Pennisetum purpureum (elephant grass)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Environmental Impact
- Threatened Species
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Pennisetum purpureum Schumach
Preferred Common Name
- elephant grass
Other Scientific Names
- Cenchrus purpureus (Schumach.) Morrone
- Gymnotrix nitens Andersson
- Pennisetum benthamii Steud.
- Pennisetum benthamii var. nudum Hack.
- Pennisetum benthamii var. sambesiense Hack.
- Pennisetum benthamii var. ternatum Hack.
- Pennisetum blepharideum Gilli
- Pennisetum flavicomum Leeke
- Pennisetum flexispica K. Schum
- Pennisetum gossweileri Stapf & C.E. Hubb.
- Pennisetum hainanense H.R.Zhao & A.T. Liu
- Pennisetum lachnorrhachis Peter
- Pennisetum nitens (Andersson) Hack.
- Pennisetum pallescens Leeke
- Pennisetum pruinosum Leeke
- Pennisetum purpureum subsp. benthamii (Steud.) Maire & Weiller
- Pennisetum purpureum subsp. flexispica (K.Schum.) Maire & Weiller
International Common Names
- English: cane grass; elephantgrass; merker grass; napier fodder; napier grass; napiergrass; Uganda grass
- Spanish: hierba elefante; pasto elefente; pasto Napier; yerba elefante; zacate elefante
- French: canne fourragère; fausse canne à sucre; Herbe a elephant; herbe éléphant; Sissongo; z'herbe éléphant
- Chinese: xiang cao
- Portuguese: capim-elefante
Local Common Names
- Africa: mfufu
- Australia: barner grass; cane grass; merker grass
- Brazil: capim-cameroon; capim-camerron; capim-napier
- Colombia: elefante; elefante morado
- Cook Islands: 'erepani
- Costa Rica: pasto azul; pasto gigante
- Dominican Republic: árbol del pan; bufala; búfala; yerba merck; yerba mercury
- Germany: Elefantengras
- Italy: Erba elefantina; Penniseto rosso
- Japan: pokao
- Mexico: gigante; merkerón; zacante gigante
- Micronesia, Federated states of: acfucsracsracsr
- Palau: bokso
- Samoa: vao povi
- Vietnam: co voi
EPPO code
- PESPU (Pennisetum purpureum)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageP. purpureum is a robust perennial grass widely naturalized in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. This C4 grass is included in the Global Compendium of Weeds where it is listed as an agricultural and environmental weed as well as an invasive species (Randall, 2012). P. purpureum is an aggressive grass that grows rapidly, colonizing new areas and forming dense thickets. Once established, it can change features of ecosystem functions by altering fire regimes, hydrology cycles, biophysical dynamics, nutrient cycles, and community composition (D’Antonio and Vitousek, 1992). P. purpureum is well adapted to drought conditions and can also dominate fire-adapted grassland communities (Holm et al., 1979). This species has the capability to resprout easily from small rhizomes left after disturbance, resulting in the out-competing and smothering of native plant communities (Holm et al., 1979; D’Antonio and Vitousek, 1992; Langeland et al., 2008). P. purpureum is considered one of the most successful invasive grasses in the world.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Monocotyledonae
- Order: Cyperales
- Family: Poaceae
- Genus: Pennisetum
- Species: Pennisetum purpureum
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageThe genus Pennisetum is included in the subfamily Panicoideae of the Poaceae family. This is a large and variable genus, but the bristly, spike-like inflorescence is always readily recognizable. The only other panicoid genus with a similar bristly inflorescence is Setaria, but in that genus the bristles are not deciduous with the spikelets, instead remaining on the rachis at maturity. The bristles are derived from reduced panicle branches (Gould and Shaw, 1983; Gibson, 2009). The common name of elephant grass reflects it making up the bulk of the diet of forest elephants in West Africa (Francis, 1992).
Description
Top of pageRobust perennial grass up to 4 metres tall; grows forming thick clumps or colonies from basal offshoots or short rhizomes. Stems often branched above; internodes more or less bluish glaucous; young nodes with white hairs, later becoming smooth, glabrous. Leaf sheaths glabrous, usually shorter than the internodes; ligule a narrow rim densely fringed with long white hairs. Leaf blades linear to tapering, flat, often bluish green, to 1 m long and 3 cm wide, pilose near the base, especially on margins; blade margins generally rough; midvein stout, whitish above, strongly keeled below. Inflorescence a dense terminal bristly spike, tawny to purple-tinged, to about 20 cm long and 2 cm wide. Spikelets 4-6 mm long, solitary or in clusters of 2-6 on hairy axis, surrounded by sparsely plumose bristles to 2 cm long that fall with the spikelets at maturity; outermost glume minute or absent (Langeland et al., 2008).
