Paspalum scrobiculatum (ricegrass paspalum)

Pictures

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Picture

Title

Caption

Copyright

Habit

P. scrobiculatum showing leaves and panicle, Rokupr Upland Farm, Sierra Leone.

©Chris Parker/Bristol, UK

Panicle

P. scrobiculatum showing panicle, Rokupr Upland Farm, Sierra Leone.

©Chris Parker/Bristol, UK

Inflorescence

Inflorescence of P. scrobiculatum.

©John Terry

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Paspalum scrobiculatum L.

Preferred Common Name

ricegrass paspalum

Other Scientific Names

Paspalum akoense Hay.
Paspalum auriculatum
Paspalum barbatum Schum.
Paspalum cartilagineum var. horneri
Paspalum commersonii Lam.
Paspalum horneri var. lanceolatum
Paspalum lamprocaryon
Paspalum orbiculare Forst.
Paspalum polystachyum R. Br.
Paspalum zollingeri var. bispicatum

International Common Names

English: creeping paspalum; ditch millet; Indian paspalum; kodo; kodo millet; rice grass; scrobic; water couch
Spanish: mijo koda
French: herbe à épée

Local Common Names

Germany: Kodahirse
India: arika; haraka; kodra
India/Madhya Pradesh: kondon
India/Tamil Nadu: varagu
Japan: suzumenokobie

EPPO code

PASSC (Paspalum scrobiculatum)

Summary of Invasiveness

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P. scrobiculata is a common weed in the tropics. It is listed as a noxious weed by USDA-APHIS (USDA-ARS, 2003) but is not widely considered to be highly invasive. It is not considered an environmental invasive on Pacific Islands (PIER, 2004).

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Monocotyledonae
Order: Cyperales
Family: Poaceae
Genus: Paspalum
Species: Paspalum scrobiculatum

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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Clayton and Renvoize (1982) comment that P. scrobiculatum is 'a polymorphic species, but with variation apparently quite continuous; possibly a swarm of apomicts.' Some of the variants were given specific status until quite recently with P. scrobiculatum (s.s.) representing the erect annual form sometimes used as a crop, P. commersonii and P. orbiculare the more weedy perennial forms, and P. polystachyum, a particularly robust form.

Description

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P. scrobiculatum is a tufted annual or perennial grass up to 150 cm tall. Culms stout, erect, glabrous, somewhat bulbous at base, sheaths 7-14 cm long, glabrous or with sparse hairs at the collar, compressed, basal ones often purplish; ligule very short, 1 mm, membranous, but with a dense row of hairs just behind it; blades flat, 12-40 cm long, 3-12 mm wide, acute, scabrous, glaucous on upper surface. Inflorescence has four to six racemes, these are 2-4 cm long, alternate, distant, their axis 4-9 cm long, villous at base, sometimes pilose in the axils. Rachis 1-1.5 mm wide, scabrous, usually reddish on the margins; spikelets paired, 2-2.5 mm long, broadly elliptic, imbricate, glabrous. Second glume and sterile lemma 3-nerved. Fertile lemma indurated, finely pitted; caryopsis 1.5 mm long, compressed-elliptic, pale (Stone, 1970).

Plant Type

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Annual
Grass / sedge
Herbaceous
Perennial
Seed propagated

Distribution

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This species is found throughout the Paleotropics and in south-eastern USA (USDA-ARS, 2003). It is widely cultivated in India, which is probably its centre of origin. It is native to Africa, tropical Asia and Australia. The distribution in the Pacific is given in PIER (2004).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 21 Dec 2020

