Pastinaca sativa (parsnip)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Introductions
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Social Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pageIdentity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Pastinaca sativa L.
Preferred Common Name
- parsnip
Other Scientific Names
- Elaphoboscum sativum (L.) Rupr.
- Pastinaca fleischmannii Hladnik
- Pastinaca sativa subsp. sylvestris (Mill.) Rouy & E.G.Camus
- Pastinaca sativa subsp. sylvestris Roug & Camus
- Pastinaca sylvestris Mill.
- Peucedanum pastinaca (Wibel) Baill.
- Peucedanum sativum (L.) Benth. & Hook.f. ex B.D.Jacks.
International Common Names
- English: wild parsnip
- Spanish: apio del campo; chirivia; chirivía; pastinaca
- French: panais; panais sauvage
Local Common Names
- China: ou fang feng
- Germany: gemeiner pastinak; pastinak
- Italy: pastinaca
- Netherlands: pastinaak; wilde pastinaak
- Portugal: pastinaga
- Sweden: palsternacka
EPPO code
- PAVSA (Pastinaca sativa)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageP. sativa, commonly known as parsnip or wild parsnip, is native to Europe. It is cultivated as a vegetable root crop and subsequently introduced throughout much of the temperate world. P. sativa has escaped from cultivation and become a weed of disturbed habitats, perennial crops and reduced tillage systems, especially in North America, but also in South America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and eastward in Asia. Contact or ingestion of wild plants is toxic to humans and livestock. It is avoided by grazing animals (populations tend to increase under grazing) and can become abundant in disturbed areas where activities bring it into contact with humans (e.g. transportation corridors, orchards, parks, etc.), or where disturbance occurs frequently such as in riparian habitats. Populations can displace vegetation and selective control may be difficult or prohibitive. It is considered a serious threat to human health in parts of its introduced range and is sometimes regulated as a noxious weed.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Apiales
- Family: Apiaceae
- Genus: Pastinaca
- Species: Pastinaca sativa
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageThe cultivated parsnip is usually not sufficiently distinct from wild P. sativa to justify a separate taxonomic rank (Averill and DiTommaso, 2007). Several subspecies have been described, including subsp. sativa, subsp. divaricata, subsp. latifolia, subsp. sylvestris, and subsp. urens (Tutin, 1968; Anzalone, 1987; Menemen and Jury, 2001), but infraspecific taxa, other than cultivars, are not consistently or widely recognized. Occasionally some authors have distinguished the wild and cultivated forms as distinct species (Shishkin, 1951). P. sativa has been grown in Europe since at least the Middle Ages and possibly since Roman times and many cultivars have been developed (Averill and DiTommaso, 2007; Cain et al., 2010).
Description
Top of pageBiennial or short-lived monocarpic perennial with a thick yellowish or brownish tap root. Flowering stems to about 2 m high, angled (grooved), with sparse hairs, hollow and often branched at the upper nodes. Petioles are grooved, expanding at the base to clasp the stem. The alternate leaves are once or twice pinnately compound, up to about 40 cm long, and smooth or hairy. Leaves on the upper stem are progressively reduced in size and dissection, eventually becoming narrow sessile bracts.
The inflorescence is a compound, flat-topped umbel about 10–20 cm across. There are usually 6–25 straight rays supporting the umbellets. The terminal (primary) umbel is composed of hermaphrodite (perfect) flowers towards the outside and staminate flowers towards the centre. The lateral (secondary, tertiary, etc.) umbels have a diminishing number of hermaphrodite flowers, with the highest umbel orders having only staminate flowers. Flowers with sepals minute or lacking and the five petals are entire, involute and yellow (rarely white).
