Falcataria moluccana (batai wood)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Impact Summary
- Environmental Impact
- Threatened Species
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Wood Products
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Falcataria moluccana (Miq.) Barneby & J. W. Grimes
Preferred Common Name
- batai wood
Other Scientific Names
- Adenanthera falcata L.
- Adenanthera falcatoria L.
- Albizia eymae Fosberg
- Albizia falcata (L.) Backer
- Albizia falcata auct.
- Albizia falcataria (L.) Fosberg
- Albizia falcatoria (L.) Fosberg
- Albizia fulva Lane-Poole
- Albizia moluccana Miq.
- Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) I. C. Nielsen
- Paraserianthes falcatoria (L.) I. C. Nielsen
International Common Names
- English: Molucca albizzia; peacock's plume; sau
Local Common Names
- Bangladesh: koroi; malacarma
- Brunei Darussalam: puah
- Cook Islands: 'arapitia
- Cuba: albizia
- Indonesia: albesia-wood; belalu; jeungjing; mara; parasiante; sengon
- Indonesia/Java: sengon laut; sika
- Malaysia: batai; bataiwood; kayu machis; Molucca albizia; Moluccan sau
- Malaysia/Sarawak: kayu macis
- Palau: ukall ra ngebard
- Papua New Guinea: white albizia
- Philippines: falcate; Mollucan sau
- Samoa: tamaligi; tamaligi pa'epa'e; tamaligi palagi
- USA/Hawaii: peacock's plume
EPPO code
- ALBFA (Albizia falcataria)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageNative to parts of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, F. moluccana has been widely introduced throughout the tropics as a very fast growing plantation tree (7 m in the first year), for shade and also as an ornamental. Still widely cultivated and exploited, it has escaped and become invasive especially in natural lowland humid forests on Pacific and also Indian Ocean islands, where it alters ecosystem function through nitrogen fixation and eliminates native species. This tendency could also occur in other countries where it is present but not yet widespread, such as tropical America and Africa, and the dangers of possible invasion should be highlighted prior to making any further introductions.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Fabales
- Family: Fabaceae
- Subfamily: Mimosoideae
- Genus: Falcataria
- Species: Falcataria moluccana
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageFalcataria moluccana has undergone considerable changing in its nomenclature over the years, previously placed in the genus Paraserianthes. It has two or three subspecies, subsp. falcataria (L.) I.C.Nielsen and subsp. fulva (Lane-Poole) I.C.Nielsen (ILDIS, 2009), and subsp. solomonensis has also been described for the Solomon Islands (Nielsen et al., 1983). The species name ‘falcata’ comes from the sickle-shaped pods. It should not be mistaken with Aleurites moluccanus, sometimes incorrectly known as A. moluccana, which is a different distinct species.
Description
Top of pageF. moluccana is a medium to fairly large-sized tree up to 40 m high with a small buttress. The bole is branchless up to 20 m and up to 100 cm or more in girth and in dense stands is generally straight and cylindrical. When grown in the open, trees form a large canopy, which is umbrella shaped. In plantations of 1000-2000 trees per ha the crowns become narrow. The bark is light grey with warts, inner bark smooth and pink though young parts may be densely reddish brown tomentose or puberulent. Leaves alternate, bipinnately compound and 20-40 cm long with 4-(10-12)-15 pairs of pinnae, each pinnae 5-10 cm long containing 8-(15-20)-25 falcate leaflets 10-20 mm long and 3-6 mm wide, pubescent, dull green above, paler below, obliquely elliptic, falcate, midrib strongly excentric near one of the margins. Leaves each have a large nectary below the lowermost pair of pinnae and smaller ones between or below most pairs of pinnae. Flowers are large, branched, bell-shaped, in paniculate axillary racemes ca 20 cm in diameter, often with 2 serial branches from 1 bract scar; calyx 1-1.5 mm long, silky pubescent, the teeth 0.5 mm long. The flowers are bisexual, regular and 5-merous. The corolla is creamy-white to greenish-white and sericeous 3-4.5 mm long (excl. stamens); stamens 10-17 mm long, numerous and extend beyond the corolla. Pods are narrow and flat, densely pubescent or glabrous, green turning brown and splitting on maturity, 10-13 cm long and 1.5-2.5 cm wide, winged along ventral suture with many (ca. 20) transversely arranged, ellipsoid, flat dark brown seeds, 5-7 mm long, 2.5-3.5 mm wide.