Distribution
Top of pageP. purpureum is native to Tropical Africa and the sub-Saharan region (Clayton et al., 2013). It has been widely introduced into tropical and subtropical regions of the Old and New World where it commonly becomes naturalized, and in some cases invasive (see distribution table for details; Duke, 1983; Langeland et al., 2008; FAO, 2013).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Feb 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Algeria | Present | Native | |||||
Angola | Present | Native | |||||
Benin | Present | Native | |||||
Burkina Faso | Present | Native | |||||
Cameroon | Present | Native | Weed (Randall, 2012) | ||||
Central African Republic | Present | Native | Weed (Randall, 2012) | ||||
Chad | Present | Native | |||||
Congo, Democratic Republic of the | Present | Native | |||||
Congo, Republic of the | Present | Native | Invasive | ||||
Côte d'Ivoire | Present | Native | |||||
Egypt | Present | ||||||
Equatorial Guinea | Present | Native | |||||
Eswatini | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ethiopia | Present | Native | |||||
Gabon | Present | Native | |||||
Gambia | Present | Native | |||||
Ghana | Present | Native | |||||
Guinea-Bissau | Present | Native | |||||
Kenya | Present | Native | |||||
Liberia | Present | Native | |||||
Madagascar | Present | Introduced | |||||
Malawi | Present | Native | |||||
Mali | Present | Native | |||||
Mauritius | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Rodrigues | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Morocco | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mozambique | Present | Native | |||||
Nigeria | Present | Native | Invasive | Weed in tree crops (Komolafe, 1976) | |||
Réunion | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Rwanda | Present | Native | |||||
Saint Helena | Present | Introduced | |||||
Senegal | Present | Introduced | |||||
Seychelles | |||||||
-Aldabra Islands | Present | Native | |||||
Sierra Leone | Present | Native | |||||
South Africa | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Tanzania | Present | Native | |||||
Togo | Present | Native | |||||
Uganda | Present | Native | |||||
Zambia | Present | Native | |||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Native | |||||
Asia |
|||||||
Bangladesh | Present | Introduced | |||||
Bhutan | Present | Introduced | 1970 | ||||
Cambodia | Present | Introduced | |||||
China | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
Hong Kong | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
India | Present | ||||||
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands | Present | ||||||
-Arunachal Pradesh | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Assam | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Himachal Pradesh | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Jammu and Kashmir | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Manipur | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Meghalaya | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Nagaland | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Odisha | Present | ||||||
-Sikkim | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Tripura | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Uttar Pradesh | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Uttarakhand | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-West Bengal | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Indonesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Weed (Holm et al., 1977) | |||
Japan | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Ryukyu Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Laos | Present | Introduced | |||||
Malaysia | Present | ||||||
-Peninsular Malaysia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Weed (Holm et al., 1977) | |||
Myanmar | Present | Introduced | Listed as agricultural weed (Randall, 2012) | ||||
Oman | Present | Introduced | |||||
Philippines | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Saudi Arabia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Singapore | Present | Introduced | 1961 | ||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Introduced | |||||
Taiwan | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Thailand | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Weed (Holm et al., 1977) | |||
Vietnam | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Yemen | |||||||
-Socotra | Present | Introduced | First reported: <1978 | ||||
Europe |
|||||||
Cyprus | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Portugal | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Madeira | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Spain | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Canary Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
North America |
|||||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
Bahamas | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Barbados | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
Belize | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cayman Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Costa Rica | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | |||||
El Salvador | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Grenada | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Guatemala | Present | Introduced | |||||
Haiti | Present | Introduced | |||||
Honduras | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Jamaica | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Mexico | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Netherlands Antilles | Present | Introduced | Bonaire | ||||
Nicaragua | Present | Introduced | |||||
Panama | Present | Introduced | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Saint Lucia | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | St Croix | ||||
United States | Present | ||||||
-California | Present | Introduced | 1913 | ||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | 1913 | Invasive | Invasive category I | ||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Texas | Present | Introduced | 1913 | ||||
Oceania |
|||||||
American Samoa | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Australia | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-New South Wales | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Northern Territory | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Queensland | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Western Australia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Cook Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: Space and Flynn (2002) | |||
