Myanmar	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2013)	Listed as agricultural weed (Randall, 2012)
Oman	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2013)
Philippines	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-ARS (2013) Waterhouse (1993)
Saudi Arabia	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2013)
Singapore	Present	Introduced	1961		Seebens et al. (2017) Waterhouse (1993) Chong et al. (2009)
Sri Lanka	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2013)
Taiwan	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Wu et al. (2004) Seebens et al. (2017)
Thailand	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-ARS (2013) Waterhouse (1993)	Weed (Holm et al., 1977)
Vietnam	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-ARS (2013) Waterhouse (1993)
Yemen
-Socotra	Present	Introduced			Seebens et al. (2017)	First reported: <1978
Europe
Cyprus	Present	Introduced		Invasive	DAISIE (2013)
Portugal	Present				CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Madeira	Present	Introduced		Invasive	DAISIE (2013)
Spain	Present				CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Canary Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Clayton et al. (2013) Seebens et al. (2017)
North America
Antigua and Barbuda	Present, Widespread	Introduced			Broome et al. (2007)
Bahamas	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	Kairo et al. (2003)
Barbados	Present, Widespread	Introduced			Broome et al. (2007)
Belize	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2013)
Cayman Islands	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Costa Rica	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Chacón and Saborío (2012)
Cuba	Present	Introduced		Invasive	González-Torres et al. (2012)
Dominican Republic	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
El Salvador	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Clayton et al. (2013)
Grenada	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	Broome et al. (2007)
Guatemala	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2013)
Haiti	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Honduras	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Clayton et al. (2013)
Jamaica	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Adams (1972)
Mexico	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Villaseñor and Espinosa-Garcia (2004)
Netherlands Antilles	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)	Bonaire
Nicaragua	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2013)
Panama	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2013)
Puerto Rico	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Kairo et al. (2003)
Saint Lucia	Present, Widespread	Introduced			Broome et al. (2007)
U.S. Virgin Islands	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)	St Croix
United States	Present				Hoddle et al. (2003)
-California	Present	Introduced	1913		Clayton et al. (2013)
-Florida	Present	Introduced	1913	Invasive	Clayton et al. (2013) Hoddle et al. (2003)	Invasive category I
-Hawaii	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Wagner et al. (1999) Seebens et al. (2017)
-Texas	Present	Introduced	1913		Clayton et al. (2013)
Oceania
American Samoa	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Ragone and Lorence (2003)
Australia	Present				CABI (Undated a) Seebens et al. (2017)	Present based on regional distribution.
-New South Wales	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (2011)
-Northern Territory	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (2011)
-Queensland	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (2011)
-Western Australia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (2011)
Cook Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Space and Flynn (2002)
Federated States of Micronesia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Lorence and Flynn (2010)
Fiji	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Smith (1979)
French Polynesia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Florence et al. (2011)
Guam	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Meyer (2000)
Kiribati	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Space and Imada (2004)
Marshall Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Vander (2003)
New Caledonia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	MacKee (1994) Seebens et al. (2017)
New Zealand	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Edgar and Connor (2000)
Niue	Present	Introduced		Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Space et al. (2004)
Norfolk Island	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (2011)
Northern Mariana Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Fosberg et al. (1987)
Palau	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Space et al. (2009)
Papua New Guinea	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Waterhouse (1997)
Samoa	Present	Introduced		Invasive	PIER (2013)
Solomon Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Shine et al. (2003)
Tokelau	Present	Introduced			PIER (2013)
Vanuatu	Present	Introduced			PIER (2013)
Wallis and Futuna	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Meyer (2007)
South America
Argentina	Present	Introduced			USDA-ARS (2013)
Bolivia	Present	Introduced			USDA-ARS (2013)
Brazil	Present				CABI (Undated a) Silva et al. (2013)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Amapa	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Forzza RC et al. (2012)
-Amazonas	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Forzza RC et al. (2012)
-Bahia	Present				Silva et al. (2013)
-Ceara	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Forzza RC et al. (2012)
-Espirito Santo	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Forzza RC et al. (2012)
-Goias	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Forzza RC et al. (2012)
-Maranhao	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Forzza RC et al. (2012)
-Mato Grosso	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Forzza RC et al. (2012)
-Mato Grosso do Sul	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Forzza RC et al. (2012)
-Minas Gerais	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Forzza RC et al. (2012)
-Parana	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Forzza RC et al. (2012)
-Pernambuco	Present	Introduced		Invasive	I3N-Brasil (2013)
-Rio de Janeiro	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Forzza RC et al. (2012)
-Santa Catarina	Present	Introduced		Invasive	I3N-Brasil (2013)
-Sao Paulo	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Forzza RC et al. (2012)
Chile	Present				CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Easter Island	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Meyer (2008)
Colombia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Clayton et al. (2013) Seebens et al. (2017)
Ecuador	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-ARS (2013)
-Galapagos Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
French Guiana	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2013)
Guyana	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2013)
Paraguay	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-ARS (2013)
Peru	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-ARS (2013)
Suriname	Present	Introduced			USDA-ARS (2013)
Uruguay	Present	Introduced			USDA-ARS (2013)
Venezuela	Present	Introduced			USDA-ARS (2013)