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	Invasive	Reference
Africa
Angola	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Benin	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003) Parmentier et al. (2006) Bello et al. (2013)
Botswana	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003) O'Shaughnessy et al. (2014)
Burkina Faso	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003) Mbayngone et al. (2008) Ouedraogo et al. (2011)
Cameroon	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003) Parmentier et al. (2006)
Central African Republic	Present			Ruggiero (1991)
Congo, Democratic Republic of the	Present, Localized	Native	Invasive	Holm et al. (1991) EPPO (2020)
Congo, Republic of the	Present			N'zala et al. (1997)
Côte d'Ivoire	Present, Localized	Native		Becker and Johnson (2001) USDA-ARS (2003) EPPO (2020)
Equatorial Guinea	Present			Parmentier et al. (2006)
Eswatini	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003) Mapako (2011)
Ethiopia	Present			Chance (2006)
Gabon	Present			Parmentier et al. (2006)
Gambia	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003) Carson (1987)
Ghana	Present, Localized	Native	Invasive	Holm et al. (1991) Dzomeku et al. (2009) EPPO (2020)
Guinea	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Kenya	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003) Okioma et al. (1983)
Liberia	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Madagascar	Present			Nanjarisoa et al. (2017)
Malawi	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Mali	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003) Touré et al. (2013)
Mauritania	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Mauritius	Present, Localized	Native	Invasive	Holm et al. (1991) EPPO (2020)
Mozambique	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003) Siebert et al. (2004) Muatinte and Berg (2019)
Namibia	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Nigeria	Present, Localized	Native	Invasive	Holm et al. (1991) Ogbo et al. (2009) Ogie-Odia et al. (2010) EPPO (2020)
Réunion	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Senegal	Present, Localized	Native		Holm et al. (1991) EPPO (2020)
Sierra Leone	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003) Nyoka (1982)
South Africa	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003) O’Connor et al. (2003)
Sudan	Present			Holm et al. (1991)
Tanzania	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003) Voorthuizen (1970)
Togo	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003) Amegnaglo et al. (2018) Amegnaglo et al. (2018a)
Uganda	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003) Oryem-Origa et al. (2007)
Zambia	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003) Douthwaite (1978) Smith (1997)
Zimbabwe	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003) Bowyer-Bower et al. (1996)
Asia
Bhutan	Present	Native		Noltie (2000) Agarwala (1983)
Brunei	Present	Native		Holm et al. (1991) Waterhouse (1993)
Cambodia	Present, Localized	Native		Holm et al. (1991) Waterhouse (1993) Araki et al. (2007) Martin et al. (2017) EPPO (2020)
China	Present, Localized			EPPO (2020) Zhang (2012)
-Guangdong	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003) Zhang (2012)
-Guangxi	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
-Hainan	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
-Hunan	Present, Widespread	Native	Invasive	Holm et al. (1991)
-Yunnan	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Hong Kong	Present, Localized			EPPO (2020) Wong (1978)
