Opuntia ficus-indica (prickly pear)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Plant Trade
- Impact Summary
- Impact
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Threatened Species
- Social Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
Don't need the entire report?
Generate a print friendly version containing only the sections you need.
Generate reportIdentity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.
Preferred Common Name
- prickly pear
Other Scientific Names
- Cactus compressus Salisb.
- Cactus ficus-indica L.
- Cactus opuntia L.
- Opuntia compressa McBride
- Opuntia cordobensis Speg.
- Opuntia ficus-barbarica Berger
- Opuntia gymnocarpa F.A.C. Weber
- Opuntia megacantha Salm-Dyck
- Opuntia streptacantha Lem.
- Opuntia tuna-blanca Speg.
- Opuntia vulgaris Mill.
International Common Names
- English: barbary fig; cactus pear; Indian fig; Indian fig prickly pear; Indian pricklypear; mission fig; smooth prickly pear
- Spanish: chumba; chumbera; higo Indico; higuera de las Indias; nopal de castille; tuna; tuna mansa
- French: figuier de barbarie; figuier d'Inde
Local Common Names
- Brazil: nopal; palma adensada; palma forrageira; palma-de-gado
- Ethiopia: beles
- France: raquette
- Germany: Indischer Feigenkaktus
- Italy: fico d'India; pero pungente
- Mexico: nochtli
- Netherlands: schijfcactus
- South Africa: turksvy
EPPO code
- OPUFI (Opuntia ficus-indica)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageO. ficus-indica is the most widespread and most commercially important cactus, and has been, and continues to be, widely introduced as a commercial fruit and fodder crop and more recently as part of forestry or agroforestry projects in developing countries. This has led to a large improvement to livelihoods, but has also resulted in environmental problems when the plant has become invasive. Animals disperse seed widely and vegetative propagation has made this species difficult to eradicate by mechanical and chemical means. Biological control has proved effective in some areas, but the conflict with commercial production has limited the adoption of this method in other countries.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Caryophyllales
- Family: Cactaceae
- Genus: Opuntia
- Species: Opuntia ficus-indica
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageConsiderable variation within many Opuntia species is common. The taxonomic confusion started when taxonomists described new species from single specimens resulting in names being created for variants or biotypes within a species. This problem is particularly apparent in Opuntia and DNA sequencing is now being applied to resolve the confusion. Many species are now recognized as mere variants of O. ficus-indica. Kiesling (1999) recognized two forms of O. ficus-indica, namely, O. ficus-indica f. ficus-indica (including O. tuna-blanca Speg., O. ficus-indica var. gymnocarpa Speg., O. ficus-indica var. decumana (Willd.) Speg.) and O. ficus-indica f. amyclaea (Ten.) Schelle (including O. cordobensis Speg., O. megacantha Salm-Dick and O. streptacatha Lem.). However, although it was suggested by Kielsling (1999) that O. megacantha and O. streptacatha be retained, they are treated as synonyms within this datasheet. Other names that were used for this species include Cactus ficus-indica L., C. opuntia L., Opuntia vulgaris P. Miller (including Platyopuntia vulgaris (P. Miller) F. Ritter), C. compressus R. A. Salisbury, O. compressa McBride and O. ficus-barbarica Berger (Anderson, 2001). Recently, Scheinvar (1995) described a new species, O. albicarpa Scheinvar which groups together O. megacantha, O. amyclaea and O. ficus-indica var. amyclaea so adding to the taxonomic confusion surrounding the O. ficus-indica taxon. Concerning common names, 'prickly pear' is now more widely used to describe the spiny, wild-growing and weedy types of O. ficus-indica whereas 'cactus pear' is confined to the spineless forms which are widely cultivated. Many other names are also commonly used (e.g. Bravo-Hollis, 1978).
Description
Top of pageO. ficus-indica is a large trunk-forming segmented cactus which can attain a height of 5–7 m with a crown of over 3 m in diameter and a trunk up to 1 m in diameter. Cladodes (flat stem segments) are green to blue-green, whereas the terminal cladodes are always bright green and produce the flowers and new growth. The cladodes bear few spines to 2.5 cm or are completely spineless. Cladodes are obovate to oblong, 20–60 cm long and 10–40 cm wide, generally a half to two-thirds as broad as long. Glochids (spines) are yellow, numerous, caducous, or may not be present. Basal cladodes become woody with age. Areoles, which can number a few hundred per cladode, generally produce only one flower each. Flowers form at the apex of the cladodes, yellow or orange, cup-shaped, 6–7 cm long by 5–7 cm across. The fruit is oblong, 5–10 cm long by 4–9 cm across, green at first ripening to yellow, orange, red or purple in colour depending on the variety. The number of ovules and hence possible seeds is 150–400 (Janick and Paull, 2008).