History of Introduction and Spread

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P. purpureum has been intentionally introduced as a forage crop in many tropical and subtropical countries (Holm et al., 1979; Francis, 1992; FAO, 2013). It has been the subject of breeding for improved cultivars and hybrids for forage and silage (Tropical Forages, 2013). In the United States, this grass was introduced in 1913. It was established into natural areas of Florida by 1971 (Langeland et al., 2008). In the West Indies, Central and South America, many cultivars were introduced in the early 1950s. For example, the cultivar “Merkeron” was introduced in Puerto Rico in 1955 and in 1962 the cultivar “Capricorn was introduced in Australia (FAO, 2013; Tropical Forages, 2013).

Risk of Introduction

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The risk of introduction of P. purpureum is very high. This grass has been repeatedly intentionally introduced in tropical and subtropical regions to be used as a forage and silage crop. It has escaped from cultivation into natural areas, where it rapidly colonizes new areas forming dense stands which are very difficult to control (Langeland et al., 2008; Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011).

Habitat

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P. purpureum is a common weed in agricultural fields, pastures, and along roadsides. It also grows in waterways, wetlands, floodplains, riverbanks, swamps, forest edges, disturbed sites, and waste ground especially in mesic to wet sites (Francis, 1992; Wagner et al., 1999; Langeland et al., 2008; Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011). P. purpureum is well-adapted to drought conditions and can be found colonizing arid lowlands (e.g., habitats on Galápagos Islands; McMullen, 1999).

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed grasslands (grazing systems)	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed grasslands (grazing systems)	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed grasslands (grazing systems)	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Rail / roadsides	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Rail / roadsides	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural grasslands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural grasslands	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Riverbanks	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Riverbanks	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Wetlands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Wetlands	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Scrub / shrublands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Scrub / shrublands	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Arid regions	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Arid regions	Present, no further details	Natural

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context
Anacardium occidentale (cashew nut)	Anacardiaceae	Main
Ananas comosus (pineapple)	Bromeliaceae	Main
Camellia sinensis (tea)	Theaceae	Main
Citrus	Rutaceae	Main
Coffea (coffee)	Rubiaceae	Other
Cola acuminata (cola)	Sterculiaceae	Main
Elaeis guineensis (African oil palm)	Arecaceae	Main
Hevea brasiliensis (rubber)	Euphorbiaceae	Main
Musa (banana)	Musaceae	Main
Oryza sativa (rice)	Poaceae	Main
pastures		Main
Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane)	Poaceae	Main
Theobroma cacao (cocoa)	Malvaceae	Main

Biology and Ecology

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Genetics

The chromosome number in P. purpureum is 2n = 27, 28, 56 (Sinha et al., 1990; Vidhya and Khna, 2003; Tropical Forages, 2013). There are numerous ecotypes grown for agriculture in various countries, and a range of commercial cultivars have been bred, including the widely grown cv. Mott bred in Georgia, USA from cv. Merkeron. A number of hybrids with Pennisetum glaucum are also commercially available. Tropical Forages (2013) lists important cultivars and hybrids used for forage and silage production.

Reproductive Biology

P. purpureum relies on wind to achieve cross-pollination, due to asynchrony of male and female flower parts. However, this is also an apomictic species which can produce seed by this asexual method of reproduction (Brown and Emery, 1958; Stevens, 2012). The species is an inconsistent seed producer and in some habitats it rarely develops seeds, possibly due to low pollen viability (Tropical Forages, 2013). When seeds are produced they are dispersed by wind (Francis, 1992), but are often of low viability.

