Paspalum dilatatum
(dallisgrass)

Pictures

Picture	Title	Caption	Copyright
Title Habit Caption Paspalum dilatatum (dallisgrass); habit. Dungog, New South Wales, Australia. December 2015. Copyright ©Harry Rose (Macleay Grass Man)/via flickr - CC BY 2.0	Habit	Paspalum dilatatum (dallisgrass); habit. Dungog, New South Wales, Australia. December 2015.	©Harry Rose (Macleay Grass Man)/via flickr - CC BY 2.0
Title Habit Caption Paspalum dilatatum (dallisgrass); habit. Dungog, New South Wales, Australia. December 2015. Copyright ©Harry Rose (Macleay Grass Man)/via flickr - CC BY 2.0	Habit	Paspalum dilatatum (dallisgrass); habit. Dungog, New South Wales, Australia. December 2015.	©Harry Rose (Macleay Grass Man)/via flickr - CC BY 2.0
Title Habit Caption Paspalum dilatatum (dallisgrass); habit. Dungog, New South Wales, Australia. December 2015. Copyright ©Harry Rose (Macleay Grass Man)/via flickr - CC BY 2.0	Habit	Paspalum dilatatum (dallisgrass); habit. Dungog, New South Wales, Australia. December 2015.	©Harry Rose (Macleay Grass Man)/via flickr - CC BY 2.0
Title Habit Caption Paspalum dilatatum (dallisgrass); habit. Dungog, New South Wales, Australia. December 2015. Copyright ©Harry Rose (Macleay Grass Man)/via flickr - CC BY 2.0	Habit	Paspalum dilatatum (dallisgrass); habit. Dungog, New South Wales, Australia. December 2015.	©Harry Rose (Macleay Grass Man)/via flickr - CC BY 2.0
Title Ligule Caption Paspalum dilatatum (dallisgrass); ligule, showing long hairs, and papery ears. Ulupalakua, Maui, Hawaii, USA. August 2015. Copyright ©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Ligule	Paspalum dilatatum (dallisgrass); ligule, showing long hairs, and papery ears. Ulupalakua, Maui, Hawaii, USA. August 2015.	©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Florets Caption Paspalum dilatatum (dallisgrass); florets ,with anthers and stigmas. Ulupalakua, Maui, Hawaii, USA. August 2015. Copyright ©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Florets	Paspalum dilatatum (dallisgrass); florets ,with anthers and stigmas. Ulupalakua, Maui, Hawaii, USA. August 2015.	©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Florets Caption Paspalum dilatatum (dallisgrass); florets, with anthers and stigmas. Ulupalakua, Maui, Hawaii, USA. August 201 Copyright ©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Florets	Paspalum dilatatum (dallisgrass); florets, with anthers and stigmas. Ulupalakua, Maui, Hawaii, USA. August 201	©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Seedhead Caption Paspalum dilatatum (dallisgrass); seedhead. Kawela Bridge, Molokai, Hawaii, USA. October 2014. Copyright ©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Seedhead	Paspalum dilatatum (dallisgrass); seedhead. Kawela Bridge, Molokai, Hawaii, USA. October 2014.	©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Seedhead Caption Paspalum dilatatum (dallisgrass); mature seedheads. Puu Nianiau, Maui, Hawaii, USA. January 2009. Copyright ©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Seedhead	Paspalum dilatatum (dallisgrass); mature seedheads. Puu Nianiau, Maui, Hawaii, USA. January 2009.	©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Seedhead Caption Paspalum dilatatum (dallisgrass); mature seedhead. Crater Hill Kilauea Pt NWR, Kauai, Hawaii, USA. March 2013. Copyright ©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Seedhead	Paspalum dilatatum (dallisgrass); mature seedhead. Crater Hill Kilauea Pt NWR, Kauai, Hawaii, USA. March 2013.	©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Paspalum dilatatum Poir.