Distribution
Top of pageO. ficus-indica has been cultivated from pre-Columbian times in Mesoamerica and it is thus almost impossible to locate the exact origin of the species, although most ethnobotanists seem to agree that it probably originated in the Central Mexican valley. It has been introduced throughout the world and is very widespread. There is probably hardly a country with Mediterranean or sub-tropical to tropical climate that is without this species, and no attempt has been made to include all records of presence around the world as a cultivated species. The distribution list includes the countries where O. ficus-indica has reverted to spiny forms or where thorny varieties have been introduced, though is likely to be missing many other countries where non-cultivated forms exist, and those where naturalisation has begun to occur.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Feb 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Planted | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
||||||||
Botswana | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | ||||
Cabo Verde | Present | |||||||
Egypt | Present | |||||||
Eritrea | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Planted | ||||
Ethiopia | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Planted | ||||
Kenya | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Madagascar | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | Planted | ||||
Malawi | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Réunion | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Rwanda | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | ||||
Seychelles | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Somalia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Planted | ||||
South Africa | Present, Localized | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Tanzania | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Uganda | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | ||||
Zambia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||||
Asia |
||||||||
China | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | ||||||
-Fujian | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Planted | ||||
-Guangdong | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Planted | ||||
-Guangxi | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Planted | ||||
-Guizhou | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Planted | ||||
-Sichuan | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Planted | ||||
-Yunnan | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Planted | ||||
-Zhejiang | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Planted | ||||
Jordan | Present | |||||||
Taiwan | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Planted | ||||
Yemen | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Planted | ||||
-Socotra | Present | Introduced | 2004 | |||||
Europe |
||||||||
Albania | Present | Introduced | 1983 | |||||
Cyprus | Present | Introduced | 1865 | |||||
France | Present | Introduced | 1834 | |||||
-Corsica | Present | Introduced | 1834 | |||||
Italy | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Sicily | Present | |||||||
Spain | Present | Introduced | 1986 | As: Opuntia vulgaris | ||||
-Canary Islands | Present | Introduced | As: Opuntia vulgaris. First reported: 1960's | |||||
Sweden | Present | Introduced | 2002 | |||||
North America |
||||||||
Costa Rica | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Honduras | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Mexico | Present | Native | ||||||
Nicaragua | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | ||||||
-Arizona | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-California | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Hawaii | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
-Missouri | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-New Mexico | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-North Carolina | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Texas | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Oceania |
||||||||
Australia | Present, Localized | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-New South Wales | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Planted | ||||
-Victoria | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Planted | ||||
South America |
||||||||
Bolivia | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Brazil | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Distrito Federal | Present | |||||||
Ecuador | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Galapagos Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Paraguay | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Peru | Present | Introduced | Planted |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageProbably originating from the central Mexican plateau, O. ficus-indica has been introduced to all continents except Antarctica, following the colonization of the Americas. The first introductions to Europe in the 1500s were more as a curiosity, and the multiple uses of the plant were only discovered later. Spineless forms of cactus pear are used in cultivation because they are always vegetatively reproduced whereas the main means of the spread of the spiny weedy O. ficus-indica is by seeds (Annecke and Moran, 1978). It is speculated that mainly spineless types were initially cultivated and that, as the plants naturalized and spread, they reverted back to the original spiny and weedy forms through gene recombination and natural selection, as animals would avoid feeding on spiny types preferring the spineless ones.
Infestations of the spiny O. ficus-indica are recorded from countries that have cultivated it for more than 100 years and it is very invasive in Australia, Eritrea, Ethiopia, South Africa and Hawaii, USA and also to some extent in Somalia and Yemen (Brutsch and Zimmermann, 1995). Countries that have only recently started to cultivate O. ficus-indica, e.g. Brazil, China, India and Pakistan are likely to see similar developments occurring, although the process may take up to 100 years. Infestations do not develop easily in strictly Mediterranean climates because of the long and dry summers. However, Le Houérou (2002) notes that cactus plantations and hedges probably cover approximately one million hectares in the Mediterraean Basin, including O. ficus-indica fa. amyclaea (the spiny form), but unlike in other subtropical zones, cacti never became an invasive pest. Le Houérou (2002) concludes that spineless cacti never become invasive pests as they are grazed out, unless totally protected from herbivores, either naturally (cliffs) or artificially (fences).
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageThe risk of further introductions is high, as this species is intentionally planted as a new fruit and fodder crop. It is highly valued as a commercial species and many countries especially in Asia have recently established large-scale plantations. However, historical records appear to indicate a time-lag of about 100 years between introduction and the beginnings of invasive spread, thus the actual risk may be low. It should be noted that Robertson et al. (2003) ranked O. ficus-indica as the third most important invasive plant in terms of management requirements in South Africa.