Federated States of Micronesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Fiji | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Guam | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Kiribati | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Marshall Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
New Caledonia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
New Zealand | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Niue | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: Space et al. (2004) | |||
Norfolk Island | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Northern Mariana Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Palau | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Samoa | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Solomon Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Tokelau | Present | Introduced | |||||
Vanuatu | Present | Introduced | |||||
Wallis and Futuna | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | Introduced | |||||
Bolivia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Brazil | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Amapa | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Amazonas | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Bahia | Present | ||||||
-Ceara | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Espirito Santo | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Goias | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Maranhao | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Mato Grosso | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Mato Grosso do Sul | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Minas Gerais | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Parana | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Pernambuco | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Rio de Janeiro | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Santa Catarina | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Chile | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Easter Island | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Colombia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Ecuador | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Galapagos Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
French Guiana | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guyana | Present | Introduced | |||||
Paraguay | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Peru | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Suriname | Present | Introduced | |||||
Uruguay | Present | Introduced | |||||
Venezuela | Present | Introduced |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageP. purpureum has been intentionally introduced as a forage crop in many tropical and subtropical countries (Holm et al., 1979; Francis, 1992; FAO, 2013). It has been the subject of breeding for improved cultivars and hybrids for forage and silage (Tropical Forages, 2013). In the United States, this grass was introduced in 1913. It was established into natural areas of Florida by 1971 (Langeland et al., 2008). In the West Indies, Central and South America, many cultivars were introduced in the early 1950s. For example, the cultivar “Merkeron” was introduced in Puerto Rico in 1955 and in 1962 the cultivar “Capricorn was introduced in Australia (FAO, 2013; Tropical Forages, 2013).
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageThe risk of introduction of P. purpureum is very high. This grass has been repeatedly intentionally introduced in tropical and subtropical regions to be used as a forage and silage crop. It has escaped from cultivation into natural areas, where it rapidly colonizes new areas forming dense stands which are very difficult to control (Langeland et al., 2008; Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011).
Habitat
Top of pageP. purpureum is a common weed in agricultural fields, pastures, and along roadsides. It also grows in waterways, wetlands, floodplains, riverbanks, swamps, forest edges, disturbed sites, and waste ground especially in mesic to wet sites (Francis, 1992; Wagner et al., 1999; Langeland et al., 2008; Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011). P. purpureum is well-adapted to drought conditions and can be found colonizing arid lowlands (e.g., habitats on Galápagos Islands; McMullen, 1999).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Arid regions | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Arid regions | Present, no further details | Natural |
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pagePlant name | Family | Context | References |
---|---|---|---|
Anacardium occidentale (cashew nut) | Anacardiaceae | Main | |
Ananas comosus (pineapple) | Bromeliaceae | Main | |
Camellia sinensis (tea) | Theaceae | Main | |
Citrus | Rutaceae | Main | |
Coffea (coffee) | Rubiaceae | Other | |
Cola acuminata (cola) | Sterculiaceae | Main | |
Elaeis guineensis (African oil palm) | Arecaceae | Main | |
Hevea brasiliensis (rubber) | Euphorbiaceae | Main | |
Musa (banana) | Musaceae | Main | |
Oryza sativa (rice) | Poaceae | Main | |
pastures | Main | ||
Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane) | Poaceae | Main | |
Theobroma cacao (cocoa) | Malvaceae | Main |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome number in P. purpureum is 2n = 27, 28, 56 (Sinha et al., 1990; Vidhya and Khna, 2003; Tropical Forages, 2013). There are numerous ecotypes grown for agriculture in various countries, and a range of commercial cultivars have been bred, including the widely grown cv. Mott bred in Georgia, USA from cv. Merkeron. A number of hybrids with Pennisetum glaucum are also commercially available. Tropical Forages (2013) lists important cultivars and hybrids used for forage and silage production.
Reproductive Biology
P. purpureum relies on wind to achieve cross-pollination, due to asynchrony of male and female flower parts. However, this is also an apomictic species which can produce seed by this asexual method of reproduction (Brown and Emery, 1958; Stevens, 2012). The species is an inconsistent seed producer and in some habitats it rarely develops seeds, possibly due to low pollen viability (Tropical Forages, 2013). When seeds are produced they are dispersed by wind (Francis, 1992), but are often of low viability.
Physiology and Phenology
P. purpureum is a fast-growing perennial grass (FAO, 2013). In Florida, P. purpureum produces flowers from July through February (Langeland et al., 2008). In Mexico and Central America, flowering occurs all year long with peaks from December to May (Vibrans, 2009). In South Africa this species flowers from January to June (Tropical Forages, 2013).