Fruits (referred to as schizocarps) are dry, flattened and oval. Each schizocarp splits into two strongly-flattened “seeds” (referred to as mericarps), each rounded or oval in outline and narrowly winged, 4–8 mm long, straw-coloured to light brown, with four conspicuous dark oil tubes (vittae) on the abaxial (outer) surface and two to four on the adaxial (inner) surface. A wiry prolongation between the two mericarps, the carpophore, is deeply divided and supports the two mature mericarps from their apex. Plants emit a characteristic parsnip odour. Seedlings have strap-like cotyledons up to about 3 cm long, with a blade about 4 mm wide and tapering to a long petiole. The first leaves have long petioles, are ovate to broadly cordate, about 1 cm long and coarsely toothed but not lobed.
Distribution
Top of pageIt is thought that P. sativa is native throughout most of Europe except the far north. Its native distribution is thought to Asia Minor, the Near East and the Caucasus, although how much of its Asian distribution is due to pre-historic human activities is unknown.
There is some disagreement over the status of P. sativa in Lebanon with reports of this species being both native and introduced (Euro+Med PlantBase, 2011; USDA-ARS, 2015).
It has since been widely introduced in North, South and Central America, the Caribbean and Oceana.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageAs a food crop, P. sativa originated in Europe where it is a popular root vegetable, being sweet and easily stored. It was one of the first food plants introduced to new areas by explorers and emigrants during the European expansionist times of the seventeenth and eighteenth century. It is presumed that its wide establishment in the western hemisphere, temperate southern hemisphere and eastern Asia has been largely the result of its escape from cultivation.
Introductions
Top of pageRisk of Introduction
Top of pageAlthough not as popular as it once was, P. sativa is still grown in many temperate parts of the world. Introduction as a new crop is the most likely means of this species spreading to new areas. As a frequent weed of pastures and managed grasslands, it likely will be an occasional contaminant of hay crops. Another likely pathway is the adherence of seed to construction and agricultural machinery as well as transportation vehicles. Modern seed commodity sanitation techniques are sufficient to eliminate it as a contaminant.
Habitat
Top of pageIn its introduced range P. sativa is primarily a ruderal plant, inhabiting disturbed areas and communities. Sometimes it will become established in more natural habitats where there is some pattern of disturbance such as riparian areas and grazed or mown grasslands. It is mainly a plant of open and edge habitats and is not tolerant of shade. However, both open and closed weed communities along a roadside in eastern Canada contained P. sativa (Tomkins and Grant, 1974); the former was dominated by pioneer annuals and short lived perennials, while the latter had 90-100% cover of perennial plants. P. sativa can be frequent along field edges in southern Québec (Simard and Benoit, 2010) as high disturbance and intensive agricultural practices can facilitate the invasion of hedgerows by this species (de Blois et al., 2002).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Cultivated / agricultural land | Principal habitat | Natural | ||
Cultivated / agricultural land | Principal habitat | Productive/non-natural | ||
Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Principal habitat | Natural | ||
Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Principal habitat | Natural | ||
Industrial / intensive livestock production systems | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Industrial / intensive livestock production systems | Principal habitat | Natural | ||
Disturbed areas | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Disturbed areas | Principal habitat | Natural | ||
Rail / roadsides | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Rail / roadsides | Principal habitat | Natural | ||
Urban / peri-urban areas | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Urban / peri-urban areas | Principal habitat | Natural | ||
Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Natural grasslands | Principal habitat | Natural | ||
Riverbanks | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Riverbanks | Principal habitat | Natural | ||
Littoral | ||||
Coastal areas | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Coastal areas | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
Reported chromosome number count for P. sativa are n = 11 and 2n = 22 (IPCN Chromosome Reports, 2015). No interspecific hybridization is known.