Preferred Common Name

• dallisgrass

Other Scientific Names

• Digitaria dilatata (Poir.) Coste
• Panicum platense (Spreng.) Kuntze
• Paspalum eriophorum Schult. & Schult.f
• Paspalum lanatum Spreng.
• Paspalum moluccanum Huber
• Paspalum ovatum Ness ex Trin.
• Paspalum pedunculare J.Presl
• Paspalum platense Spreng.
• Paspalum selloi Spreng. ex Ness

International Common Names

• English: caterpillar grass; dallis grass; golden crown grass; Leichhardt grass; paspalum; sticky heads; water grass; water paspalum
• Spanish: grama de agua; gramilla; pasto chato; pasto dallis; pasto miel; zacate dilación
• French: herbe de dallis; herbe de miel; herbe sirop; millet bâtard; paspalum dilate
• Portuguese: capim-comprido; grama-comprida
• German: Brasilianische futterhirse; Brasilianische hirse; dallisgras

Local Common Names

• Australia: bastard millet grass; hairy flowered paspalum; large watergrass; large waterseed paspalum; paspalum grass; watergrass
• Brazil: capim melador; capim mimosa; capim-dallis; capim-melado; capim-papua; grama-das-rocas; gramão; grama-samandura; sanduva
• Chile: camalote; chepica gigante
• China: mao hua que bai
• Cuba: grama
• Denmark: hirse
• Dominican Republic: yerba de Australia
• France: panic du Brésil; paspale dilate
• Hungary: széles csomósmuhar
• Indonesia: rumput australi
• Israel: paspalum merhav
• Italy: panico brasiliano; panico brasilinao; paspalo dilatato
• Japan: shima-suzume-no-hie
• Mauritius: herbe codaya
• Mexico: zacate dallis
• Niue: hiku nua
• Philippines: halanaw; lawa-lawa; sakata
• Portugal: grama-de-água; milha-graminheira
• Puerto Rico: dalis; yerba dalis
• Spain: gramón; mijera
• Thailand: ya-daenlit
• Vietnam: co'san dep

EPPO code

• PASDI (Paspalum dilatatum)

Summary of Invasiveness

Paspalum dilatatum is a perennial grass native to South America that has been introduced into tropical and subtropical areas as a forage species/fodder. It is reported as invasive in Japan, Malaysia, Taiwan, Vietnam, Indonesia, Philippines, Hawaii, American Samoa, Australia, Fiji, French Polynesia, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Niue, Norfolk Island, Solomon Islands and the Minor Outlying Islands. In Hawaii and New Zealand, it forms dense stands that smother and prevent recruitment of native species.

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Monocotyledonae
•                     Order: Cyperales
•                         Family: Poaceae
•                             Genus: Paspalum
•                                 Species: Paspalum dilatatum

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Paspalum is a genus in the Poaceae family with about 330 species, mainly from tropical to warm-temperate regions of the American continent (PROTA, 2017). The genus includes important forage grasses and widespread weeds. Paspalum comes from the Greek word for millet, Paspalos (Quattrocchi, 1999). The common name of dallisgrass for P. dilatatum is in honour of AT Dallis, who grew it extensively at La Grange, Georgia, USA (Hitchcock and Chase, 1951). From the synonyms applied to the species, P. lanatum, P. moluccanum and P. ovatum are illegitimate names and P. selloi is an invalid name (The Plant List, 2013).

Description

The following description is from Flora of China Editorial Committee (2017):

Perennial from a short rhizome. Culms forming a coarse, spreading tuft, 50-150 cm tall, c. 5 mm in diameter, glabrous. Leaf sheaths glabrous or pilose in the lower part; leaf blades linear, 10-45 x 0.3-1.2 cm, glabrous, apex attenuate; ligule 2-4 mm. Inflorescence axis 2-20 cm; racemes 2-10, 5-12 cm, spaced, diverging, axils pilose; spikelets paired; rachis 1-1.5 mm wide, glabrous. Spikelets green or purplish, broadly ovate, 3-4 mm, sharply acute; upper glume membranous, 5-9-veined, sparsely pubescent to almost glabrous on back, margins fringed with long white hairs; lower lemma similar but not hairy; upper lemma pallid at maturity, orbicular, c. 2 mm, clearly shorter than spikelet, papillose-striate, apex rounded.