As many other C4 grasses, P. purpureum is well adapted to environments with high daytime temperatures, intense sunlight, drought and nitrogen and /or CO2 limitations (Gibson, 2009). It grows during the rainy season, but its deep root system allows it to survive long drought periods. In an agricultural research plot in Puerto Rico, P. purpureum reached the height of 4 metres in just 3 months (Francis, 1992).
Environmental Requirements
P. purpureum prefers to grow in moist tropical habitats at elevations from sea level to 2000 metres (Francis, 1992; FAO, 2013). It grows best in high-rainfall areas (>1500 mm/year), but its deep root system allows it to survive in dry times and it is reported to tolerates areas with annual precipitation of 200-4000 mm (Duke, 1983). It is well adapted to grow on a wide range of soil types from poorly drained clay soils to excessively drained sandy soils with pH ranging from 4.5 to 8.2, but grows best in rich well-drained soils (Duke, 1983; FAO, 2013; Tropical Forages, 2013). Temperatures for optimum growth should be from 25°C to 40°C, and there is little growth below about 15°C (FAO, 2013). It does not tolerate much frost. It recovers well following fire, and can dominate fire-adapted grassland communities (Tropical Forages, 2013). P. purpureum has the capability to grow in completely open sunlit areas to partially light-shaded areas but does not survive under a closed tree canopy (Francis, 1992; FAO, 2013).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
BS - Steppe climate | Tolerated | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation | |
BW - Desert climate | Tolerated | < 430mm annual precipitation | |
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Tolerated | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
40 | 40 |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 25 | 40 |
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC) | 11.5 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 200 | 4500 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
- seasonally waterlogged
Soil reaction
- acid
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- shallow
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aphelenchus avenae | Pathogen | All Stages | not specific | N | ||
Leptosphaeria sacchari | Pathogen | All Stages | not specific | N | ||
Meloidogyne incognita | Pathogen | All Stages | not specific | N | ||
Meloidogyne javanica | Pathogen | All Stages | not specific | N | ||
Pectobacterium carotovorum | Pathogen | All Stages | not specific | N | ||
Phyllosticta | Pathogen | All Stages | not specific | N | ||
Pratylenchus brachyurus | Pathogen | All Stages | not specific | N |
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageP. purpureum reproduces sexually by seeds and also vegetatively by stem fragments, cuttings, and tillers. Seeds are dispersed by the wind, but they can also become attached to animals and vehicles. Seeds may also be spread as a contaminant of agricultural produce (i.e., fodder). Stem fragments and rhizomes may be broken off and dispersed to new locations by humans, wild animals, livestock, vehicles, and/or floodwaters. Seeds and stem fragments can also be spread by the movement of soil (Francis, 1992; Langeland et al., 2008; Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011; FAO, 2013).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Animal production | P. purpureum is one of the most valuable forage, hay, and silage crops in the wet tropics | Yes | Yes | FAO (2013) |
Forage | P. purpureum is one of the highest yielding tropical forage grasses | Yes | Yes | FAO (2013) |
Habitat restoration and improvement | Effective controlling erosion | Yes | Yes | FAO (2013) |
Hedges and windbreaks | Used for hedgerows, windbreaks and living fences in horticultural crops and orchards | Yes | Yes | Tropical Forages (2013) |
Intentional release | Widely introduced in wet tropics | Yes | Yes | FAO (2013) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Debris and waste associated with human activities | Seed and plant segments | Yes | Yes | Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (2011) |
Land vehicles | Seed and plant segments attached to vehicles | Yes | Yes | Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (2011) |
Livestock | Contaminant in fodder and silage crops | Yes | Yes | Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (2011) |
Machinery and equipment | Seed and plant segments | Yes | Yes | Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (2011) |
Soil, sand and gravel | Seed and plant segments | Yes | Yes | Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (2011) |
Wind | Seeds | Yes | Yes | Duke (1983) |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Environmental Impact
Top of pageP. purpureum is an aggressive grass that grows rapidly, colonizing new areas and forming dense thickets. It has the potential to alter fire regimes, hydrology cycles, biophysical dynamics, nutrient cycles, and community composition in invaded habitats (D’Antonio and Vitousek, 1992). P. purpureum is well adapted to drought conditions and can also dominate fire-adapted grassland communities. Consequently, it can completely out-compete native vegetation communities very rapidly. P. purpureum also creates problems in flood-control systems by blocking access to canals, reducing water flows, and overgrowing pump stations (Langeland et al., 2008; Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011).
