Pastinaca sativa
(parsnip)

Pictures

Picture	Title	Caption	Copyright
Title Habit Caption Pastinaca sativa (parsnip); habit. Note presence of purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) in the background. USA. July, 2004. Copyright ©Leslie J. Mehrhoff/University of Connecticut/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US	Habit	Pastinaca sativa (parsnip); habit. Note presence of purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) in the background. USA. July, 2004.	©Leslie J. Mehrhoff/University of Connecticut/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US
Title Habit Caption Pastinaca sativa (parsnip); habit. Roadside infestation. USA. July, 2004. Copyright ©Leslie J. Mehrhoff/University of Connecticut/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US	Habit	Pastinaca sativa (parsnip); habit. Roadside infestation. USA. July, 2004.	©Leslie J. Mehrhoff/University of Connecticut/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US
Title Flowering habit Caption Pastinaca sativa (parsnip); flowering habit. USA. June, 2003. Copyright ©Leslie J. Mehrhoff/University of Connecticut/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US	Flowering habit	Pastinaca sativa (parsnip); flowering habit. USA. June, 2003.	©Leslie J. Mehrhoff/University of Connecticut/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US
Title Flowering habit Caption Pastinaca sativa (parsnip); flowering habit. Umbels seen from above. July, 2004. USA. Copyright ©Leslie J. Mehrhoff/University of Connecticut/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US	Flowering habit	Pastinaca sativa (parsnip); flowering habit. Umbels seen from above. July, 2004. USA.	©Leslie J. Mehrhoff/University of Connecticut/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US
Title Flowering habit Caption Pastinaca sativa (parsnip); flowering habit. USA. June, 2003. Copyright ©Leslie J. Mehrhoff/University of Connecticut/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US	Flowering habit	Pastinaca sativa (parsnip); flowering habit. USA. June, 2003.	©Leslie J. Mehrhoff/University of Connecticut/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US
Title Fruits Caption Pastinaca sativa (parsnip); ripening fruits. July, 2003. USA. Copyright ©Leslie J. Mehrhoff/University of Connecticut/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US	Fruits	Pastinaca sativa (parsnip); ripening fruits. July, 2003. USA.	©Leslie J. Mehrhoff/University of Connecticut/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US
Title Developing plants Caption Pastinaca sativa (parsnip); habit. Developing plants. July, 2007. USA. Copyright ©Leslie J. Mehrhoff/University of Connecticut/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US	Developing plants	Pastinaca sativa (parsnip); habit. Developing plants. July, 2007. USA.	©Leslie J. Mehrhoff/University of Connecticut/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US
Title Seeds Caption Pastinaca sativa (parsnip); seeds. USA. Copyright ©Bruce Ackley/The Ohio State University/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US	Seeds	Pastinaca sativa (parsnip); seeds. USA.	©Bruce Ackley/The Ohio State University/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Pastinaca sativa L.

Preferred Common Name

• parsnip

Other Scientific Names

• Elaphoboscum sativum (L.) Rupr.
• Pastinaca fleischmannii Hladnik
• Pastinaca sativa subsp. sylvestris (Mill.) Rouy & E.G.Camus
• Pastinaca sativa subsp. sylvestris Roug & Camus
• Pastinaca sylvestris Mill.
• Peucedanum pastinaca (Wibel) Baill.
• Peucedanum sativum (L.) Benth. & Hook.f. ex B.D.Jacks.

International Common Names

• English: wild parsnip
• Spanish: apio del campo; chirivia; chirivía; pastinaca
• French: panais; panais sauvage

Local Common Names

• China: ou fang feng
• Germany: gemeiner pastinak; pastinak
• Italy: pastinaca
• Netherlands: pastinaak; wilde pastinaak
• Portugal: pastinaga
• Sweden: palsternacka

EPPO code

• PAVSA (Pastinaca sativa)

Summary of Invasiveness

P. sativa, commonly known as parsnip or wild parsnip, is native to Europe. It is cultivated as a vegetable root crop and subsequently introduced throughout much of the temperate world. P. sativa has escaped from cultivation and become a weed of disturbed habitats, perennial crops and reduced tillage systems, especially in North America, but also in South America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and eastward in Asia. Contact or ingestion of wild plants is toxic to humans and livestock. It is avoided by grazing animals (populations tend to increase under grazing) and can become abundant in disturbed areas where activities bring it into contact with humans (e.g. transportation corridors, orchards, parks, etc.), or where disturbance occurs frequently such as in riparian habitats. Populations can displace vegetation and selective control may be difficult or prohibitive. It is considered a serious threat to human health in parts of its introduced range and is sometimes regulated as a noxious weed.