Habitat
Top of pageIt is native to regions with a temperate to sub-tropical climate with typical summer rains and cool and dry winters (Hoffmann, 1995). In other parts of the world where O. ficus-indica is invasive, similar climates exist, for example in Eritrea, Ethiopia and the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Although it is now successfully cultivated in several Mediterranean countries, critical moisture shortage can be a limiting factor during the hot and dry summers unless the plantations are irrigated, which may explain why the plant has never seriously invaded Mediterranean areas. Its climatic tolerances are wide and it can proliferate in rainfall regimes of 250 to 1200 mm per annum with very hot summers of over 40°C, and cold winters with temperatures frequently falling below 0°C for brief durations (Le Houérou, 2002). Plants do not tolerate salinity but thrive on well-drained soils and because of their superficially spreading root system can proliferate in shallow and rocky substrates. Abandoned agricultural land is ideal for O. ficus-indica invasion, and it also establishes well in disturbed savanna, bush and shrub land vegetation but poorly in high rainfall grassland. Around the Mediterranean, from Spain to Turkey (Bekir, 2006), it can often be found growing on pathsides or roadsides, on sleep slopes and rocky outcrops where little else grow, as well as around fields and suburban plots, and here, thickets can be dense, and may reach many metres in height. O. ficus-indica does not thrive in tropical situations with constantly high humidities, in shady conditions, nor in areas with extreme drought or very long dry periods.
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Deserts | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Deserts | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Deserts | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Arid regions | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Arid regions | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Arid regions | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageO. ficus-indica is not a normally a crop weed. However, in Ethiopia, infestations and hedges that surround cultivated lands are invading from the periphery, which then gradually reduce the cultivatable area and farmers have very limited means to control these invading plants from their lands. These aggressive invasions can, in time, take over entire cultivated land areas. Dense infestations also out-compete with other plants eventually leading to monospecific stands of O. ficus-indica which occurs on pastures and grazing is severely impeded, with stock forced to eat predominantly O. ficus-indica for survival.
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The genetic history of many domesticated plants is difficult to unravel and O. ficus-indica is no exception. This and many similar species in Mexico show great phenotypic variability, especially in rural home gardens where man has been cross-breeding and selecting types for his specific needs. This variability of domesticated and wild populations arose via natural hybridization and selection associated with polyploidy and geographic isolation (Gibson and Nobel, 1986). These varieties further reproduced by self-fertilization, fraternal crossing with sister plants or the original parent giving rise to further variation (Grant and Grant, 1979). During the early stages of domestication, phenotypes with higher ploidy levels, vigorous cladodes and bigger fruit were probably preferentially selected and established in gardens and small cultivations (Pimienta-Barrios and Munoz-Urias, 1995). It is these selections were probably introduced to Europe and later elsewhere. Cultivated O. ficus-indica plants are all octoploids with 2n=88 chromosomes according to Pimienta-Barrios and Munoz-Urias (1995), whereas Nobel (2002) notes that cultivated forms may be octoploids (2n=88) or hexaploids (2n=66). Spontaneous forms are either diploid (2n=22) or tetraploid (2n=44) (Nobel, 2002).
Phenology and Physiology
The ecological successes of O. ficus-indica and other Opuntiae lies mainly in their ability to conserve water. This is done by means of the CAM (Crassulacean acid metabolism) photosynthetic pathway which conserves water by nocturnal stomatal opening and by a relatively small stomatal surface area (Nobel, 1995; Nobel and Bobich, 2002) while still retaining a high productivity compared to other plants (Nobel, 1988; 1994). In addition O. ficus-indica is able to store water within their vacuoles in the photosynthetic and parenchyma cells. Further adaptations include the epidermis, a single layer of cells on the outer side of the chlorenchyma and the thick, waxy, waterproof cuticle. Germination and the survival of the young seedling are the critical phases in the phenology of O. ficus-indica. Survival is higher where seedlings are associated with nurse plants for protection. Once the seedlings have reached the 4-cladode stage and have become succulent, survival is considerably increased. Plants originating from seeds take longer to establish and flower than plants from cuttings.
Among the main modifications in the course of evolution of Opuntia are the modified stems (cladodes) which have undergone changes towards succulency including increased stomatal frequency, a palisade cortex, a large internal surface area due to extensive intercellular spaces, wood modifications and atypical pith features (Sudzuki Hills, 1995). Very young cladodes produce rudimentary leaves which dehisce within about a week leaving the plant leafless with the cladodes becoming increasingly succulent and taking over the function of leaves. A typical feature of the younger cladodes are the areoles which are the axillary buds imbedded in the epidermis and which give rise to new shoots, flowers and roots from the meristematic tissue. They are distributed over the entire surface of a cladode in a helical pattern. Spines also develop from the basal meristem cells in the areoles and could be either the typical long white ones or the very short ones that occur as clusters inside the cavities of the areoles and are known as glochids (spine hairs). Older cladodes become more woody and the green epidermis is eventually replaced by bark (periderm). These woody stems provide the necessary support that eventually gives rise to the typical shape of an O. ficus-indica tree. O. ficus-indica has a life-span of over 80 years.