Threatened Species
Top of pageThreatened Species | Conservation Status | Where Threatened | Mechanism | References | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Linum carteri (Carter's small-flowered flax) | USA ESA listing as endangered species | Florida | Competition - strangling | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010) |
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Invasive in its native range
- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Highly mobile locally
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Reproduces asexually
- Altered trophic level
- Damaged ecosystem services
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Modification of fire regime
- Modification of hydrology
- Modification of nutrient regime
- Modification of successional patterns
- Monoculture formation
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Allelopathic
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - shading
- Competition - smothering
- Pest and disease transmission
- Rapid growth
- Rooting
- Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
- Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
- Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Top of pageP. purpureum is one of the most valuable forage and silage crops in its native Africa and throughout the wet tropics. It is an important forage and pasture grass especially for cattle and it is also cut for hay and fermented for silage (Francis, 1992; FAO, 2013). This grass is also planted as hedgerows for erosion protection and forage production in the alley cropping system of agroforestry (Magcale-Macandog et al., 1998). P. purpureum is also used as a windbreak in horticultural crops and orchards and lines of these plants are used to mark boundaries between plots and properties (FAO, 2013; Tropical Forages, 2013). In Africa, P. purpureum is planted on riverbanks to prevent erosion, and the thick culms are made into fences, screens, and reinforcement for mud huts (Francis, 1992). Plant extracts are used as a diuretic in Africa, and it is also used in a number of other herbal remedies (Francis, 1992).
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Fodder/animal feed
- Forage
Environmental
- Agroforestry
- Boundary, barrier or support
- Erosion control or dune stabilization
- Soil conservation
- Windbreak
General
- Ornamental
Materials
- Fibre
- Green manure
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageP. purpureum is similar to Pennisetum polystachion (mission grass), Pennisetum macrourum (African feather grass), Pennisetum pedicellatum (Deenanth grass) and Pennisetum alopecuroides (swamp foxtail). It can usually be distinguished from these species by its perpendicular size, but can also be separated by the following characteristics:
- P. purpureum is a very large and robust perennial grass (1-7 m tall) with greenish, yellowish or purplish coloured seed-heads. The main stem (i.e., rachis) of the seed-head is rounded and the bristles below each flower spikelet are relatively long (8-40 mm).
- P. polystachion is a perennial grass (usually 2-3 m tall) with yellowish or brownish coloured seed-heads. The rachis of the seed-head is angular and the bristles below each flower spikelet are relatively long (4-25 mm long). P. purpureum is distinguished by its yellow or yellowish-brown bristles with or without purple tip, and its softer stem.
- P. macrourum is a large perennial grass (usually 1-2 m tall) with greenish or yellowish coloured seed-heads. The rachis of the seed-head is rounded and the bristles below each flower spikelet are relatively short (mostly less than 10 mm long).
- P. pedicellatum is a moderately-sized annual grass (usually 30-150 cm tall) with pale purplish coloured seed-heads. The rachis of the seed-head is angular and the bristles below each flower spikelet are relatively long (6-24 mm long).
- P. alopecuroides is a moderately-sized perennial grass (usually 60-100 cm tall) with greenish or purplish coloured seed-heads. The rachis of the seed-head is rounded and the bristles below each flower spikelet are relatively long (15-30 mm long).
P. purpureum is also similar to some Setaria species such as Setaria sphacelata (Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011). In Florida, P. purpureum may be confused with the larger native foxtails (Setaria spp., also called bristle grasses), but their spikelet bristles are persistent on the flowering stalks, not falling with mature spikelets. P. purpureum can be distinguished from other Pennisetum species in Florida by its long leaf blades, sparsely plumose bristles, and minute or absent first glumes (Langeland et al., 2008).
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
A combination of manual and chemical methods is recommended for the management of large infestations of P. purpureum. In the case of smaller infestations, plants can be cut out and all rhizomes must be removed (Weber, 2003). Larger infestations can be controlled by mowing or burning the foliage and the aboveground segments of the grass. Later any re-sprout should be sprayed with a foliar application of the herbicide 2,2 dichloropropionic acid (2,2 DPA; Weber, 2003). The herbicide glyphosate provides acceptable control in at least aquatic sites (Francis, 1992).