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Dicotyledonae
•                     Order: Apiales
•                         Family: Apiaceae
•                             Genus: Pastinaca
•                                 Species: Pastinaca sativa

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

The cultivated parsnip is usually not sufficiently distinct from wild P. sativa to justify a separate taxonomic rank (Averill and DiTommaso, 2007). Several subspecies have been described, including subsp. sativa, subsp. divaricata, subsp. latifolia, subsp. sylvestris, and subsp. urens (Tutin, 1968; Anzalone, 1987; Menemen and Jury, 2001), but infraspecific taxa, other than cultivars, are not consistently or widely recognized. Occasionally some authors have distinguished the wild and cultivated forms as distinct species (Shishkin, 1951). P. sativa has been grown in Europe since at least the Middle Ages and possibly since Roman times and many cultivars have been developed (Averill and DiTommaso, 2007; Cain et al., 2010).

Description

Biennial or short-lived monocarpic perennial with a thick yellowish or brownish tap root. Flowering stems to about 2 m high, angled (grooved), with sparse hairs, hollow and often branched at the upper nodes. Petioles are grooved, expanding at the base to clasp the stem. The alternate leaves are once or twice pinnately compound, up to about 40 cm long, and smooth or hairy. Leaves on the upper stem are progressively reduced in size and dissection, eventually becoming narrow sessile bracts.

The inflorescence is a compound, flat-topped umbel about 10–20 cm across. There are usually 6–25 straight rays supporting the umbellets. The terminal (primary) umbel is composed of hermaphrodite (perfect) flowers towards the outside and staminate flowers towards the centre. The lateral (secondary, tertiary, etc.) umbels have a diminishing number of hermaphrodite flowers, with the highest umbel orders having only staminate flowers. Flowers with sepals minute or lacking and the five petals are entire, involute and yellow (rarely white).

Fruits (referred to as schizocarps) are dry, flattened and oval. Each schizocarp splits into two strongly-flattened “seeds” (referred to as mericarps), each rounded or oval in outline and narrowly winged, 4–8 mm long, straw-coloured to light brown, with four conspicuous dark oil tubes (vittae) on the abaxial (outer) surface and two to four on the adaxial (inner) surface. A wiry prolongation between the two mericarps, the carpophore, is deeply divided and supports the two mature mericarps from their apex. Plants emit a characteristic parsnip odour. Seedlings have strap-like cotyledons up to about 3 cm long, with a blade about 4 mm wide and tapering to a long petiole. The first leaves have long petioles, are ovate to broadly cordate, about 1 cm long and coarsely toothed but not lobed.

Plant Type

Distribution

It is thought that P. sativa is native throughout most of Europe except the far north. Its native distribution is thought to Asia Minor, the Near East and the Caucasus, although how much of its Asian distribution is due to pre-historic human activities is unknown.

There is some disagreement over the status of P. sativa in Lebanon with reports of this species being both native and introduced (Euro+Med PlantBase, 2011; USDA-ARS, 2015).

It has since been widely introduced in North, South and Central America, the Caribbean and Oceana.

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

As a food crop, P. sativa originated in Europe where it is a popular root vegetable, being sweet and easily stored. It was one of the first food plants introduced to new areas by explorers and emigrants during the European expansionist times of the seventeenth and eighteenth century. It is presumed that its wide establishment in the western hemisphere, temperate southern hemisphere and eastern Asia has been largely the result of its escape from cultivation.

Introductions

Risk of Introduction

Although not as popular as it once was, P. sativa is still grown in many temperate parts of the world. Introduction as a new crop is the most likely means of this species spreading to new areas. As a frequent weed of pastures and managed grasslands, it likely will be an occasional contaminant of hay crops. Another likely pathway is the adherence of seed to construction and agricultural machinery as well as transportation vehicles. Modern seed commodity sanitation techniques are sufficient to eliminate it as a contaminant.

Habitat

In its introduced range P. sativa is primarily a ruderal plant, inhabiting disturbed areas and communities. Sometimes it will become established in more natural habitats where there is some pattern of disturbance such as riparian areas and grazed or mown grasslands. It is mainly a plant of open and edge habitats and is not tolerant of shade. However, both open and closed weed communities along a roadside in eastern Canada contained P. sativa (Tomkins and Grant, 1974); the former was dominated by pioneer annuals and short lived perennials, while the latter had 90-100% cover of perennial plants. P. sativa can be frequent along field edges in southern Québec (Simard and Benoit, 2010) as high disturbance and intensive agricultural practices can facilitate the invasion of hedgerows by this species (de Blois et al., 2002).

Habitat List

Biology and Ecology

Genetics

Reported chromosome number count for P. sativa are n = 11 and 2n = 22 (IPCN Chromosome Reports, 2015). No interspecific hybridization is known.