Reproductive Biology
Reproduction is both sexual and vegetative (Pimiento-Barrios and Del Castillo, 2002). Even a small section of a cladode can root and grow provided there are at least two areoles present. Pieces of a cladode can survive for long periods in extreme conditions waiting for moisture to take root. Asexual reproduction can also be apomyctic when embryogenesis occurs without pollination, and in O. ficus-indica, 10.9 to 18.5% of the seeds are produced by apomyxis (Mondragon-Jacobo and Pimiento-Barrios, 1995). The number of viable seeds per fruit can vary from 177 to 357 with a few aborted seeds present. Although scarification is necessary for germination, the dormancy period is short and maximum germination occurs after 9 months where seeds have been stored at room temperature.
Environmental Requirements
O. ficus-indica colonizes well in areas with mild winters usually associated with a prolonged dry spell followed by a hot summer rainfall period of low humidity. This explains in part why O. ficus-indica is less invasive in Mediterranean climates although it has become an important crop in these areas. A mean annual rainfall of 350–500 mm is required for good growth (Inglese, 1995). O. ficus-indica is well adapted to proliferate in a wide range of soils, from sub-acid to sub-alkaline provided the clay content does not exceed 15–20% and the soil is well-drained. The superficial root system allows the plant to grow in shallow soils and explains why O. ficus-indica proliferates on mountain slopes.
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
BS - Steppe climate | Tolerated | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation | |
BW - Desert climate | Preferred | < 430mm annual precipitation | |
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Preferred | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
15-30 | 0 | 3600 |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) | -10 | 0 |
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 15 | 25 |
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC) | 35 | 38 |
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC) | 7 | 12 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Dry season duration | 5 | 8 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
Mean annual rainfall | 250 | 800 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
Soil reaction
- acid
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- shallow
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Archlagocheirus funestus | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves; Plants|Stems | ||||
Cactoblastis cactorum | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves; Plants|Stems | South Africa | |||
Dactylopius ceylonicus | Herbivore | South Africa | ||||
Dactylopius opuntiae | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves; Plants|Stems | South Africa | |||
Metamasius spinolae | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves; Plants|Stems |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageO. ficus-indica is not invasive in its country of origin, Mexico, for several reasons. Firstly, the plant is heavily utilized by man and animals and secondly, the plant is under constant attack by a large complex of specialized natural enemies and diseases (Zimmermann and Granata, 2002). In the countries of introduction, O. ficus-indica is released from this pressure and this explains in part its aggressive behaviour in these areas. Although some polyphagous insects may occasionally feed on O. ficus-indica in introduced countries, this is sporadic and of no consequence.
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageNatural Dispersal (Non-Biotic)
Non-biotic natural dispersal does not play a major role in the spread of O. ficus-indica. However, some seeds may be transported by floods to lower-lying areas, but this is thought to be a minimal route of dispersal. Also, cladodes that fall to the ground, often during the fruiting season, root and grow and this causes local increases in stand density and minor local spread.
Vector Transmission (Biotic)
Most dispersal is via many animals, including antelopes, baboons, monkeys, elephants and birds, but also man, which all eat the fruit and disperse the seeds.
Intentional Introduction
Man is by far the most important long-distance vector of O. ficus-indica. Since the colonization of the New World, all introductions can be traced to deliberate planting by missionaries, colonists and more recently development agencies (Bright, 1998). Plants were then carried by landowners to the most remote parts of the countries of introduction. The same qualities that make an agroforestry species successful are often the same ones leading to invasion (Hughes, 1995). The resulting conflicts of interest restrict control options and in such cases biological control is seldom an acceptable solution. Methods to deal with such complicated cases are available, provided the problem is recognized at an early stage of invasion (Hughes, 1995; Zimmermann and Olckers, 2003).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Animal production | Yes | Yes | ||
Crop production | Yes | Yes | ||
Digestion and excretion | Yes | |||
Disturbance | Yes | |||
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Yes | |||
Flooding and other natural disasters | Yes | |||
Habitat restoration and improvement | Yes | Yes | ||
Hedges and windbreaks | Yes | Yes | ||
Horticulture | Yes | Yes | ||
Nursery trade | Yes | Yes | ||
Ornamental purposes | Yes | Yes |
Plant Trade
Top of pagePlant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport |
---|
Bark |
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes |
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx |
Fruits (inc. pods) |
Growing medium accompanying plants |
Leaves |
Roots |
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants |
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches |
True seeds (inc. grain) |
Wood |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Animal/plant collections | None |
Animal/plant products | None |
Biodiversity (generally) | Negative |
Crop production | Positive |
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Fisheries / aquaculture | None |
Forestry production | None |
Human health | Positive |
Livestock production | Positive |
Native fauna | Negative |
Native flora | None |
Rare/protected species | Negative |
Tourism | None |
Trade/international relations | None |
Transport/travel | None |
Impact
Top of pageO. ficus-indica reduces the availability of pasture grasses and invades crop land in some countries, though the actual economic loses have not been quantified. Also, where livestock are forced to feed almost exclusively on O. ficus-indica this can lead to a loss of condition or even result in death. However, O. ficus-indica is regarded as both an aggressive invader and as a source of food in the areas where the plant proliferates. That O. ficus-indica is a commercial crop will mean that there are often substantial economic gains from presence of this species leading to a requirement for balancing economic calculations to evaluate whether there are gains or losses in any given situation. This conflict of interest also restricts the control options available. The more O. ficus-indica invades an area the more people become dependent on it because it will also reduce the availability of other options or resources.