India	Present, Localized	Native	Invasive	Holm et al. (1991) Sarma (2005) Sanjay Jain et al. (2010) Chandra et al. (2011) Mukherjee et al. (2011) Ahmad et al. (2013) Deepika Bhatt et al. (2014) Mallick et al. (2015) Radhey Shyam and Singh (2018) EPPO (2020)
-Chhattisgarh	Present			Sanjay Jain et al. (2010)
-Meghalaya	Present			Sarma (2005)
-Odisha	Present			Mallick et al. (2015)
-Rajasthan	Present			Chandra et al. (2011)
-Sikkim	Present	Native		Noltie (2000)
-Tamil Nadu	Present			Ahmad et al. (2013)
-Uttar Pradesh	Present			Radhey Shyam and Singh (2018)
-Uttarakhand	Present			Deepika Bhatt et al. (2014)
-West Bengal	Present	Native		Noltie (2000) Mukherjee et al. (2011)
Indonesia	Present, Localized	Native	Invasive	Holm et al. (1991) Waterhouse (1993) Tanner et al. (1997) EPPO (2020)
Iran	Present			Ahmadpour et al. (2018)
Japan	Present, Localized	Native	Invasive	Holm et al. (1991) EPPO (2020)
-Bonin Islands	Present			Hata et al. (2010)
Laos	Present			Waterhouse (1993)
Malaysia	Present, Localized	Native	Invasive	Holm et al. (1991) Waterhouse (1993) Raya et al. (2013) EPPO (2020)
Myanmar	Present	Native		Waterhouse (1993) USDA-ARS (2003) EPPO (2020)
Nepal	Present			Dangol (2008)
North Korea	Present, Localized			EPPO (2020)
Pakistan	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003) Mian (1971)
Philippines	Present, Localized	Native	Invasive	Holm et al. (1991) Waterhouse (1993) Litsinger et al. (2002) EPPO (2020)
Singapore	Present			Waterhouse (1993)
Sri Lanka	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003) Cohen et al. (1995)
Taiwan	Present, Localized	Native	Invasive	Holm et al. (1991) Lai LiChuan et al. (2018) EPPO (2020)
Thailand	Present, Localized	Native	Invasive	Holm et al. (1991) Waterhouse (1993) Rotkittikhun et al. (2006) EPPO (2020)
United Arab Emirates	Present			Böer and Chaudhary (1999)
Vietnam	Present			Waterhouse (1993) Nguyen Thi Tan et al. (2000)
North America
United States	Present, Localized	Introduced		USDA-ARS (2003) Draske (1998)
-Hawaii	Present			Wagner et al. (1999) Draske (1998)
-Maryland	Present, Localized	Introduced		USDA-NRCS (2003)
-New Jersey	Present, Localized	Introduced		USDA-NRCS (2003)
Oceania
American Samoa	Present			PIER (2004) Whistler (1998)
Australia	Present, Localized	Native	Invasive	Edye (1975) Holm et al. (1991) Buckney and Morrison (1992) Paynter (2004) EPPO (2020)
-New South Wales	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003) Buckney and Morrison (1992)
-Northern Territory	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003) Paynter (2004)
-Queensland	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003) Edye (1975)
-Western Australia	Present	Native		USDA-ARS (2003)
Cook Islands	Present			PIER (2004) Space and Flynn (2002)
Federated States of Micronesia	Present			PIER (2004) Space et al. (2000)
Fiji	Present, Localized		Invasive	Holm et al. (1991) EPPO (2020)
French Polynesia	Present			PIER (2004)
Guam	Present			PIER (2004) Glassman (1948)
Kiribati	Present			PIER (2004) Space and Imada (2004)
Nauru	Present			PIER (2004)
New Caledonia	Present			PIER (2004) Toutain (1992)
New Zealand	Present			McKenzie and Latch (1984) Esler (1978)
Niue	Present			PIER (2004)
Northern Mariana Islands	Present			PIER (2004)
Palau	Present			PIER (2004)
Papua New Guinea	Present, Widespread		Invasive	Holm et al. (1991) Takeuchi (2003)
Solomon Islands	Present			PIER (2004)
Timor-Leste	Present, Widespread	Native		Holm et al. (1991)
Tonga	Present			PIER (2004)
Vanuatu	Present			PIER (2004)
Wallis and Futuna	Present			PIER (2004)
South America
Brazil	Present, Localized			Holm et al. (1991) de Moura Araujo et al. (2017) Garbin (2018) EPPO (2020)
-Rio Grande do Sul	Present			Garbin (2018)
-Roraima	Present			de Moura Araujo et al. (2017)