References
Top of pageAcevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
Adams CD, 1972. Flowering Plants of Jamaica. University of the West Indies, 267
Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html
Chacón E, Saborío G, 2012. Red Interamericana de Información de Especies Invasoras, Costa Rica ([English title not available]). San José, Costa Rica: Asociación para la Conservación y el Estudio de la Biodiversidad. http://invasoras.acebio.org
Chandra-Sekar K, 2012. Invasive Alien Plants of Indian Himalayan Region- Diversity and Implication. American Journal of Plant Sciences, 3:177-184
Chong KY, Tan HTW, Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Singapore: Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore, 273 pp. http://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/nus/pdf/PUBLICATION/LKCNH%20Museum%20Books/LKCNHM%20Books/flora_of_singapore_tc.pdf
Clayton WD, Govaerts R, Harman KT, Williamson H, Vorontsova M, 2013. World Checklist of Poaceae. Richmond, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/
DAISIE, 2013. Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe. DAISIE (online). www.europe-aliens.org
D'Antonio CM, Vitousek PM, 1992. Biological invasions by exotic grasses, the grass/fire cycle, and global chance. Annual Review in Ecology and Systematics, 23:63-87
Duke JA, 1983. Handbook of Energy Crops. Unpublished. Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA: Centre for New Crops and Plant Products. World Wide Web page at http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Indices/index_ab.html
Edgar E, Connor HE, 2000. Flora of New Zealand. Volume V: Grasses. Lincoln, New Zealand: Manaaki Whenua Press, 650 pp
FAO, 2013. Grassland species profiles: Pennisetum purpureum. Rome, Italy: FAO. http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Gbase/data/pf000301.htm
Florence J, Chevillotte H, Ollier C, Meyer JY, 2011. [English title not available]. (Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP).) . http://www.herbier-tahiti.pf
Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council, 2011. Florida EPPC's 2011 Invasive Plant Species List. http://www.fleppc.org/list/11list.html
Forzza RC, Leitman PM, Costa AF, Carvalho Jr AA, et al. , 2012. List of species of the Flora of Brazil (Lista de espécies Flora do Brasil). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Rio de Janeiro Botanic Garden. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/2012/
Fosberg FR, Sachet M-H, Oliver R, 1987. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian monocotyledonae. Micronesia 20: 1-2, 19-129
Foxcroft LC, Richardson DM, Wilson JRU, 2007. Ornamental plants as invasive aliens: problems and solutions in Kruger National Park, South Africa. Environmental Management, 41(1):32-51
Francis JK, 1992. Pennisetum purpureum Schumacher. [U.S. Forest Service Factsheet.] http://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/pdf/shrubs/Pennisetum%20purpureum.pdf
Gibson DJ, 2009. Grasses and grassland ecology. New York, USA: Oxford University Press, 315 pp
González-Torres LR, Rankin R, Palmarola A (eds), 2012. Invasive plants in Cuba. (Plantas Invasoras en Cuba.) Bissea: Boletin sobre Conservacion de Plantad del Jardin Botanico Nacional, 6:1-140
Gould KW, Shaw RB, 1983. Grass Systematics. Second Edition., USA: Texas A&M University Press, 412 pp
Holm L, Pancho JV, Herberger JP, Plucknett DL, 1979. A Geographical Atlas of World Weeds. Toronto, Canada: John Wiley and Sons Inc
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Komolafe DA, 1976. Weed problems in tree crops in Nigeria. PANS, 22(2):250-256
Langeland KA, Cherry HM, McCormick CM, Craddock Burks KA, 2008. Identification and Biology of Non-native Plants in Florida's Natural Areas. Gainesville, Florida, USA: University of Florida IFAS Extension
Lorence DH, Flynn T, 2010. Checklist of the plants of Kosrae. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden. Lawai, Hawaii: National Tropical Botanical Garden, 26
Mbale H, 2010. Checklist of Invasive Plants of the Congo. Discover Life. http://www.discoverlife.org/mp/20q?guide=Invasive_plants_of_Congo
McMullen CK, 1999. Flowering plants of the Galápagos. Ithaca, New York, USA: Comstock Publisher Assoc., 370 pp
McVaugh R, 1983. Gramineae. In: Flora Novo-Galiciana. A descriptive account of the vascular plants of Western Mexico, Vol. 14 [ed. by Anderson, W. R.]. Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA: The University of Michigan Press
Meyer JY, 2007. Rapport de mission sur l'Ile d'Uvea (Wallis & Futuna) du 6 au 17 Novembre 2007: Inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire secondaire ([English title not available]). Papeete, Tahiti: Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement Supérieur et la Recherche, 39 pp. http://www.li-an.fr/jyves/Meyer_2007_Rapport_Plantes_Introduites_Wallis.pdf
Meyer JY, 2008. Report of the expert mission to Rapa Nui, 2-11 June 2008. Strategic action plan to control invasive alien plants on Rapa Nui (Easter Island) (Rapport de mission d'expertise a Rapa Nui du 02 au 11 Juin 2008: Plan d'action strategique pour lutter contre les plantes introduites envahissantes sur Rapa Nui (Île de pâques)). Papeete, Tahiti: Délégation à la Recherche, Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement supérieur et la Recherche, 62 pp. http://www.li-an.fr/jyves/Meyer_2008_Rapport_Expertise_Rapa_Nui.pdf