Plant Type

Distribution

P. dilatatum is native to Brazil, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Guyana, Paraguay and Uruguay (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2017; PIER, 2017; PROTA, 2017; USDA-ARS, 2017), and Hanelt (2017) extends its reported native distribution to Central America. The species has been introduced worldwide, being present in Asia, Africa, North America, Central America, the Caribbean, South America, Europe and Oceania and invasive in many of the introduced countries (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012; DAISIE, 2017; Encyclopedia of Life, 2017; Missouri Botanical Garden, 2017; PIER, 2017; PROTA, 2017; USDA-ARS, 2017).

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

P. dilatatum was introduced to southern USA from Uruguay or Argentina in 1875 (Heuzé et al., 2015). In 1878, it was introduced from Uruguay into France (Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, 2017). The species was introduced to Japan in the early 1900s and is now naturalized in central-southern Japan (Sugiura and Yamazaki, 2007). There are collections reported from Haiti in 1909, Bermuda in 1913, Jamaica in 1917 (introduced as forage grass) and Cuba in 1921 (New York Botanical Garden, 2017). P. dilatatum was reported in Puerto Rico in 1924 (UPRRP, 2017).

Introductions

Risk of Introduction

P. dilatatum has a medium to high risk of introduction into tropical, subtropical and temperate zones, usually to be used as forage/fodder. However, its low sexual reproduction, low germination and slow establishment, together with its susceptibility of being infected by ergot (Claviceps paspali), are a deterrent to its spread. Nevertheless, the use of this species is favoured due to the high productivity of livestock that feeds on it (Miz and Souza-Chies, 2006). As research to identify genotypes that improve its use as a crop is underway, its distribution is likely to increase in the future (Glison et al., 2015).

Habitat

P. dilatatum is present in disturbed sites, savannas, moist grasslands, forests, wetlands, riparian habitats, roadsides and agricultural land (Flora do Brasil, 2017; PIER, 2017). It grows from 5 to 2200 m of elevation (PROTA, 2017).

Hosts/Species Affected

P. dilatatum is reported as a weed of cultivation and is sometimes present in rice fields (Heuzé et al., 2015; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2017). When the species is infected by the ergot fungus, Claviceps paspali, it becomes toxic to animals that feed on it (FAO, 2017; PROTA, 2017; USDA-ARS, 2017).

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

Biology and Ecology

Genetics

The chromosome numbers reported for P. dilatatum are 2n = 40, 50, 60 (PROTA, 2017). Germplasm collections are stored at various institutions, with the oldest collection in storage being around 21 years old (Glison et al., 2015; Kew Royal Botanic Gardens, 2017; PROTA, 2017; USDA-ARS, 2017). DNA barcode information for the species is available at the Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLD, 2017). Seeds are produced in Australia, USA and Uruguay, and breeding work is being undertaken to increase species resistance to ergot and anthracnose, and to improve species management (Glison et al., 2015; PROTA, 2017).

The species is mainly apomictic by apospory and pseudogamy, with the sexual type being less common. Crossing apomict and sexual plants produces an interspecific hybrid with 2n = 50 (PROTA, 2017). There are reports of hybrids between P. dilatatum and P. urvellei (Miz and Souza-Chies, 2006). Important cultivars developed for P. dilatatum are ‘raki’ from New Zealand, ‘charu’ from Uruguay and ‘natsugumo’ from Japan (PROTA, 2017).

Reproductive Biology

Reproduction of P. dilatatum is by seed (PROTA, 2017). Most seeds are produced by apomixis, although wind pollination and pollination by solitary bees have been reported for the species (Adams et al., 1981). Pollen viability is low (Miz and Souza-Chies, 2006). Seed production is 570-750 seeds/g and is inhibited below 13°C (FAO, 2017; PROTA, 2017). Seeds have some post-harvesting dormancy, which is broken by removal of the glumes (FAO, 2017; PROSEA, 2017). It is considered a slow starter species, with slow germination and establishment rates (Miz and Souza-Chies, 2006; PROTA, 2017).  