Reproductive Biology
P. sativa is monocarpic and a facultative biennial (Averill and DiTommaso, 2007; Cain et al., 2010). Normally plants require two seasons of growth to sequester the energy reserves to support flowering. Under suboptimal conditions, plant rosettes may remain in a vegetative state for up to four years before entering the reproductive phase. The flowers of P. sativa are protandrous and anthers begin to dehisce about five to seven days before the stigmas become receptive (Beghtel, 1925; Cruden and Hermann-Parker, 1977). Flowers mature centripetally within umbellets and umbels (Beghtel, 1925; Cruden and Hermann-Parker, 1977) and umbels of differing orders mature sequentially over 10-14 day intervals (Hendrix, 1984; Hendrix and Trapp, 1992). There is little overlap between staminate and pistillate phases within and between umbels, resulting in temporal dioecism which promotes outcrossing and reduces pollination between flowers on the same plant (Cruden and Hermann-Parker, 1977).
In primary umbels, 87-89% of the flowers are hermaphrodite, while higher order umbels have greatly reduced proportions of hermaphroditic flowers (Lovett Doust, 1980b). If the primary umbel is damaged by herbivores, however, later developing umbels compensate by producing more flowers of which a greater proportion are hermaphrodite than in undamaged plants (Hendrix and Trapp, 1989).
Pollinators are promiscuous, non-specialized insects (Knuth 1908; Bell 1971; Cruden and Hermann-Parker 1977; Borg-Karlson et al., 1994; Lohman et al., 1996; Tooker et al., 2006). Insects are attracted by the yellow colour of the flowers, by volatile fragrance compounds, notably cis-ocimene and trans-ocimene (Borg-Karlson et al., 1994) and by the nectar exuding from the prominent stylopodium. Flower visitors are mostly unspecialized pollinators, including mainly Syrphidae, Tachinidae, and other flies, but also ants, wasps, bees and beetles (Knuth, 1908; Bell, 1971; Cruden and Hermann-Parker, 1977; Borg-Karlson et al., 1994; Lohman et al., 1996; Tooker et al., 2006). Robertson (1928) reported almost 300 species of insects visiting P. sativa flowers between 2nd June and 9th July at Carlinville, Illinois, USA. Of the species observed, Hymenoptera and Diptera species were predominant, 42% and 38%, respectively, with smaller numbers of Coleoptera (14%), Lepidoptera (3%), Hemiptera (2%), and Neuroptera (0.3%).
Lovett Doust (1980b), studying P. sativa in the UK, found a mean number of 15,000 flowers per plant, of which about 18% (2700) were perfect with a 74% fruit set (2000 fruits per plant). Most fruits were produced in the primary and secondary umbels. In Iowa, Cruden and Hermann-Parker (1977) found an average of 930 ± 89 flowers per umbel on primary umbels, and 520 ± 72 on secondary umbels. Seed yield in cultivated P. sativa varies with planting density up to 1040-4029 kg per ha at 10 plants m2 (Gray et al., 1985). One or both of the two mericarps in each fruit may contain a seed, although mature fruits lacking seeds (parthenocarpy) is also common (Hendrix, 1984; Zangerl et al., 1991; Lohman et al., 1996). It has been suggested that parthenocarpic fruits may divert herbivore feeding (i.e. be preferentially consumed by seed-feeding organisms) away from fertile fruits, which, although more nutritious, also have much higher levels of toxic furanocoumarins (Zangerl et al., 1991).
Wild P. sativa seeds possess morphological dormancy due to an underdeveloped embryo (Baskin and Baskin, 1998). Emergence of seedlings in the spring, and early summer in the year following seed dispersal, accounts for about 80% of total emergence, and 99% percent of all seedlings typically emerge within two years after dispersal (Thomson and Price, 1977; Baskin and Baskin, 1979; Hendrix and Trapp, 1989). Seed viability declines rapidly, lasting only three to four years (Dorph-Petersen, 1924; Anderson, 1968; Roberts, 1979; Kennay and Fell, 1990) and producing only a weak, transient seed bank.
Physiology and Phenology
Seedlings emerge and quickly develop a strong taproot for nutrient storage as they produce the first large rosette leaves which continue to develop until growth is halted by low temperatures. Plants generally flower and produce seeds during the second season. In Canada and the USA, flowering occurs over a period of several weeks, starting in May, peaking in June/July and lasting until October, depending on location and growing conditions.