Oviedo Prieto R, Herrera Oliver P, Caluff MG, et al. , 2012. National list of invasive and potentially invasive plants in the Republic of Cuba - 2011. (Lista nacional de especies de plantas invasoras y potencialmente invasoras en la República de Cuba - 2011). Bissea: Boletín sobre Conservación de Plantas del Jardín Botánico Nacional de Cuba, 6(Special Issue 1):22-96
PIER, 2013. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011. Special edition of Environmental Weeds of Australia for Biosecurity Queensland., Australia: The University of Queensland and Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries. http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/03030800-0b07-490a-8d04-0605030c0f01/media/Html/Index.htm
Ragone D, Lorence DH, 2003. Botanical and Ethnobotanical Inventories of the National Park of American Samoa. Hawaii, USA: Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit, Department of Botany, University of Hawaii, 91 pp
Randall RP, 2012. A Global Compendium of Weeds. Perth, Australia: Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia, 1124 pp. http://www.cabi.org/isc/FullTextPDF/2013/20133109119.pdf
Shine C, Reaser JK, Gutierrez AT, 2003. Invasive alien species in the Austral-Pacific Region: National Reports & Directory of Resources
Sinha RR, Bhardwaj AK, Singh RK, 1990. SOCGI plant chromosome number reports-IX. Journal of Cytology and Genetics, 25:140-143
Smith AC, 1979. Flora Vitiensis nova: A new flora of Fiji. Volume I. Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii, USA: National Tropical Botanical Garden, 494 pp
Space JC, Flynn T, 2002a. Report to the Government of Samoa on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Honolulu, USA: USDA Forest Service, 83 pp
Space JC, Imada CT, 2004. Report to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service and Bishop Museum, 103 pp
Space JC, Lorence DH, LaRosa AM, 2009. Report to the Republic of Palau: 2008 update on Invasive Plant Species. Hilo, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service, 227. http://www.sprep.org/att/irc/ecopies/countries/palau/48.pdf
Space JC, Waterhouse BM, Newfield M, Bull C, 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. 80 pp. [UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity.] http://www.hear.org/pier/reports/niue_report_2004.htm
Stevens PF, 2012. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
Tan PW, Chuan TS, Ismail BS, 2012. Allelopathic potential effects of Pennisetum purpureum on Cyperus iria. In: Second International Conference on Environmental and Agricultural Engineering., Singapore: IACSIT Press, 109-113. [IPCBEE vol. 37.]
Tropical Forages, 2013. Tropical forages: an interactive selection tool. http://www.tropicalforages.info/index.htm
USDA-ARS, 2013. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
Vander VN, 2003. The vascular plants of Majuro Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin, 503:1-141
Vibrans H, 2009. Malezas de México- Pennisetum purpureum ([English title not available]). http://www.conabio.gob.mx/malezasdemexico/poaceae/pennisetum-purpureum/fichas/ficha.htm
Vidhya K, Khan AK, 2003. Hybrid between Pennisetum schweinfurthii and Napier Grass. Cytologia, 68:183-190
Waterhouse DF, 1997. The Major Invertebrate Pests and Weeds of Agriculture and Plantation Forestry in the Southern and Western Pacific. ACIAR Monograph No. 44. Canberra, Australia: ACIAR
Wu TL, 2001. Check List of Hong Kong Plants. Hong Kong Herbarium and the South China Institute of Botany. Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department Bulletin 1 (revised):384 pp. http://www.hkflora.com/v2/flora/plant_check_list.php
Distribution References
Adams C D, 1972. Flowering plants of Jamaica. Mona, Jamaica: University of the West Indies. 848 pp.
Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database., Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.htm
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Chacón E, Saborío G, 2012. [English title not available]. (Red Interamericana de Información de Especies Invasoras, Costa Rica)., San José, Costa Rica: Asociación para la Conservación y el Estudio de la Biodiversidad. http://invasoras.acebio.org
Chandra-Sekar K, 2012. Invasive Alien Plants of Indian Himalayan Region- Diversity and Implication. In: American Journal of Plant Sciences, 3 177-184.
Chong KY, Tan HTW, Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species., Singapore, Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp. http://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/nus/pdf/PUBLICATION/LKCNH%20Museum%20Books/LKCNHM%20Books/flora_of_singapore_tc.pdf
Clayton WD, Govaerts R, Harman KT, Williamson H, Vorontsova M, 2013. World Checklist of Poaceae., Richmond, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/
DAISIE, 2013. Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe. http://www.europe-aliens.org/
Edgar E, Connor HE, 2000. Flora of New Zealand., V Lincoln, New Zealand: Manaaki Whenua Press. 650 pp.