Distribution
Top of pageIt is native only to parts of Indonesia (Moluccas and Irian Jaya), Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands according to USDA-ARS (2009), whereas ILDIS (2009) give a wider native range, also encompassing Java and Sumatra (Indonesia), Sabah and Peninsular Malaysia (Malaysia) and Bougainville island (Papua New Guinea), and note it of uncertain nativity in the Solomon Islands and the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea). The larger native range is accepted in this datasheet.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 17 Dec 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Planted | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
||||||||
Angola | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Cameroon | Present | Planted | ||||||
Côte d'Ivoire | Present | Planted | ||||||
Guinea-Bissau | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Kenya | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Madagascar | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Malawi | Present | Planted | ||||||
Mauritius | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Mozambique | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Nigeria | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Réunion | Present | Introduced | ||||||
São Tomé and Príncipe | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Seychelles | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Uganda | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Asia |
||||||||
Bangladesh | Present | Planted | ||||||
China | Present, Localized | Introduced | ||||||
-Fujian | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Guangdong | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Guangxi | Present | Introduced | ||||||
India | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Assam | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Kerala | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Tamil Nadu | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-West Bengal | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Indonesia | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | ||||||
-Irian Jaya | Present | Native | ||||||
-Java | Present | Native | Planted | |||||
-Maluku Islands | Present | Native | ||||||
-Sumatra | Present | Native | ||||||
Malaysia | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | ||||||
-Peninsular Malaysia | Present | Native | Planted | |||||
-Sabah | Present | Native | Planted | |||||
-Sarawak | Present | Planted | ||||||
Philippines | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Singapore | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
North America |
||||||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Mexico | Present | Planted | ||||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | ||||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Oceania |
||||||||
American Samoa | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Cook Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Federated States of Micronesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Fiji | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Guam | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
New Caledonia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Niue | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Palau | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | Native | Native to the mainland, Bougainville and the Bismark Archipelago | |||||
Samoa | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Planted | ||||
Solomon Islands | Present | Native | ||||||
Timor-Leste | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Tonga | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Wallis and Futuna | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
South America |
||||||||
Chile | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | ||||||
-Easter Island | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Venezuela | Present | Introduced |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageIn the humid tropics there has been widespread planting of F. moluccana for fuelwood and charcoal, for alley farming and intercropping in forest plantations, and as an ornamental tree. It was introduced into Hawai‘i in 1917 by Joseph Rock from North Borneo and Java as an ornamental and for reforestation (Little and Skolmen, 1989; Wagner et al., 1999), with 138,000 trees were planted for reforestation between 1910 and 1960 (Skolmen, 1960) including aerial sowing of seeds (Smith, 1998) and has since naturalized (Motooka et al., 2003). In French Polynesia, 3300 ha of F. moluccana and Casuarina equisetifolia were planted by the Forest Service between 1960 and 1970 on almost all high islands, to reforest areas subject to soil erosion or which had been destroyed by bushfires, and F. moluccana was also used as a windbreak and shade tree in coffee plantations, but quickly naturalized and became invasive in natural forests (Meyer, 2007). It is likely to be present in more countries than included in the distribution table, especially in tropical Africa and the Americas.
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageIt was rated with a ‘high’ score of 8 in a risk assessment for the Pacific (PIER, 2014), and it was included in a decree in French Polynesia in 2006 as one of 35 invasive plants declared to be ‘species that threaten biodiversity’, subject to a ban on new imports, propagation and planting, and prohibition of transfer from one island to another of any whole plant, fragment of plant, cutting, fruit or seed (Meyer, 2007). Being valued as a shade tree, for plantation forestry and as an ornamental, it is likely to be further introduced and could prove to be a risk in many other tropical countries where it is not yet recorded as present, especially in tropical America and Africa.