Physiology and Phenology

P. dilatatum flowering and fruiting occurs from spring to summer, after which flowering declines (FAO, 2017; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2017). Early growth is slow but, once established, it grows vigorously. The fastest growth occurs during the reproductive season and slows down during mid-summer and autumn. In subtropical regions and at higher altitudes, the species becomes dormant during cool periods (PROTA, 2017).

Associations

P. dilatatum is usually grown with other fast growing plants in order to improve pastures (Heuzé et al., 2015). Species that are grown in association with P. dilatatum are Trifolium repens, T. semipilosum, T. subterraneum, Vigna parkeri, Cynodon dactylon and Lolium rigidum (Heuzé et al., 2015; PROTA, 2017).

Environmental Requirements

P. dilatatum can grow in areas with annual rainfall from 750 to 1650 mm, but is better adapted to permanently humid subtropical conditions of 10 to 12 humid months, with over 1000 mm annual rainfall (FAO, 2017; PROTA, 2017). It prefers moist fertile soils of fine and medium texture, with a pH of 4.9 to 7.5, although it can grow on heavy clay soils (Encyclopedia of Life, 2017; FAO, 2017). The species tolerates flooding, but will also grow in dry areas, being drought tolerant (Heuzé et al., 2015; PROTA, 2017). It is not common in areas exposed to fires, although it recovers well from them (FAO, 2017). Optimum growing temperature is 22 to 30°C, but it can grow in temperatures as low as -3°C, as its deep roots allow it to regrow after frost (Heuzé et al., 2015). It requires full sun and has an optimal day-length response of 14-16 hours (PROTA, 2017).

Climate

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

Air Temperature

Rainfall

Soil Tolerances

Soil drainage

• free
• seasonally waterlogged

Soil reaction

• acid
• alkaline
• neutral

Soil texture

• heavy
• light
• medium

Natural enemies

Notes on Natural Enemies

P. dilatatum is affected by the following pests: Claviceps paspali, Glomerella graminicola [Colletotrichum graminicola] and Helminthosporium micropus [Bipolaris micropus]; the insects Lepidiota caudata, Rhopaea spp. and Diatraea saccharalis; and the barley and cereal yellow dwarf viruses (B/CYDV) and the Paspalum striate mosaic virus (PSMV) (Geering et al., 2012; Rúa et al., 2014; FAO, 2017; PROTA, 2017).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Natural Dispersal

P. dilatatum can be dispersed by water (PIER, 2017).

Vector Transmission (Biotic)

P. dilatatum can be dispersed by animals (Eurobodalla Shire Council, 2017; PIER, 2017; PROTA, 2017).

Accidental Introduction

P. dilatatum has been accidentally dispersed by soil, clothing, machinery and vehicles (Eurobodalla Shire Council, 2017).

Intentional Introduction

P. dilatatum has been introduced in tropical, subtropical and temperate regions as a forage species (PROTA, 2017).

Pathway Causes

Pathway Vectors

Economic Impact

P. dilatatum is reported to be a potential seed contaminant (USDA-ARS, 2017) and to cause problems in irrigation channels (Nasseri, 2016).

Environmental Impact

Impact on Biodiversity

P. dilatatum forms dense stands that smother and prevent recruitment of native species (PIER, 2017). The species by itself is not toxic, but can be infected by the ergot fungus Claviceps paspali, which is toxic to animals (FAO, 2017; PROTA, 2017; USDA-ARS, 2017).

Social Impact

P. dilatatum is a pest of lawns and turf grass (PROTA, 2017). It tolerates close mowing, traffic and high soil moisture, which contributes to its persistence in lawns (Elmore et al., 2013).