Economic Impact
Top of pageO. ficus-indica reduces the availability of pasture grasses and invades crop land in some countries, though the actual economic loses have not been quantified. Also, where livestock are forced to feed almost exclusively on O. ficus-indica this can lead to a loss of condition or even result in death. However, O. ficus-indica is regarded as both an aggressive invader and as a source of food in the areas where the plant proliferates. That O. ficus-indica is a commercial crop will mean that there are often substantial economic gains from presence of this species leading to a requirement for balancing economic calculations to evaluate whether there are gains or losses in any given situation. This conflict of interest also restricts the control options available. The more O. ficus-indica invades an area the more people become dependent on it because it will also reduce the availability of other options or resources.
A detailed study on the positive versus negative impacts of O. ficus-indica on rural livelihoods was recently carried out in South Africa (Shackleton et al., 2007). This found that in areas where invasion was widespread, local people did not want it controlled, rather the inverse, that they wanted more of it. At one site, “92% of people wanted prickly pear at the highest possible densities. Reasons for this included: (1) they loved it and wanted more, (2) such densities would provide enough fruit for more people to sell, (3) it would reduce the distance required to walk to find sufficient quantities, (4) it was “beautiful to look at,” and (5) it was a useful supplementary food.” On the basis of this study, it would appear essential to assessment the views of local people before considering the implementation of any control programme, and O. ficus-indica is clearly a highly valued species.
Environmental Impact
Top of pageO. ficus-indica has the ability to out-compete all other vegetation. The invasion process is exacerbated by selective grazing of stock on the few remaining native plants which eventually results in monocultures of O. ficus-indica with a dramatic loss of biodiversity.
Threatened Species
Top of pageThreatened Species | Conservation Status | Where Threatened | Mechanism | References | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Panicum fauriei (Carter's panicgrass) | NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2011) | |
Spermolepis hawaiiensis (Hawaii scaleseed) | USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010b) | |
Wilkesia hobdyi (dwarf iliau) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010a) |
Social Impact
Top of pageWhere people have to abandon their land because of invasions, the social impact can be severe. The abundance of fruit for a short period of the year also creates health problems, mainly malnutrition and constipation. As the process of invasion is slow, sometimes spanning two or more human generations, people's perception also change with time to the extent that invasions are regarded as natural or normal. Even more so, Shackleton et al. (2007) found that villagers in parts of South Africa found that invasion had had a very positive effect upon them, leading to improved livelihoods, and they would prefer a higher plant density in most places.
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Highly mobile locally
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Reproduces asexually
- Has high genetic variability
- Damaged ecosystem services
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Modification of nutrient regime
- Modification of successional patterns
- Monoculture formation
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Negatively impacts tourism
- Reduced amenity values
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Transportation disruption
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - shading
- Competition (unspecified)
- Interaction with other invasive species
- Rapid growth
- Produces spines, thorns or burrs
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
- Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Top of pageBoth the spiny as well as the spineless varieties of O. ficus-indica are extensively used as a source of food, fodder and for producing dyes. The fruits are widely commercialized in many parts of the world, eaten raw (often after chilling), and have one of the highest concentrations of vitamin C of any fruit with essentially no fats. Mature cactus fruit usually contain at least 11–13% reducing sugars (essentially glucose and fructose) by fresh weight (often 15–16%), and the pH is generally 5–7. For cactus pears, care must be taken because of the spines and especially the glochids (fine spines). Glochids are usually removed by mechanical brushing for most commercial markets, but street vendors often grip the fruit on the two ends and deftly cut out the pulp, which is about the size of a golf ball or slightly larger. Fruit can be used in ice cream, sorbets, as a purée with many uses, in jams and marmalades, for wines and soft drinks. The seeds, similar in size and texture to those in grapes, are swallowed whole, which does not appeal to some consumers. (Janick and Paull, 2008).
Figures are not available for the global commercial trade in O. ficus-indica fruit as much is very localised other large international export markets exist. In addition, in parts of the Americas, the leaves (or cladodes) are traded, being cooked and eaten as a vegetable known as 'nopalitos'. Cochineal insects are reared and multiplied on O. ficus-indica plants to be processed for the dye (carminic acid) they contain; and there are also numerous other secondary products (Saenz-Hernandez, 1995), including medicinal uses (Andrade et al., 2006) and an oil from the seeds. Thornless forms provide an excellent supplementary livestock forage, thorny forms also if these are burned off prior to feeding, and special fodder varieties are extensively planted, often in rows, in and around fiends and pastures for this purpose. Integrated agroforestry systems including rows of Opuntia with rows of forage legumes are used in some regions, such as the semi-arid North-East of Brazil. Commercial production is most developed in Mexico where indigenous people have learned to utilize this resource over thousands of years. Although O. ficus-indica makes a good fodder, animals need supplementary feeds to make up for deficiencies in a pure cactus diet, and also, the high water content causes severe diarrhoea in animals if left to feed on O. ficus-indica for too long (Mondragon-Jacobo and Perez-Gonzalez, 2001).