Physiology and Phenology

P. purpureum is a fast-growing perennial grass (FAO, 2013). In Florida, P. purpureum produces flowers from July through February (Langeland et al., 2008). In Mexico and Central America, flowering occurs all year long with peaks from December to May (Vibrans, 2009). In South Africa this species flowers from January to June (Tropical Forages, 2013).

As many other C4 grasses, P. purpureum is well adapted to environments with high daytime temperatures, intense sunlight, drought and nitrogen and /or CO₂ limitations (Gibson, 2009). It grows during the rainy season, but its deep root system allows it to survive long drought periods. In an agricultural research plot in Puerto Rico, P. purpureum reached the height of 4 metres in just 3 months (Francis, 1992).

Environmental Requirements

P. purpureum prefers to grow in moist tropical habitats at elevations from sea level to 2000 metres (Francis, 1992; FAO, 2013). It grows best in high-rainfall areas (>1500 mm/year), but its deep root system allows it to survive in dry times and it is reported to tolerates areas with annual precipitation of 200-4000 mm (Duke, 1983). It is well adapted to grow on a wide range of soil types from poorly drained clay soils to excessively drained sandy soils with pH ranging from 4.5 to 8.2, but grows best in rich well-drained soils (Duke, 1983; FAO, 2013; Tropical Forages, 2013). Temperatures for optimum growth should be from 25°C to 40°C, and there is little growth below about 15°C (FAO, 2013). It does not tolerate much frost. It recovers well following fire, and can dominate fire-adapted grassland communities (Tropical Forages, 2013). P. purpureum has the capability to grow in completely open sunlit areas to partially light-shaded areas but does not survive under a closed tree canopy (Francis, 1992; FAO, 2013).

Climate

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Climate	Status	Description
Af - Tropical rainforest climate	Preferred	> 60mm precipitation per month
Am - Tropical monsoon climate	Preferred	Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25]))
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer	Preferred	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate	Preferred	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
BS - Steppe climate	Tolerated	> 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation
BW - Desert climate	Tolerated	< 430mm annual precipitation
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year	Tolerated	Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer	Tolerated	Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter	Tolerated	Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters)

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

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Latitude North (°N)	Latitude South (°S)	Altitude Lower (m)	Altitude Upper (m)
40	40

Air Temperature

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit
Mean annual temperature (ºC)	25	40
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC)	11.5

Rainfall

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit	Description
Mean annual rainfall	200	4500	mm; lower/upper limits

Rainfall Regime

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Bimodal

Soil Tolerances

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Soil drainage

free
seasonally waterlogged

Soil reaction

acid
alkaline
neutral

Soil texture

heavy
light
medium

Special soil tolerances

shallow

Natural enemies

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Natural enemy	Type	Life stages	Specificity	Biological control on
Aphelenchus avenae	Pathogen	All Stages	not specific	N
Leptosphaeria sacchari	Pathogen	All Stages	not specific	N
Meloidogyne incognita	Pathogen	All Stages	not specific	N
Meloidogyne javanica	Pathogen	All Stages	not specific	N
Pectobacterium carotovorum	Pathogen	All Stages	not specific	N
Phyllosticta	Pathogen	All Stages	not specific	N
Pratylenchus brachyurus	Pathogen	All Stages	not specific	N

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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P. purpureum reproduces sexually by seeds and also vegetatively by stem fragments, cuttings, and tillers. Seeds are dispersed by the wind, but they can also become attached to animals and vehicles. Seeds may also be spread as a contaminant of agricultural produce (i.e., fodder). Stem fragments and rhizomes may be broken off and dispersed to new locations by humans, wild animals, livestock, vehicles, and/or floodwaters. Seeds and stem fragments can also be spread by the movement of soil (Francis, 1992; Langeland et al., 2008; Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011; FAO, 2013).