Risk and Impact Factors

• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Has a broad native range
• Highly adaptable to different environments
• Is a habitat generalist
• Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
• Pioneering in disturbed areas
• Long lived
• Gregarious
• Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
• Reproduces asexually
• Has high genetic variability

• Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
• Monoculture formation
• Negatively impacts agriculture
• Negatively impacts animal health
• Reduced native biodiversity
• Threat to/ loss of native species

• Competition - monopolizing resources
• Competition - shading
• Competition - smothering
• Pest and disease transmission

• Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
• Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Uses

Economic Value
P. dilatatum is one of the earliest grasses used for sown pastures (Tropical Forages, 2017). Its use is favoured due to its palatability, productivity and ability to withstand heavy grazing. High production and milk yields are obtained from animals feeding on P. dilatatum (PROTA, 2017). It is one of the grasses recommended for broadening and stabilisation of the forage production calendar in Mediterranean-type environments (Gherbin et al., 2007). 
Social Benefit 
P. dilatatum is used as fodder/forage, for hay and silage (USDA-ARS, 2017). It is also used as a source of vitamins and minerals (PROTA, 2017).
Environmental Services
P. dilatatum is used for erosion control and for mine habitat restoration (USDA-ARS, 2017). In Australia, it is foraged by the eastern grey kangaroo (Macropus giganteus) and the common wombat (Vombatus ursinus) (Jarman and Evans, 2010).

Uses List

Animal feed, fodder, forage

• Fodder/animal feed
• Forage

Environmental

• Erosion control or dune stabilization
• Soil conservation

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

P. dilatatum is similar to P. mandiocanum, P. notatum, P. urvillei, P. scrobiculatum and P. quadrifarium (University of Queensland, 2017). These species can be differentiated by the following: P. dilatatum is a moderately-sized grass with narrow leaves, large flower spikelets (3-4 mm long), long silky hairs on the leaf margins and seed-heads usually with 3-7 branches. P. mandiocanum is a low-growing grass with broad leaves, small flower spikelets (2-2.5 mm long), without long silky hairs on the leaf margins and seed-heads usually with 3-10 branches. P. notatum is a low-growing grass with relatively narrow leaves, relatively large flower spikelets (2.75-4 mm long), without silky hairs on the leaf margins and seed-heads usually with only two branches. P. urvillei is a tall grass with narrow leaves, small flower spikelets with long silky hairs on the leaf margins and seed-heads usually with 10-20 branches. P. scrobiculatum is a moderate-sized grass with narrow leaves, small flower spikelets (2-2.5 mm long), without long silky hairs on the leaf margins and seed-heads usually with only 2-7 branches (i.e. racemes). P. quadrifarium is a tall grass (1-2 m tall) with narrow leaves, relatively small flower spikelets (2-3 mm long), without long silky hairs on the leaf margins and seed-heads usually with 15-25 branches.

Prevention and Control

Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Prevention

In Canada, although the species is not present, it is listed as a prohibited noxious weed under the Seeds Act (Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 2017).

Control

Physical/mechanical control

Small plants of P. dilatatum can be dug out, removing all rhizomes. Plants that are cut or mowed regenerate fast, so mowing should be combined with chemical control (Henry et al., 2007a; PIER, 2017).

Chemical control

Herbicides recommended for the control of P. dilatatum are: paraquat, glyphosate, thiencarbazone-methyl, foramsulfuron, halosulfuron-methyl, fluazifop and monosodium methanearsonate (MSMA) combined with foramsulfuron (Henry et al., 2007b; Elmore et al., 2013; Johnston and Henry, 2016; PIER, 2017).

Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs

More detailed information about the species impacts on habitats and other species is needed.

References

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BOLD, 2017. BOLD Systems - Barcode of Life Data System. http://www.boldsystems.org/index.php/

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Nasseri, A., 2016. Canal geometry, flow velocity, dallisgrass (Paspalum dilatatum Poir.) density and soil phosphorous effects on hydraulic resistance of vegetated canals. Tarim Bilimleri Dergisi, 22(2), 187-195. http://tarimbilimleri.agri.ankara.edu.tr/2016/22_2/6.makale%20(1).pdf

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Distribution References

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Links to Websites

Contributors

07/02/17 Original text by:

Jeanine Vélez-Gavilán, Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, USA

Distribution Maps