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Forage
- Invertebrate food for dye-containing insects
Environmental
- Agroforestry
- Erosion control or dune stabilization
- Revegetation
- Shade and shelter
- Soil conservation
- Windbreak
Human food and beverage
- Emergency (famine) food
- Fruits
- Honey/honey flora
- Seeds
- Vegetable
Materials
- Dye/tanning
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Ornamental
- Christmas tree
- Cut flower
- garden plant
- Potted plant
- Propagation material
- Seed trade
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageO. ficus-indica is often confused with several other similar tree-like Opuntia species including Opuntia megacantha, Opuntia streptacantha, Opuntia tomentosa and Opuntia amyclaea, the former also included as synonyms in this datasheet. The confusion is compounded by the many varieties or cultivars that have been selected over the course of several thousand years (Kiesling, 1999). The lack of thorns is a defining character where this feature is retained, but separation of thorny types may be difficult.
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Control
Cultural control
One of the novel methods of dealing with the problem of O. ficus-indica invasion in countries such as Ethiopia is to treat it not as a weed but as an abundant resource – control by utilization. People are exposed through extension programmes to all the uses of the plant with emphasis on fodder, 'nopalitos' (cladodes, or leaf pads) for human consumption, and production of cochineal dye, and by doing so, reduce the O. ficus-indica populations (Haile et al., 2002). However, for adequate control, utilization may need to be combined with chemical and mechanical methods in certain areas as utilization alone may not reduce large infestations. By providing inhabitants with new sources of income it is hoped that better tools and equipment can be purchased to help manage and process this resource more effectively. Harvesting the fruit can provide additional nutrition especially in terms of vitamin C, possible financial gains if sold, and will also reduce propagule pressure. However, in a control programme, it is likely that better management may depend more on utilisation of the leaves (cladodes) as a fodder source, as these comprise the vast bulk of the standing biomass, are also propagules, and can provide large volumes of fodder often where alternative sources are lacking. Thornless cladodes are made more palatable by ‘wilting’, i.e. curing and leaving them to dry out for a number of days or weeks before allowing livestock to feed on them. In the Americas, wild native thorny Opuntia can be made palatable by singeing or burning off the spines; in Texas, USA this being carried out in the dry season with a flame-thrower. Cattle there are habituated, and when hungry and thirsty, will run in from far away at the sound of the flame-thrower in operation.
Mechanical control
Grubbing, cutting and removing O. ficus-indica as a control method is highly labour intensive and may aggrevate the infestations because it results in many new 'cuttings' which take root and develop into new plants. This is, however, the predominant method employed in Tigray, in the lowlands of Ethiopia where O. ficus-indica invades cultivated lands, as Ethiopian farmers have very limited means to control the species although this does allow them to maximise the use of the plant as a fodder resource. Prior to biological control in South Africa, O. ficus-indica plants were cut in pieces, stacked and burnt. The shortage of fuel to burn O. ficus-indica excludes this method from other problem areas such as Ethiopia and Somalia.
Chemical control
Arsenic-based herbicides are very effective against all members of the Cactaceae. In the past, arsenic pentoxide was widely and successfully used in many countries. When use of this herbicide became unacceptable, hormone-based herbicides were used, e.g. picloram (Pritchard, 1993). The method prescribed in South Africa required plants to be cut and piled into a heap before treatment. This method proved to be very expensive, and Australia and South Africa embarked on a subsidy scheme to assist landowners in controlling O. ficus-indica. The herbicide MSMA, an organic arsenate with relatively low toxicity, was later registered for O. ficus-indica control in South Africa. Treatment is by means of stem injection of equal parts of MSMA and water thus reducing the need for the use of large volumes of herbicides (Zimmermann, 1989).
Biological control
Several countries opted for biological control after conventional control was shown to be ineffective (Julien and Griffiths, 1998). Other countries do not consider biological control as a solution because a large proportion of the population also depends on the plant as a source of food and fodder. However, in other parts of these same countries, O. ficus-indica is also regarded as a pest and threat and this conflict of interest limits the control methods available.