Florence J, Chevillotte H, Ollier C, Meyer JY, 2011. [English title not available]. (Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP))., http://www.herbier-tahiti.pf
Forzza RC, Leitman PM, Costa AF, Carvalho Jr AA et al, 2012. List of species of the Flora of Brazil. (Lista de espécies Flora do Brasil)., Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Rio de Janeiro Botanic Garden. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/2012/
Fosberg FR, Sachet M-H, Oliver R, 1987. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian monocotyledonae. In: Micronesia, 20 1-2, 19-129.
Foxcroft LC, Richardson DM, Wilson JRU, 2007. Ornamental plants as invasive aliens: problems and solutions in Kruger National Park, South Africa. In: Environmental Management, 41 (1) 32-51.
González-Torres LR, Rankin R, Palmarola A, 2012. Invasive plants in Cuba. (Plantas Invasoras en Cuba). In: Bissea: Boletin sobre Conservacion de Plantad del Jardin Botanico Nacional, 6 [ed. by González-Torres LR, Rankin R, Palmarola A]. 1-140.
I3N-Brasil, 2013. [English title not available]. (Base de dados nacional de espécies exóticas invasoras)., Florianópolis, Brazil: Instituto Hórus de Desenvolvimento e Conservação Ambiental. http://i3n.institutohorus.org.br/www/
Lorence DH, Flynn T, 2010. Checklist of the plants of Kosrae., Lawai, Hawaii, National Tropical Botanical Garden. 26.
Mbale H, 2010. Checklist of Invasive Plants of the Congo. In: Discover Life, http://www.discoverlife.org/mp/20q?guide=Invasive_plants_of_Congo
Meyer J-Y, 2007. [English title not available]. (Rapport de mission sur l'ile d'Uvea (Wallis et Futuna) du 6 au 17 novembre 2007: inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire secondaire)., http://www.li-an.fr/jyves/Meyer_2007_Rapport_Plantes_Introduites_Wallis.pdf
Meyer JY, 2008. Report of the expert mission to Rapa Nui, 2-11 June 2008. Strategic action plan to control invasive alien plants on Rapa Nui (Easter Island). ((Rapport de mission d'expertise a Rapa Nui du 02 au 11 Juin 2008: Plan d'action strategique pour lutter contre les plantes introduites envahissantes sur Rapa Nui (Île de pâques)))., Papeete, Tahiti, Délégation à la Recherche, Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement supérieur et la Recherche. 62 pp. http://www.li-an.fr/jyves/Meyer_2008_Rapport_Expertise_Rapa_Nui.pdf
PIER, 2013. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011. Special edition of Environmental Weeds of Australia for Biosecurity Queensland., Australia: The University of Queensland and Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries. http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/03030800-0b07-490a-8d04-0605030c0f01/media/Html/Index.htm
Ragone D, Lorence DH, 2003. Botanical and Ethnobotanical Inventories of the National Park of American Samoa., Hawaii, USA: Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit, Department of Botany, University of Hawaii. 91 pp.
Smith AC, 1979. Flora Vitiensis nova: A new flora of Fiji., I Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii, USA: National Tropical Botanical Garden. 494 pp.
Space JC, Imada CT, 2004. Report to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service and Bishop Museum. 103 pp.
Space JC, Lorence DH, LaRosa AM, 2009. Report to the Republic of Palau: 2008 update on Invasive Plant Species., Hilo, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service. 227. http://www.sprep.org/att/irc/ecopies/countries/palau/48.pdf
USDA-ARS, 2013. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
Vander VN, 2003. The vascular plants of Majuro Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands. In: Atoll Research Bulletin, 503 1-141.
Wu TL, 2001. Check List of Hong Kong Plants. In: Hong Kong Herbarium and the South China Institute of Botany. Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department Bulletin 1 (revised), 384 pp. http://www.hkflora.com/v2/flora/plant_check_list.php
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
Flora of the West Indies | http://botany.si.edu/antilles/WestIndies/ | |
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
GrassBase - The Online World Grass Flora | http://www.kew.org/data/grasses-db/www/imp10752.htm | |
Tropical Forages: An Interactive Selection Tool | http://www.tropicalforages.info/ | |
Wildland shrubs of the United States and its territories | http://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/wildland_shrubs.htm |
Contributors
Top of page03/07/13 Original text by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
Pedro Acevedo-Rodríguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
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