Whilst the below ground part is edible, the above ground parts are toxic. Various secondary metabolite compounds have been identified in P. sativa, including coumarins, fatty acid esters, flavonoids, furanocoumarins, phenylpropenes, polyacetylenes, and terpenes which may play roles in predator and disease defense (Berenbaum, 1985; Averill and DiTommaso, 2007; Cain et al., 2010). Angular and linear furanocoumarins of various types are produced in varying quantities. Linear furanocoumarins are more toxic than angular furanocoumarins as the former bind with DNA and absorb energy in the presence of UVA light (primarily 320-380 nm) making them more reactive with a variety of biologically important molecules and commonly implicated in phytophotodermatitis. These compounds cause health concerns for humans and livestock, as well as serving as anti-predator and anti-disease defenses (Averill and DiTommaso, 2007; Cain et al., 2010). Linear furanocoumarins are toxic to generalist herbivores but not to species that feed exclusively on Apiaceae. While furanocoumarins are present during the entire life cycle and in all plant parts, concentrations are lower in seedlings compared to adult plants and highest in buds and seeds (Lohman and McConnaughay, 1998). A wild P. sativa seed can contain an average of 38 μg of furanocoumarins in its oil tubes (vittae), almost three times the concentration found in the seeds of cultivated P. sativa (Berenbaum et al., 1984).
Longevity
As a monocarpic perennial, P. sativa normally lives for two growing seasons prior to flowering and dying. Under sub-optimal conditions plants can persist for up to five years before sequestering sufficient reserves to support flowering and fruiting (Baskin and Baskin, 1979). The size of a rosette in a given year determines its fate in the following year (Cain et al., 2010).
Associations
P. sativa will form relationships with arbuscular-vesicular mycorrhizal fungi (Harley and Harley, 1987; Kasowska, 2002).
Environmental Requirements
Although tolerant of wet soils, P. sativa is considered a xerophyte, growing best in mesic to dry soils (Jauzein, 1995; Cain et al., 2010). A wide range of soil types and conditions are suitable for growth, from sandy loams to heavy clays. Rich, calcareous and alkaline soils support the best growth.
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
BS - Steppe climate | Preferred | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation | |
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Preferred | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | |
Ds - Continental climate with dry summer | Preferred | Continental climate with dry summer (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry summers) | |
Dw - Continental climate with dry winter | Tolerated | Continental climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry winters) |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
- impeded
Soil reaction
- acid
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Depressaria pastinacella | Herbivore | Inflorescence | not specific | |||
Papilio polyxenes | Herbivore | Leaves | not specific | N |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageMany species of fungi have been reported on P. sativa, either as parasites or saprophytes (Farr and Rossman, 2008), as well as a few species of bacteria, viruses and other disease causing organisms (Cain et al., 2010). The root feeding carrot rust fly, Psila rosae [Chamaepsila rosae], is a serious pest of cultivated P. sativa and related crops (Dufault and Coaker, 1987; Nonnecke, 1989). Several leaf miner flies, Euleia fratria, Philophylla heraclei [Euleia heraclei], Phytomyza affinis, Phytomyza albiceps and Phytomyza chrysanthemi [Chromatomyia syngenesiae] are reported to utilize P. sativa (Needham et al., 1928; Douglas and Cowles, 2011). About 40 species of Lepidoptera have also been reported on P. sativa; the parsnip webworm, Depressaria pastinacella and the black swallowtail, Papilio polyxenes, have a close host-herbivore relationship through their furanocoumarin tolerance (Zangerl and Berenbaum, 1993; Zangerl et al., 2008).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pagePathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Crop production | Deliberate dispersal as a crop species. Less common now | Yes | Yes | Cain et al., 2010 |