History of Introduction and Spread

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P. scrobiculatum has been introduced to many parts of the world as an agricultural crop either as a grain crop or as a pasture species.

Habitat

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P. scrobiculatum is a common weed of wastelands and fields in the tropics. Usually found in exposed areas, but tolerant of shade. In Fiji it is abundant at elevations up to 1300 m (Smith, 1979). In Hawaii it is common on slopes in poor soils where few other grasses will grow, and in wet, swampy ground up to 1100 m (Wagner et al., 1999).

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Protected agriculture (e.g. glasshouse production)	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed grasslands (grazing systems)	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Rail / roadsides	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural forests	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural grasslands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Riverbanks	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Wetlands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Littoral		Coastal areas	Present, no further details

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context	References
Corchorus olitorius (jute)	Tiliaceae	Main

Rainfall

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit	Description
Mean annual rainfall	0	0	mm; lower/upper limits

Soil Tolerances

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Soil drainage

free
impeded
seasonally waterlogged

Soil reaction

acid
alkaline
neutral

Soil texture

heavy
light
medium

Special soil tolerances

infertile
shallow

Pathway Vectors

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Vector	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Soil, sand and gravel		Yes

Plant Trade

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Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport	Pest stages	Borne internally	Borne externally	Visibility of pest or symptoms
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx	seeds
Growing medium accompanying plants	seeds
True seeds (inc. grain)	seeds

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Animal/plant collections	None
Animal/plant products	None
Biodiversity (generally)	Negative
Crop production	Negative
Environment (generally)	Negative
Fisheries / aquaculture	None
Forestry production	Negative
Human health	None
Livestock production	Negative
Native fauna	None
Native flora	Negative
Rare/protected species	None
Tourism	None
Trade/international relations	None
Transport/travel	None

Impact

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Holm et al. (1991) record this species (as 'P. scrobiculatum') as a 'serious' weed in India, the Philippines, Senegal, Taiwan and Thailand, and as a 'principal' weed in Côte d'Ivoire, Korea and Mauritius; also (as 'P. orbiculare') as a 'serious' weed in Ghana; and (as 'P. commersonii') as a 'principal' weed in Malaysia, Nigeria and Swaziland.

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Invasive in its native range
Proved invasive outside its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Has high reproductive potential
Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year

Impact outcomes

Negatively impacts agriculture
Reduced native biodiversity

Impact mechanisms

Competition - monopolizing resources
Pest and disease transmission

Likelihood of entry/control

Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant

Uses

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Widely cultivated as a minor millet in Africa and Asia, especially India (Senthivel et al., 1994; Anon., 1996; Ramasamy et al., 1996). Also used for forage (Bisset et al., 1974; Kitamura and Nada, 1986; Su and Lin, 1994; Compere et al., 1995) and as a feed supplement (Kapoor et al., 1987). In India, it has been used as a substrate for mushroom production (Kumar and Chandra, 1998) and for medicinal purposes (Roy and Pal, 1994).

Uses List

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Animal feed, fodder, forage

Fodder/animal feed
Forage

Human food and beverage

Cereal

Materials

Poisonous to mammals

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

Traditional/folklore

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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Often found in association with P. conjugatum but distinguished from it by the tufted habit and more compact flower head.

References

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Anon., 1996. Lost Crops of Africa. Volume 1: Grains. Washington DC, USA: National Academy Press.

Baghel MS; Yadva HS; Tomar; MS; Verma; SNP, 1991. Intercropping of pulse and oil seeds with kodo millet in dryland. Bhartiya Krishi Anusandhan Patrika, 6(1):34-38.

Bisset WJ; Marlowe GWC, 1974. Productivity and dynamics of two Siratro based pastures in the Burnett coastal foothills of south east Queensland. Tropical Grasslands, 8(1):17-24.

Christopher J; Raj PS; Pillai KG, 1987. Cytomorphological studies of three species of Paspalum Linn. from South India. Cytologia, 52(3):487-491.

Clayton WD; Renvoize SA, 1982. Gramineae (Part 3). In: Polhill RM, ed. Flora of Tropical East Africa. Rotterdam, Netherlands: Balkema.

Compere R; Dupont J; Majerus JP; Buldgen A, 1994. Management of high-altitude grasslands on acid soils in the central region of the Zanre-Nile ridge, Rwanda. 1. Site characteristics. Bulletin des Recherches Agronomiques de Gembloux, 29(4):449-473; 9 ref.