Hawaii, Australia and South Africa have used biological control to reduce O. ficus-indica infestations along with other Opuntia species. Control was achieved using mainly four insects introduced from Argentina, Mexico and the USA, namely, the cactus moth, Cactoblastis cactorum, the cochineal Dactylopius opuntia, the long-horn stem borer, Archlagocheirus funestus and the stem-boring weevil, Metamasius (Cactophagus) spinolae (Dodd, 1940; Pettey, 1948; Mann, 1970; Annecke and Moran, 1978; Moran and Zimmermann, 1984). The control achieved was satisfactory, with the cochineal D. opuntiae achieving best results in South Africa where infested plants are felled and stacked. The cactus moth C. cactorum was not able to kill large plants but is an excellent biological control agent of smaller plants with less than 10 cladodes (Zimmermann and Malan, 1981). The cactus weevil, M. spinolae, released in South Africa in 1948, gives total control of large plants but dispersal is very slow from the point of release (Zimmermann and Moran, 1991). Overall, the biological control of O. ficus-indica in South Africa was satisfactory to the point where the remaining populations are not a threat and are now being utilized fully with no risk of continued invasions. Although both C. cactorum and D. opuntiae are now pests in commercial cactus pear plantations, they can be easily controlled and do not prevent the commercial production of fruit and fodder. In retrospect, the decision to opt for biological control in South Africa, and knowing well the consequences for commercial cactus pear production, was still a good one as several important Opuntia invaders, including O. ficus-indica, are kept under control by these two natural enemies (Annecke and Moran, 1978). Other countries such as Ethiopia, where circumstances are different, have decided not to use biological control and instead opted to embark on a campaign to increase the utilization of the resource as a control method.
Integrated control
In South Africa, the integration of biological and chemical control is the best option for some landowners who decide to, or are obliged to, remove or reduce O. ficus-indica infestations on their land. During some years, usually in association with wet cycles, there is a resurgence of O. ficus-indica and landowners become concerned that the situation that prevailed before biological control may return. Populations of the cactus moth C. cactorum usually increase where there is an abundance of small plants and good control is usually achieved within a few years, assisted by the cochineal D. opuntiae during hot and dry seasons. Landowners limit chemical control using stem-injections of MSMA for plants larger than the 14-cladode stage as these may not succumb to attack by the cactus moth. This integration of control methods can also be combined with utilizing O. ficus-indica as a fodder resource. Special equipment is employed, which shreds O. ficus-indica plant material, which is then mixed with other fodder and fed to cattle and sheep.
References
Top of pageAmmar MI, Shltout AM, Kamhawy MA, 2004. Cladode and fruit rots of prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica L. Mill.) in Egypt. Egyptian Journal of Phytopathology, 32(1/2): 119-128
Anderson EF, 2001. The Cactus Family. Portland, Oregon, USA: Timber Press
Bravo-Hollis H, 1978. Las Cactaceas de Mexico. Vol. 1. Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico
Bright C, 1998. Life out of bounds. Worldwatch Environmental Alert Series. WW Norton & Co., 1-287
Britton NL, Rose JN, 1919. The Cactaceae. Washington DC, USA: Carnegie Institute
Dodd AP, 1940. The biological campaign against prickly pear. Commonwealth Prickly Pear Board Bulletin, Brisbane, Australia, 1-177
Ellenberg H, 1982. Opuntien-probleme und Wege zu deren Lösung. GTZ Report 73.2109.4:1-62
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2003. Flora of China Web. Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Harvard University Herbaria. http://flora.huh.harvard.edu/china/
Fullaway DT, 1954. Biological control of cactus in Hawaii. Journal of Economic Entomology 47:696-700
Gibson A, Nobel P, 1986. The Cactus Primer. Cambridge, USA: Harvard University Press
Grant V, Grant KA, 1979. Hybridization and variation in the Opuntia phaecantha group in central Texas. Botanical Gazette, 140(2):208-215
Haile M, Belay T, Zimmermann HG, 2002. Curent and potential use of cactus in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. Proc. 4th International Congress on cactus pear and cochineal. Acta Horticulturae 581:75-86
Hoffmann, W, 1995. Ethnobotany. In: Barbera G, Inglese P, Pimienta-Barrios E, eds. Agro-ecology, Cultivation and Uses of Cactus Pear. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 132:12-19
Inglese P, 1995. Orchard planting and management. In: Barbera G, Inglese P, Pimienta-Barrios E, eds. Agro-ecology, Cultivation and Uses of Cactus Pear. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 132:78-91
Kiesling R, 1999. New synonyms of Opuntia ficus-indica (Cactaceae). Hickenia, 2(66):309-314; 12 ref
Le Houérou HN, 2002. Cacti (Opuntia spp.) as a fodder crop for marginal lands in the Mediterranean basin. Proceedings of the 4th International Congress on cactus pear and cochineal. Acta Horticulturae 581:21-46
Mann J, 1970. Cacti naturalized in Australia and their control. Brisbane, Australia: Department of Lands