Disturbance | Accidental dispersal through landscaping and soil movement activities | Yes | Yes | Cain et al., 2010 |
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Accidental escape from agricultural fields and vegetable gardens | Yes | Yes | Cain et al., 2010 |
Habitat restoration and improvement | Yes | Yes | ||
Hitchhiker | Attachment to machinery involved with farming, landscaping and construction activities | Yes | Yes | Cain et al., 2010 |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Machinery and equipment | Frequently attached to machinery associated with agriculture, landscaping and construction | Yes | Yes | Cain et al., 2010 |
Soil, sand and gravel | Seeds frequently dispersed with soil movement | Yes | Yes | Cain et al., 2010 |
Water | Infrequent short distance dispersal of seeds | Yes | Cain et al., 2010 | |
Wind | Frequent short distance dispersal of seeds by wind | Yes | Cain et al., 2010 |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Negative |
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Negative |
Human health | Positive and negative |
Economic Impact
Top of pageIt is hard to estimate the economic impact of P. sativa. As a crop it provides income from commercial production. However, it is likely that the cost of control along transportation corridors and disturbed areas is greater than the benefits gained by its culture, especially where introduced. Health costs are also incurred through injury to humans and livestock.
Environmental Impact
Top of pageSocial Impact
Top of pageP. sativa has both positive as a minor crop species and negative social impacts associated with the health issues of poisoning and phytophotodermatitis caused by wild plants.
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page Invasiveness- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Negatively impacts human health
- Negatively impacts animal health
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Pest and disease transmission
- Poisoning
- Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
- Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Top of pageUses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Fodder/animal feed
Human food and beverage
- Root crop
- Spices and culinary herbs
- Vegetable
Materials
- Alcohol
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageP. sativa can be distinguished from similar members of the parsley family by its pinnately compound lower stem leaves, with broad, coarsely lobed and toothed leaflets, its yellow flowers, its dorsally flattened brown mericarps and its distinct parsnip odour.
Prevention and Control
Top of pageReferences
Top of pageAcevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
Adams CD, 1972. Flowering plants of Jamaica. Mona, Jamaica: University of the West Indies.
Adams CD, 1972. Flowering plants of Jamaica. Mona, Jamaica: University of the West Indies.
Anzalone B, 1987. [English title not available]. (Sistematica e corologia di Pastinaca sativa L. in Italia.) Archivio Botanico e Biogeografico Italiano, 63:1-21.
Averill KM, DiTommaso A, 2007. Wild parsnip (Pastinaca sativa): a troublesome species of increasing concern. Weed Technology, 21:279-287.
Beghtel FE, 1925. The embryogeny of Pastinaca sativa. American Journal of Botany, 12:327-337.
Bell C, 1971. Breeding systems and floral biology of the Umbelliferae or evidence for specialization in unspecialized flowers. In: The Biology and Chemistry of the Umbelliferae [ed. by Heywood, V. H.]. New York, USA: Academic Press, 93-107.
Berenbaum MR, 1985. Brementown revisited: interactions among allelochemicals in plants. Recent Advances in Phytochemistry, 19:139-169.
BONAP, 2015. Americas plant atlas. Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA. http://bonap.net/napa#
CHAH (Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria), 2015. Australia's virtual herbarium. Australia: Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria. http://avh.ala.org.au
Cruden RW, Hermann-Parker SM, 1977. Temporal dioecism: an alternative to dioecism? Evolution, 31:863-866.
Dorph-Petersen K, 1924. Examinations of the occurrence and vitality of various weed seed species under different conditions, made at the Danish State Seed Testing Station during the years 1896-1923. Report of the 4th International Seed Testing Congress, 124-138.