Dubey RK; Shukla RS; Dubey N, 1994. Association analysis in gamma treated kodo millet cv. JNK115. Journal of Soils and Crops, 4(2):113-116.

EPPO, 2014. PQR database. Paris, France: European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. http://www.eppo.int/DATABASES/pqr/pqr.htm

Gupta SP; Narain U; Mohit Singh; Shukla TN, 1982. A new leaf blight of 'kondon' (Paspalum scrobiculatum L.) from India. National Academy Science Letters, 5(2):41

Holm GL; Pancho JV; Herberger JP; Plucknett DL, 1991. A Geographical Atlas of World Weeds. Krieger, Malabar, Florida.

Hurt CR; Hardy MB; Tainton; NM, 1993. Identification of key grass species under grazing in the Highland Sourveld of Natal. African Journal of Range and Forage Science, 10(2): 96-102.

Jain AK, 1995. Management of head smut in kodo-millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum L.). Annals of Agricultural Research, 16(2):172-178

Kapoor PN; Netke SP; Bajpai LD, 1987. Indian Journal of Animal Nutrition, 4(2):83-88.

Kitamura M; Nada Y, 1986. Preliminary evaluation of 24 tropical grasses introduced into sub-tropical Japan. Journal of Japanese Society of Grassland Science, 32(3):278-280.

Kumar S; Chandra KD, 1988. Studies on the utilization of rice bran for spawn production of Agaricus bisporus (Lange) Sing. Indian Journal of Mushrooms, 14(1-2):10-15.

Nema AG; Kulkarni SN; Pall BS, 1979. Bacterial leaf streak of kodo (Paspalum scrobiculatum L.). Science and Culture, 45(9):365-366

Noltie HJ, 2000. Flora of Bhutan including a record of plants from Sikkim and Darjeeling. Volume 3 Part 2. The Grasses of Bhutan. Edinburgh, UK: Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh and Royal Government of Bhutan.

Onkar Singh; Sharma RP; Singh RP; Singh D, 1984. Effect of sowing dates on the incidence of shootfly (Atherigona simplex) and yield of some improved kodo (Paspalum scrobiculatum) strains. Bulletin of Entomology, 25(1):22-26.

PIER, 2004. Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk. Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry. http://www.hear.org/pier/.

Raja VDG; Natarajan US, 1974. Occurrence of pests of kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum). Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 71(3):623-624

Ramasamy M; Vairavan K; Srinivasan K, 1996. Production potential and economics of cereal based cropping system in red lateritic soils of Pudukkottai district. Madras Agricultural Journal, 83(4):236-239.

Roy B; Pal DC, 1994. Some interesting new uses of four plants. Ethnobiology in human welfare: abstracts of the fourth international congress of ethnobiology, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India, 17-21 November, 1994., 290.

Sastry MS; Singh YP; Jain VK, 1975. Kodo poisoning in animals [Paspalum scrobiculatum]. Indian Journal of Animal Health, 14(2):183-184.

Senthivel S; Solaiappan U; Subramanian S, 1994. Agricultural Science Digest, Karnal, 14(3-4):197-200.

Smith AC, 1979. Flora Vitiensis nova: A new flora of Fiji. Volume I. Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii, USA: National Tropical Botanical Garden, 494 pp.

Stone BC, 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:218.

Su SJ; Lin JR, 1994. Report on pratacultural system engineering of hilly land in Fujian Province, China. Pratacultural Science, 11(1):38-41.

USDA-ARS, 2003. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx

USDA-NRCS, 2003. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.5. National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, USA. http://plants.usda.gov.

Wagner WL; Herbst DR; Sohmer SH, 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii, Revised ed. Honolulu, USA: University of Hawaii Press.

Waterhouse DF, 1993. The Major Arthropod Pests and Weeds of Agriculture in Southeast Asia. ACIAR Monograph No. 21. Canberra, Australia: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, 141 pp.