Reproductive Biology

P. sativa is monocarpic and a facultative biennial (Averill and DiTommaso, 2007; Cain et al., 2010). Normally plants require two seasons of growth to sequester the energy reserves to support flowering. Under suboptimal conditions, plant rosettes may remain in a vegetative state for up to four years before entering the reproductive phase. The flowers of P. sativa are protandrous and anthers begin to dehisce about five to seven days before the stigmas become receptive (Beghtel, 1925; Cruden and Hermann-Parker, 1977). Flowers mature centripetally within umbellets and umbels (Beghtel, 1925; Cruden and Hermann-Parker, 1977) and umbels of differing orders mature sequentially over 10-14 day intervals (Hendrix, 1984; Hendrix and Trapp, 1992). There is little overlap between staminate and pistillate phases within and between umbels, resulting in temporal dioecism which promotes outcrossing and reduces pollination between flowers on the same plant (Cruden and Hermann-Parker, 1977).

In primary umbels, 87-89% of the flowers are hermaphrodite, while higher order umbels have greatly reduced proportions of hermaphroditic flowers (Lovett Doust, 1980b). If the primary umbel is damaged by herbivores, however, later developing umbels compensate by producing more flowers of which a greater proportion are hermaphrodite than in undamaged plants (Hendrix and Trapp, 1989).

Pollinators are promiscuous, non-specialized insects (Knuth 1908; Bell 1971; Cruden and Hermann-Parker 1977; Borg-Karlson et al., 1994; Lohman et al., 1996; Tooker et al., 2006). Insects are attracted by the yellow colour of the flowers, by volatile fragrance compounds, notably cis-ocimene and trans-ocimene (Borg-Karlson et al., 1994) and by the nectar exuding from the prominent stylopodium. Flower visitors are mostly unspecialized pollinators, including mainly Syrphidae, Tachinidae, and other flies, but also ants, wasps, bees and beetles (Knuth, 1908; Bell, 1971; Cruden and Hermann-Parker, 1977; Borg-Karlson et al., 1994; Lohman et al., 1996; Tooker et al., 2006). Robertson (1928) reported almost 300 species of insects visiting P. sativa flowers between 2nd June and 9th July at Carlinville, Illinois, USA. Of the species observed, Hymenoptera and Diptera species were predominant, 42% and 38%, respectively, with smaller numbers of Coleoptera (14%), Lepidoptera (3%), Hemiptera (2%), and Neuroptera (0.3%).

Lovett Doust (1980b), studying P. sativa in the UK, found a mean number of 15,000 flowers per plant, of which about 18% (2700) were perfect with a 74% fruit set (2000 fruits per plant). Most fruits were produced in the primary and secondary umbels. In Iowa, Cruden and Hermann-Parker (1977) found an average of 930 ± 89 flowers per umbel on primary umbels, and 520 ± 72 on secondary umbels. Seed yield in cultivated P. sativa varies with planting density up to 1040-4029 kg per ha at 10 plants m² (Gray et al., 1985). One or both of the two mericarps in each fruit may contain a seed, although mature fruits lacking seeds (parthenocarpy) is also common (Hendrix, 1984; Zangerl et al., 1991; Lohman et al., 1996). It has been suggested that parthenocarpic fruits may divert herbivore feeding (i.e. be preferentially consumed by seed-feeding organisms) away from fertile fruits, which, although more nutritious, also have much higher levels of toxic furanocoumarins (Zangerl et al., 1991).

Wild P. sativa seeds possess morphological dormancy due to an underdeveloped embryo (Baskin and Baskin, 1998). Emergence of seedlings in the spring, and early summer in the year following seed dispersal, accounts for about 80% of total emergence, and 99% percent of all seedlings typically emerge within two years after dispersal (Thomson and Price, 1977; Baskin and Baskin, 1979; Hendrix and Trapp, 1989). Seed viability declines rapidly, lasting only three to four years (Dorph-Petersen, 1924; Anderson, 1968; Roberts, 1979; Kennay and Fell, 1990) and producing only a weak, transient seed bank.

Physiology and Phenology

Seedlings emerge and quickly develop a strong taproot for nutrient storage as they produce the first large rosette leaves which continue to develop until growth is halted by low temperatures. Plants generally flower and produce seeds during the second season. In Canada and the USA, flowering occurs over a period of several weeks, starting in May, peaking in June/July and lasting until October, depending on location and growing conditions.