Douglas SM, Cowles RS, 2011. Plant pest handbook - a guide. New Haven, Connecticut, USA: The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station. http://www.ct.gov/caes/cwp/view.asp?a=2823&q=378182
Euro+Med PlantBase, 2011. Euro+Med PlantBase: The information resource for Euro-Mediterranean plant diversity. Palermo, Italy. http://www.emplantbase.org/home.html
FAO, 2015. Ecocrop., USA: Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN. http://ecocrop.fao.org/ecocrop/
Farr DF, Rossman AY, 2015. Fungal databases, systematic mycology and microbiology laboratory, ARS-USDA. Washington DC, USA: ARS-USDA. http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/index.cfm
Gray D, Steckel JRA, Ward JA, 1985. The effect of plant density, harvest date and method on the yield of seed and components of yield of parsnip (Pastinaca sativa). Annals of Applied Biology, 107:547-558.
Hedrick UP, 1919. Sturtevant's edible plants of the world., USA: Dover Publications, 686 pp.
Hendrix SD, 1984. Variation in seed weight and its effects on germination in Pastinaca sativa L. (Umbelliferae). American Journal of Botany, 71:795-802.
IPCN Chromosome Reports, 2015. Index to Plant Chromosome Numbers (IPCN), Tropicos website. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://tropicos.org/Project/IPCN
Kennay J, Fell G, 1990. Vegetation management guideline, wild parsnip (Pastinaca sativa). Illinois Nature Preserves Commission, 1(26). Illinois, USA: Illinois Nature Preserves Commission. http://wwx.inhs.illinois.edu/research/vmg/parsnip/
Kerguélen M, 1999. [English title not available]. (Index synonymique de la flore de France.) ., France. http://www2.dijon.inra.fr/flore-france/
Knuth P, 1908. Handbook of flower pollination. Volume 2. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
Lovett Doust J, 1980. Floral sex ratios in andromonoecious Umbelliferae. New Phytologist, 85:265-273.
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2015. Tropicos database. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/
Muenscher WC, 1980. Weeds. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York and London, 586 pp.
Nonnecke IL, 1989. Vegetable production. New York, USA; Van Nostrand Reinhold, xi + 657 pp.
NZPCN (New Zealand Plant Conservation Network), 2015. New Zealand Plant Conservation Network. Wellington, New Zealand: New Zealand Plant Conservation Network. http://www.nzpcn.org.nz/
OMAFRA, 2014. Guide to weed control, roadsides and non-crop areas, 75. Toronto, Canada: Ministry of Agriculture and Food and the Ministry of Rural Affairs. http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/pub75/pub75ch18.pdf
Robertson C, 1928. Flowers and insects: lists of visitors of four hundred and fifty-three flowers. Carlinville, Illinois, USA 221 pp.
Shishkin BK, 1951. Flora of the U.S.S.R. Volume XVII. Umbelliflorae [ed. by Shishkin, B. K.]. Washington DC., USA: National Science Foundation and The Smithsonian Institution, 154-158.
Thompson JN, Price PW, 1977. Plant plasticity, phenology, and herbivore dispersion: Wild parsnip and the parsnip webworm. Ecology, 58:1112-1119.
Tutin TG, 1968. Pastinaca L. In: Flora europaea, volume 2, Rosaceae to Umbelliferae [ed. by Tutin, G. \Heywood, V. H. \Burges, N. A. \Moore, D. M. \Valentine, D. H. \Walters, S. M. \Webb, D. A.]. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 364.
Tutin TG, 1980. Umbellifers of the British Isles. London, UK: Botanical Society of the British Isles, 197.
USDA-ARS, 2015. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl
Warning WC, 1934. Anatomy of the vegetative organs of the parsnip. Botanical Gazette, 96:44-72.
Zehui P, Watson MF, 2005. Pastinaca Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1: 262. 1753. In: Flora of China. Apiaceae through Ericaceae. Volume 14 [ed. by Zhengyi, W. \Raven, P. H. \Deyuan, H.]. St Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden Press.
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Contributors
Top of page23/03/2015 Original text by:
Stephen Darbyshire and Marie-Josée Simard, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Canada
Distribution Maps
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