Yadava HS; Ahmad MS; Singh SB, 1996. Phenotypic stability for grain yield and fodder yield in Kodo-millet. Crop Research Hisar, 12(3): 343-348.

Distribution References

Agarwala B K, 1983. Notes on some aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) affecting economically important plants in Bhutan. Indian Agriculturist. 27 (3), 261-262.

Ahmad M A, Murali P V, Panneerselvam R, 2013. Drought stress induced biochemical alterations in two varieties of Paspalum scrobiculatum L. International Journal of Current Science. 80-96. http://www.currentsciencejournal.info/issuespdf/Murali%20Afq%2002_%2014.6.12.pdf

Ahmadpour A, Castell-Miller C, Javan-Nikkhah M, Naghavi M R, Dehkaei F P, Leng Y, Puri K D, Zhong S, 2018. Population structure, genetic diversity, and sexual state of the rice brown spot pathogen Bipolaris oryzae from three Asian countries. Plant Pathology. 181-192. DOI:10.1111/ppa.12714

Amegnaglo K B, Dourma M, Akpavi S, Akodewou A, Wala K, Diwediga B, Atakpama W, Agbodan K M L, Batawila K, Akpagana K, 2018. Characterization of grazing plant communities in the guinean zone of Togo: typology, biomass assessment, diversity, forage value and regeneration. (Caractérisation des formations végétales pâturées de la zone guinéenne du Togo: typologie, évaluation de la biomasse, diversité, valeur fourragère et régénération.). International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences. 12 (5), 2065-2084. https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ijbcs/article/view/181408/170804

Amegnaglo K B, Dourma M, Akpavi S, Diwediga B, Wala K, Batawalika K, Djaneye-Boundjou G, Akpagana K, 2018a. Grazing land biomass in Mono River Basin in Togo: Diversity, nutritional and forage value. (Biomasse des pâturages de la plaine du mono au Togo : Diversite, valeurs nutritionelle et fourragere). Rech. Sci. Aiv. Lomé (Togo). 20 (3), 47-64. DOI:10.22043/mi.2015.13654

Araki Y, Hirabuki Y, Powkhy D, Tsukawaki S, Rachna C, Tomita M, Suzuki K, 2007. Influence of Large Seasonal Water Level Fluctuations and Human Impact on the Vegetation of Lake Tonle Sap, Cambodia. In: Forest Environments in the Mekong River Basin. Germany: Springer Science & Business Media. 281-294. DOI:10.1007/978-4-431-46503-4_26

Becker M, Johnson D E, 2001. Cropping intensity effects on upland rice yield and sustainability in West Africa. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems. 59 (2), 107-117.

Bello S, Ahanchédé A, Gbèhounou G, Amadji G, Aho N, 2013. Floristic diversity, ethno-botanic and local taxonomy of onion's weeds in the North East of Benin. (Diversité floristique, ethnobotanique et taxonomie locale des mauvaises herbes de l'oignon au Nord-est du Bénin.). Tropicultura. 31 (2), 143-152. http://www.tropicultura.org/text/v31n2/143.pdf

Böer B, Chaudhary S A, 1999. New records for the flora of the United Arab Emirates. Willdenowia. 29 (43832), 159-165. DOI:10.3372/wi.29.2915

Bowyer-Bower T A S, Mapaure I, Drummond R B, 1996. Ecological degradation in cities: impact of urban agriculture in Harare, Zimbabwe. JASSA, Journal of Applied Science in Southern Africa. 2 (2), 53-67.

Buckney R T, Morrison D A, 1992. Temporal trends in plant species composition on mined sand dunes in Myall Lakes National Park, Australia. Australian Journal of Ecology. 17 (3), 241-254. DOI:10.1111/j.1442-9993.1992.tb00806.x

CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI

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Website	URL	Comment
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway	https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.

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Paspalum scrobiculatum (ricegrass paspalum)

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