Whilst the below ground part is edible, the above ground parts are toxic. Various secondary metabolite compounds have been identified in P. sativa, including coumarins, fatty acid esters, flavonoids, furanocoumarins, phenylpropenes, polyacetylenes, and terpenes which may play roles in predator and disease defense (Berenbaum, 1985; Averill and DiTommaso, 2007; Cain et al., 2010). Angular and linear furanocoumarins of various types are produced in varying quantities. Linear furanocoumarins are more toxic than angular furanocoumarins as the former bind with DNA and absorb energy in the presence of UVA light (primarily 320-380 nm) making them more reactive with a variety of biologically important molecules and commonly implicated in phytophotodermatitis. These compounds cause health concerns for humans and livestock, as well as serving as anti-predator and anti-disease defenses (Averill and DiTommaso, 2007; Cain et al., 2010). Linear furanocoumarins are toxic to generalist herbivores but not to species that feed exclusively on Apiaceae. While furanocoumarins are present during the entire life cycle and in all plant parts, concentrations are lower in seedlings compared to adult plants and highest in buds and seeds (Lohman and McConnaughay, 1998). A wild P. sativa seed can contain an average of 38 μg of furanocoumarins in its oil tubes (vittae), almost three times the concentration found in the seeds of cultivated P. sativa (Berenbaum et al., 1984).

Longevity

As a monocarpic perennial, P. sativa normally lives for two growing seasons prior to flowering and dying. Under sub-optimal conditions plants can persist for up to five years before sequestering sufficient reserves to support flowering and fruiting (Baskin and Baskin, 1979). The size of a rosette in a given year determines its fate in the following year (Cain et al., 2010).

Associations

P. sativa will form relationships with arbuscular-vesicular mycorrhizal fungi (Harley and Harley, 1987; Kasowska, 2002).

Environmental Requirements

Although tolerant of wet soils, P. sativa is considered a xerophyte, growing best in mesic to dry soils (Jauzein, 1995; Cain et al., 2010). A wide range of soil types and conditions are suitable for growth, from sandy loams to heavy clays. Rich, calcareous and alkaline soils support the best growth.

Climate

Soil Tolerances

Soil drainage

• free
• impeded

Soil reaction

• acid
• alkaline
• neutral

Soil texture

• heavy
• light
• medium

Natural enemies

Notes on Natural Enemies

Many species of fungi have been reported on P. sativa, either as parasites or saprophytes (Farr and Rossman, 2008), as well as a few species of bacteria, viruses and other disease causing organisms (Cain et al., 2010). The root feeding carrot rust fly, Psila rosae [Chamaepsila rosae], is a serious pest of cultivated P. sativa and related crops (Dufault and Coaker, 1987; Nonnecke, 1989). Several leaf miner flies, Euleia fratria, Philophylla heraclei [Euleia heraclei], Phytomyza affinis, Phytomyza albiceps and Phytomyza chrysanthemi [Chromatomyia syngenesiae] are reported to utilize P. sativa (Needham et al., 1928; Douglas and Cowles, 2011). About 40 species of Lepidoptera have also been reported on P. sativa; the parsnip webworm, Depressaria pastinacella and the black swallowtail, Papilio polyxenes, have a close host-herbivore relationship through their furanocoumarin tolerance (Zangerl and Berenbaum, 1993; Zangerl et al., 2008).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Pathway Causes

Pathway Vectors

Impact Summary

Economic Impact

It is hard to estimate the economic impact of P. sativa. As a crop it provides income from commercial production. However, it is likely that the cost of control along transportation corridors and disturbed areas is greater than the benefits gained by its culture, especially where introduced. Health costs are also incurred through injury to humans and livestock.

Environmental Impact

Social Impact

P. sativa has both positive as a minor crop species and negative social impacts associated with the health issues of poisoning and phytophotodermatitis caused by wild plants.

Risk and Impact Factors

• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Has a broad native range
• Highly adaptable to different environments
• Is a habitat generalist
• Pioneering in disturbed areas
• Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
• Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year

• Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
• Negatively impacts agriculture
• Negatively impacts human health
• Negatively impacts animal health
• Reduced native biodiversity

• Competition - monopolizing resources
• Pest and disease transmission
• Poisoning

• Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
• Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
• Difficult/costly to control

Uses

Uses List

Animal feed, fodder, forage

• Fodder/animal feed

Human food and beverage

• Root crop
• Spices and culinary herbs
• Vegetable

Materials

• Alcohol

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

• Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
• Traditional/folklore

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

P. sativa can be distinguished from similar members of the parsley family by its pinnately compound lower stem leaves, with broad, coarsely lobed and toothed leaflets, its yellow flowers, its dorsally flattened brown mericarps and its distinct parsnip odour.

Prevention and Control

References

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Contributors

23/03/2015 Original text by:

Stephen Darbyshire and Marie-Josée Simard, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Canada

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