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2003. VAScular Tropicos database. St. Louis, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://mobot.mobot.org/W3T/Search/vast.html
Mondragon-Jacobo C, Perez-Gonzalez S, 2001. Cactus (Opuntia spp.) as forage. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 169:1-146
Mondragon-Jacobo C, Pimienta-Barrios E, 1995. Propagation. In: Barbera G, Inglese P, Pimienta-Barrios E, eds. Agro-ecology, Cultivation and Uses of Cactus Pear. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 132:64-70
Nerd A, Mizrahi Y, 1993. Modern cultivation of prickly pear in Israel: fertigation. In: Erez A, Jackson JE, eds. Fifth international symposium on orchard and plantation systems, Tel Aviv, Israel, 21-26 June 1992. Acta Horticulturae, (349): 235-237
Nobel PS, 1988. Environmental Biology of Agaves and Cacti. New York, USA: Cambridge University Press
Nobel PS, 1994. Remarkable Agaves and Cacti. New York, USA: Oxford University Press
Nobel PS, 1995. Environmental biology. In: Barbera G, Inglese P, Pimienta-Barrios E, eds. Agro-ecology, cultivation and uses of cactus pear. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 132:36-48
Nobel PS, 2002. Cacti: Biology and Uses. Berkeley, USA: California University Press, 280 pp
Nobel PS, Bobich EG, 2002. Environmental biology. In: Cacti, Biology and Uses. PS Nobel, ed. University of California Press, 57-74
Oviedo Prieto R, Herrera Oliver P, Caluff MG, et al. , 2012. National list of invasive and potentially invasive plants in the Republic of Cuba - 2011. (Lista nacional de especies de plantas invasoras y potencialmente invasoras en la República de Cuba - 2011). Bissea: Boletín sobre Conservación de Plantas del Jardín Botánico Nacional de Cuba, 6(Special Issue 1):22-96
Pettey FW, 1948. The biological control of prickly pears in South Africa. Science Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture, Union of South Africa, 271:1-163
Pimienta-Barrios E, Del Castillo RF, 2002. Reproductive biology. In: Nobel PS, ed. Cacti, Biology and Uses. California University Press, 75-90
Pimienta-Barrios E, Munoz-Urias A, 1995. Domestication of Opuntias and cultivated varieties. In: Barbera G, Inglese P, Pimienta-Barrios E, eds. Agro-ecology, Cultivation and Uses of Cactus Pear. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 132: 57-63
Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney, 2003. Australia's Virtual Herbarium. Sydney, Australia: Royal Botanic Gardens. http://plantnet.rbgsyd.gov.au/cgi-bin/avh/avh.cgi
Saenz-Hernandez C, 1995. Food manufacture and by-products. In: Barbera G, Inglese P, Pimienta-Barrios E, eds. Agro-ecology, Cultivation and Uses of Cactus Pear. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 132:137-143
Scheinvar L, 1995. Taxonomy of utilized opuntias. In: Barbera G, Inglese P, Pimienta-Barrios E, eds. Agro-ecology, Cultivation and Uses of Cactus Pear. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 132:20-27
Sudzuki Hills F, 1995. Anatomy and morphology. In: G Barbera, P Inglese, Pimienta-Barrios E., eds. Agro-ecology, cultivation and uses of cactus pear. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 132:28-35
Terrazas Salgado T, Mauseth JD, 2002. Shoot anatomy and morphology. In: Nobel PS, ed. Cacti: Biology and Uses. California University Press, 23-40
USDA-NRCS, 2002. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.5. National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, USA. http://plants.usda.gov
Zimmermann HG, 1989. Control of prickly pear. Farming in South Africa Weeds B.1.1:1-2
Zimmermann HG, Granata G, 2002. Insect pests and diseases. In: Nobel PS, ed. Cacti: Biology and Uses. University of California Press, 235-254
Zimmermann HG, Malan DE, 1981. The role of imported natural enemies in suppressing regrowth of prickly pear, Opuntia ficus-indica,in South Africa. In: Delfosse ES, ed. Proceedings V International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds. Brisbane, Australia, 375-381
Distribution References
CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Ellenberg H, 1982. (Opuntien-probleme und Wege zu deren Lösung). In: GTZ Report 73.2109, 4 1-62.
Haile M, Belay T, Zimmermann HG, 2002. Curent and potential use of cactus in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. [Proc. 4th International Congress on cactus pear and cochineal. Acta Horticulturae], 581 75-86.
Mann J, 1970. Cacti naturalized in Australia and their control., Brisbane, Australia: Department of Lands.
Middleton K, 2002. Opportunities and risks: a cactus pear in Madagascar. Acta Horticulturae. 63-73.
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2003. Vascular Tropicos database., St. Louis, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://mobot.mobot.org/W3T/Search/vast.html
USDA-NRCS, 2007. The PLANTS Database., Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: USA National Plant Data Team. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Distribution Maps
Top of pageSelect a dataset
Map Legends
-
CABI Summary Records
Map Filters
Unsupported Web Browser:
One or more of the features that are needed to show you the maps functionality are not available in the web browser that you are using.
Please consider upgrading your browser to the latest version or installing a new browser.
More information about modern web browsers can be found at http://browsehappy.com/