Habitat
Top of pageF. moluccana grows from sea level to 1500 m elevation but is most common in mesic, lowland areas. It is most commonly found in national secondary forests, the primary deciduous forests and mountain forests, but it also found in planted forests, disturbed areas, and river flood terraces. The abundance of growth of wildings in the forest only occurs when the soil is cleared from the undergrowth and the canopy opened (Soerianegara and Lemmens, 1993). In Hawaii, it has established naturally in abandoned sugarcane fields as well as in the forest wherever there are seed trees (Little and Skolmen, 1989), and it is also spreading on pasture land (Starr et al., 2003).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageF. moluccana thrives on comparatively poor soils as long as they are well drained and survival is poor on seasonally waterlogged sites (Hocking and Islam, 1995). It also grows on both acidic and alkaline soils although it does better on alkaline soils (Ruskin, 1983). The most important indicator of site quality for F. moluccana is the depth of top soil, and it grows best with 19-26 cm of well drained topsoil with 3-8 % organic matter and exchangeable potassium of 0.36 meq/100 g soil (Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association, 1989).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
30 | 10 | 0 | 2300 |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) | 5 | |
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 22 | 29 |
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC) | 30 | 34 |
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC) | 20 | 24 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Dry season duration | 0 | 2 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
Mean annual rainfall | 2000 | 4000 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
Soil reaction
- acid
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- infertile
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageSeedlings in nurseries are prone to damping-off caused by the fungi Sclerotium, Rhizoctonia, Fusarium, Phytophthora and Pythium. Leaf-eating caterpillars and aphids are also occasional problems to seedlings and trees in plantations. Other fungal diseases include pink canker caused by Corticium salmonicolor and red root caused by Ganoderma pseudoferreum. The stem borer Xystrocera festiva (longicorn beetle) and red borer Zeuzera coffea (cossid moth) are amongst the pests found in plantations in Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines (Natawiria, 1973). Pellicularia salmonicolor and P. filamentosa were found to be parasitic on F. moluccana in Assam, India (Agnihothrudu, 1962). See the Natural Enemies table for a complete list of pests recorded on F. moluccana.
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageF. moluccana was originally dispersed long distances intentionally for forestry, landscaping or other purposes, before spreading to nearby forests, pastures, and open areas.
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Crop production | Yes | Yes | ||
Disturbance | Yes | |||
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Yes | |||
Forestry | Yes | Yes | ||
Ornamental purposes | Yes | Yes |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Positive |
Economic/livelihood | Positive |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Environmental Impact
Top of pageOn the very nutrient-poor soils of the granitic Seychelles, some pioneer invasive species produce more decomposable litter and therefore have the potential to alter rates of nutrient cycling. However, the small differences in soil fertility beneath native tree and the invasive F. moluccana and Cinnamomum verum suggest that impacts of these invasive species on nutrient cycling are more complex and less predictable in nutrient-poor ecosystems, where several nutrients may be co-limiting, and native and alien species coexist (Keuffer et al., 2008).
Threatened Species
Top of pageThreatened Species | Conservation Status | Where Threatened | Mechanism | References | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Metrosideros polymorpha | No details | Hawaii | Hughes and Denslow (2005) |
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Highly mobile locally
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Has high genetic variability
- Altered trophic level
- Damaged ecosystem services
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Increases vulnerability to invasions
- Modification of nutrient regime
- Modification of successional patterns
- Monoculture formation
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of endangered species
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - shading
- Interaction with other invasive species
- Rapid growth
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
- Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Top of pageEconomic Value
Pruning is required as there is a tendency for stems to fork. Trees grown for timber have a harvest cycle of 12-15 years while for pulp production the cutting cycle is approximately 8 years. In agroforestry systems with annual crops in the first year and grazing animals in subsequent years, the cutting cycle for F. moluccana is 10-15 years (Soerianegara and Lemmens, 1993).