Pathway Causes

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Cause	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Animal production	P. purpureum is one of the most valuable forage, hay, and silage crops in the wet tropics	Yes	Yes	FAO (2013)
Forage	P. purpureum is one of the highest yielding tropical forage grasses	Yes	Yes	FAO (2013)
Habitat restoration and improvement	Effective controlling erosion	Yes	Yes	FAO (2013)
Hedges and windbreaks	Used for hedgerows, windbreaks and living fences in horticultural crops and orchards	Yes	Yes	Tropical Forages (2013)
Intentional release	Widely introduced in wet tropics	Yes	Yes	FAO (2013)

Pathway Vectors

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Vector	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Debris and waste associated with human activities	Seed and plant segments	Yes	Yes	Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (2011)
Land vehicles	Seed and plant segments attached to vehicles	Yes	Yes	Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (2011)
Livestock	Contaminant in fodder and silage crops	Yes	Yes	Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (2011)
Machinery and equipment	Seed and plant segments	Yes	Yes	Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (2011)
Soil, sand and gravel	Seed and plant segments	Yes	Yes	Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (2011)
Wind	Seeds	Yes	Yes	Duke (1983)

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Economic/livelihood	Positive and negative
Environment (generally)	Positive and negative

Environmental Impact

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P. purpureum is an aggressive grass that grows rapidly, colonizing new areas and forming dense thickets. It has the potential to alter fire regimes, hydrology cycles, biophysical dynamics, nutrient cycles, and community composition in invaded habitats (D’Antonio and Vitousek, 1992). P. purpureum is well adapted to drought conditions and can also dominate fire-adapted grassland communities. Consequently, it can completely out-compete native vegetation communities very rapidly. P. purpureum also creates problems in flood-control systems by blocking access to canals, reducing water flows, and overgrowing pump stations (Langeland et al., 2008; Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011).

Threatened Species

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Threatened Species	Conservation Status	Where Threatened	Mechanism	References	Notes
Linum carteri (Carter's small-flowered flax)	USA ESA listing as endangered species	Florida	Competition - strangling	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010)

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Invasive in its native range
Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Is a habitat generalist
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Highly mobile locally
Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
Fast growing
Has high reproductive potential
Reproduces asexually

Impact outcomes

Altered trophic level
Damaged ecosystem services
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Modification of fire regime
Modification of hydrology
Modification of nutrient regime
Modification of successional patterns
Monoculture formation
Negatively impacts agriculture
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of native species

Impact mechanisms

Allelopathic
Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition - shading
Competition - smothering
Pest and disease transmission
Rapid growth
Rooting

Likelihood of entry/control

Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
Difficult/costly to control

Uses

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P. purpureum is one of the most valuable forage and silage crops in its native Africa and throughout the wet tropics. It is an important forage and pasture grass especially for cattle and it is also cut for hay and fermented for silage (Francis, 1992; FAO, 2013). This grass is also planted as hedgerows for erosion protection and forage production in the alley cropping system of agroforestry (Magcale-Macandog et al., 1998). P. purpureum is also used as a windbreak in horticultural crops and orchards and lines of these plants are used to mark boundaries between plots and properties (FAO, 2013; Tropical Forages, 2013). In Africa, P. purpureum is planted on riverbanks to prevent erosion, and the thick culms are made into fences, screens, and reinforcement for mud huts (Francis, 1992). Plant extracts are used as a diuretic in Africa, and it is also used in a number of other herbal remedies (Francis, 1992).

Uses List

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Animal feed, fodder, forage

Fodder/animal feed
Forage

Environmental

Agroforestry
Boundary, barrier or support
Erosion control or dune stabilization
Soil conservation
Windbreak

General

Ornamental

Materials

Fibre
Green manure

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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P. purpureum is similar to Pennisetum polystachion (mission grass), Pennisetum macrourum (African feather grass), Pennisetum pedicellatum (Deenanth grass) and Pennisetum alopecuroides (swamp foxtail). It can usually be distinguished from these species by its perpendicular size, but can also be separated by the following characteristics:

P. purpureum is a very large and robust perennial grass (1-7 m tall) with greenish, yellowish or purplish coloured seed-heads. The main stem (i.e., rachis) of the seed-head is rounded and the bristles below each flower spikelet are relatively long (8-40 mm).
P. polystachion is a perennial grass (usually 2-3 m tall) with yellowish or brownish coloured seed-heads. The rachis of the seed-head is angular and the bristles below each flower spikelet are relatively long (4-25 mm long). P. purpureum is distinguished by its yellow or yellowish-brown bristles with or without purple tip, and its softer stem.
P. macrourum is a large perennial grass (usually 1-2 m tall) with greenish or yellowish coloured seed-heads. The rachis of the seed-head is rounded and the bristles below each flower spikelet are relatively short (mostly less than 10 mm long).
P. pedicellatum is a moderately-sized annual grass (usually 30-150 cm tall) with pale purplish coloured seed-heads. The rachis of the seed-head is angular and the bristles below each flower spikelet are relatively long (6-24 mm long).
P. alopecuroides is a moderately-sized perennial grass (usually 60-100 cm tall) with greenish or purplish coloured seed-heads. The rachis of the seed-head is rounded and the bristles below each flower spikelet are relatively long (15-30 mm long).

P. purpureum is also similar to some Setaria species such as Setaria sphacelata (Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011). In Florida, P. purpureum may be confused with the larger native foxtails (Setaria spp., also called bristle grasses), but their spikelet bristles are persistent on the flowering stalks, not falling with mature spikelets. P. purpureum can be distinguished from other Pennisetum species in Florida by its long leaf blades, sparsely plumose bristles, and minute or absent first glumes (Langeland et al., 2008).

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

A combination of manual and chemical methods is recommended for the management of large infestations of P. purpureum. In the case of smaller infestations, plants can be cut out and all rhizomes must be removed (Weber, 2003). Larger infestations can be controlled by mowing or burning the foliage and the aboveground segments of the grass. Later any re-sprout should be sprayed with a foliar application of the herbicide 2,2 dichloropropionic acid (2,2 DPA; Weber, 2003). The herbicide glyphosate provides acceptable control in at least aquatic sites (Francis, 1992).

References

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Distribution References

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Chandra-Sekar K, 2012. Invasive Alien Plants of Indian Himalayan Region- Diversity and Implication. In: American Journal of Plant Sciences, 3 177-184.

Charles Darwin Foundation, 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. In: Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos, Galapagos, Ecuador: Charles Darwin Foundation. unpaginated.

Chong KY, Tan HTW, Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species., Singapore, Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp. http://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/nus/pdf/PUBLICATION/LKCNH%20Museum%20Books/LKCNHM%20Books/flora_of_singapore_tc.pdf

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Edgar E, Connor HE, 2000. Flora of New Zealand., V Lincoln, New Zealand: Manaaki Whenua Press. 650 pp.

Florence J, Chevillotte H, Ollier C, Meyer JY, 2011. [English title not available]. (Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP))., http://www.herbier-tahiti.pf

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Fosberg FR, Sachet M-H, Oliver R, 1987. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian monocotyledonae. In: Micronesia, 20 1-2, 19-129.

Foxcroft LC, Richardson DM, Wilson JRU, 2007. Ornamental plants as invasive aliens: problems and solutions in Kruger National Park, South Africa. In: Environmental Management, 41 (1) 32-51.

González-Torres LR, Rankin R, Palmarola A, 2012. Invasive plants in Cuba. (Plantas Invasoras en Cuba). In: Bissea: Boletin sobre Conservacion de Plantad del Jardin Botanico Nacional, 6 [ed. by González-Torres LR, Rankin R, Palmarola A]. 1-140.

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Kairo M, Ali B, Cheesman O, Haysom K, Murphy S, 2003. Invasive species threats in the Caribbean region. Report to the Nature Conservancy. In: Invasive species threats in the Caribbean region. Report to the Nature Conservancy. Curepe, Trinidad and Tobago: CAB International. 132 pp.

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Khanna K K, 2009. Invasive alien angiosperms of Uttar Pradesh. Biological Forum. 1 (2), 34-39. http://www.researchtrend.net

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Links to Websites

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Website	URL	Comment
Flora of the West Indies	http://botany.si.edu/antilles/WestIndies/
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway	https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS)	http://griis.org/	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.
GrassBase - The Online World Grass Flora	http://www.kew.org/data/grasses-db/www/imp10752.htm
Tropical Forages: An Interactive Selection Tool	http://www.tropicalforages.info/
Wildland shrubs of the United States and its territories	http://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/wildland_shrubs.htm

Contributors

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03/07/13 Original text by:

Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

Pedro Acevedo-Rodríguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

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Pennisetum purpureum (elephant grass)

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