The narrow crown of F. moluccana provides partial shade to tea, cacao and coffee. However, the importance of this species as a shade tree for these crops is rather limited, as solitary trees are prone to wind damage. When planted in rows they are also suitable as a windbreak for bananas (NFTA, 1989), but F. moluccana is easily damaged by wind and is therefore not suitable to be planted in areas prone to strong winds, and it also not suitable for steep slopes (Ruskin, 1983).
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Fodder/animal feed
Environmental
- Agroforestry
- Amenity
- Land reclamation
- Revegetation
- Shade and shelter
- Soil improvement
- Windbreak
Fuels
- Charcoal
- Fuelwood
General
- Ornamental
Human food and beverage
- Seeds
Materials
- Bark products
- Green manure
- Tanstuffs
- Wood/timber
Wood Products
Top of pageBoats
Containers
- Crates
- Pallets
Furniture
Pulp
- Long-fibre pulp
Sawn or hewn building timbers
- Carpentry/joinery (exterior/interior)
- For light construction
Veneers
Wood wool
Wood-based materials
- Composite boards
- Fibreboard
- Gypsum board
- Hardboard
- Laminated veneer lumber
- Laminated wood
- Medium density fibreboard
- Particleboard
- Plywood
- Wood cement
Woodware
- Industrial and domestic woodware
- Matches
- Musical instruments
- Toys
- Turnery
- Wood carvings
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageA related species that was widely planted in Hawaii from 1910-1960 is Paraserianthes lophantha subsp. montana, and other species planted in lesser numbers include Albizia acle, A. caribaea, A. chinensis, A. katangensis, A. lebbekoides, A. procera, A. saponaria, and A. zygia (Skolmen, 1960). P. lophantha has also naturalised in Hawaii (Oppenheimer and Bartlett, 2002) and is also invasive in New Zealand (Haley, 1997).
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
F. moluccana is verysusceptible to hormone type herbicides, being severely injured by cut-surface application of 2,4-D and by glyphosate and killed outright by dicamba and triclopyr. It is susceptible to basal bark or cut stumps applications of triclopyr (Motookaet al., 2003). For the related Paraserianthes lophantha subsp. montana in New Zealand, Starr et al. (2003) reports that trees can be controlled by either a cut stump and herbicide method, or, as Haley (1997) reports that felling trees may open up new space and light gaps for more seedling to establish, frilling is the preferred method. Girdle or ringbark 20 cm from the ground and paint the exposed area immediately with a herbicide, and there is also no costs associated with the removal of material.
References
Top of pageBooth TH; Jovanovic T, 2000. Improving descriptions of climatic requirements in the CABI Forestry Compendium. A report for the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research. CSIRO - Forestry and Forest Products, Client Report No. 758.
CABI, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CABI.
Faridah Hanum I; Maesen LJG van der, eds. , 1997. Plant resources of southeast Asia. No. 11. Auxillary plants. Leiden, Netherlands: Backhuys.
Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association, 1989. Paraserianthes falcataria - Southeast Asia's growth champion, USA: NFTA, 89-05.
Oviedo Prieto R; Herrera Oliver P; Caluff MG, et al. , 2012. National list of invasive and potentially invasive plants in the Republic of Cuba - 2011. (Lista nacional de especies de plantas invasoras y potencialmente invasoras en la República de Cuba - 2011). Bissea: Boletín sobre Conservación de Plantas del Jardín Botánico Nacional de Cuba, 6(Special Issue 1):22-96.
PIER, 2014. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Roshetko J, 1998. Albizia and Paraserianthes production and use: a field manual. Morrilton, AR, USA: Forest, Farm, and Community Tree Network (FACT Net).
Distribution References
CABI, 2005. Forestry Compendium. In: Forestry Compendium, Wallingford, UK: CABI.
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
PIER, 2014. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
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