Opogona sacchari (banana moth)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Introductions
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Growth Stages
- Symptoms
- List of Symptoms/Signs
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Plant Trade
- Wood Packaging
- Impact Summary
- Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Diagnosis
- Detection and Inspection
- Prevention and Control
- Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
- References
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of page| Picture | Title | Caption | Copyright |
|---|---|---|---|
| Adult | Opogona sacchari (banana moth); adult (museum set specimen) | ©David Agassiz | |
| Adult | Opogona sacchari (banana moth); adult (museum set specimen) | ©David Agassiz |
Identity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Opogona sacchari Bojer
Preferred Common Name
- banana moth
Other Scientific Names
- Alucita sacchari Bojer
- Gelechia ligniferalla Walker
- Gelechia sanctaehelenae Walker
- Hieroxestis ligniferella
- Hieroxestis plumipes Butler
- Hieroxestis sanctaehelenae Walker
- Hieroxestis subcervinella Walker
- Laverna plumipes Butler
- Opogona sanctaehelenae Walker
- Opogona subcervinella (Walker)
- Tinea subcervinella Walker
International Common Names
- English: sugarcane moth
- Spanish: polilla del banano
- French: teigne du bananier
- Portuguese: traþa da banana
Local Common Names
- Brazil: traça da banana; traça da bananeira
- Germany: Motte, Bananen-
- Hungary: bananmoly
EPPO code
- OPOGSC (Opogona sacchari)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageO. sacchari was originally described from specimens from Mauritius. It is a tineid moth with typically Old World tropical distribution, thus populations could establish in the tropical belt and in areas with a mediterranean climate, also in glasshouses throughout the world. O. sacchari attacks a number of ornamental plants and can be transported on different plant parts. Although not listed on alert lists such as IUCN and ISSG, this species has the potential to be invasive outside its natural distribution area through the transport of ornamental plants and/or because of global warming.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Metazoa
- Phylum: Arthropoda
- Subphylum: Uniramia
- Class: Insecta
- Order: Lepidoptera
- Family: Tineidae
- Genus: Opogona
- Species: Opogona sacchari
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
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This species was originally described as Alucita sacchari by Bojer in 1856 from Mauritius. It has also been known as Tinea subcervinella or Opogona subcervinella. Other synonyms include Gelechia ligniferella and Gelechia sanctaehelenae, both from St. Helena, and Laverna plumipes from Rodriguez Island. It is currently placed in the genus Opogona as O. sacchari (Robinson and Tuck, 1997).
Description
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Larva
The larvae are dirty-white and somewhat transparent (so that the intestines can be seen). They have a bright reddish-brown head with one lateral ocellus at each side and clearly visible, brownish thoracic and abdominal plates. They are 21-26 mm long with a diameter of 3 mm. The presence of older larvae can be detected by characteristic masses of bore-meal and frass at the openings of boreholes.
Pupa
The pupae are brown, less than 10 mm long, and are formed in a cocoon, spun at the end of a mine, measuring 15 mm. As maturation approaches, the pupae work themselves partially out of the tissue to allow emergence of the adult. Two bent hooks, characteristic of the species, show at the end of the abdomen on the abandoned protruding pupal skin.
Adult
The adult is nocturnal, 11 mm long with a wingspan of 18-25 mm. It is bright yellowish-brown. The forewings may show longitudinal darker brown banding, and in the male a dark-brown spot towards the apex. The hindwings are paler and brighter (Süss, 1974; D'Aguilar and Martinez, 1982). At rest, the long antennae point forwards.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageO. sacchari has rarely been recorded in Asia but was first seen in Japan in 1986 and then in 1999. It now seems to be established in the warmer regions of Japan namely Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu and the Ryukyu Islands. It seems to have been introduced with ornamental plants, Dracaena sp., and later established in the wild.
Introductions
Top of page| Introduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reason | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
| Japan | 1999 | Horticulture (pathway cause) | Yes | No | Yoshimatsu et al. (2004) | Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu and the Ryukyu Islands. | ||
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageO. sacchari, originally on the EPPO A1 list (OEPP/EPPO, 1988), has been on the A2 list since its establishment in Italy. CPPC and NAPPO also regard it as a quarantine pest.
It has been accidentally introduced on many occasions in recent years (usually among imported bananas) into South America, Europe and Egypt.
The pest could acclimatize in more temperate regions on several ornamental plants, especially those of tropical origin. Trade in ornamental plants carries a serious risk to the distribution of this species.
O. sacchari is a troublesome greenhouse pest that should not be allowed to establish in new areas; fortunately, it can be controlled and has not yet established outdoors.
Habitat
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In general O. sacchari is a scavenger in dried/harvested vegetable material. It prefers to attack plant tissue damaged through other causes and then spread to living healthy plant tissue (Heppner et al., 1987). In the wild, the abundance of the pest varies significantly with the amount of rainfall, infestation being markedly heavier in years with reduced rainfall than in those with abundant rainfall (Sampaio et al., 1983). In bananas it attacks the fruits, pseudostems, peduncles and 'cushions', being especially abundant in decaying pseudostems (Cintra, 1975).
Habitat List
Top of page| Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|
| Terrestrial-managed | |||
| Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
| Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
| Protected agriculture (e.g. glasshouse production) | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
| Terrestrial-natural/semi-natural | |||
| Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageO. sacchari is found mainly in the tropics on bananas, pineapples, bamboo, maize and sugarcane in the field and on various stored tubers. In glasshouses in European countries, it has been found infesting various tropical or subtropical ornamentals, including mainly Cactaceae, Dracaena, Strelitzia and Yucca, but also occasionally Alpinia, Begonia, Bougainvillea, Bromeliaceae, Chamaedorea and other palms, Cordyline, Dieffenbachia, Euphorbia pulcherrima, Ficus, Gloxinia, Heliconia, Hippeastrum, Maranta, Philodendron, Sansevieria and Saintpaulia, and also Capsicum and aubergines. In import inspections, it is mainly Dracaena and Yucca which have been found to be infested.
The larvae are scavengers of dried/harvested vegetable material. This species may attack stored tubers (Gibbs, 1991) and feed occasionally on living plant material when adjacent to dried vegetable matter.
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pageGrowth Stages
Top of page Flowering stage, Post-harvest, Vegetative growing stageSymptoms
Top of page
The early stages of larval tunnelling in woody or fleshy stems are practically undetectable. At a later stage, fleshy plants (cacti) may be completely hollowed out. In woody plants such as Dracaena and Yucca the larvae live on dead and living portions of the cortex and pith, and infested tissues may feel soft. Leaves wilt because the caterpillars destroy the xylem, and, in an advanced stage, leaves may fall and the plant may collapse. In Chamaedorea palms, the larvae typically feed at the base of the plant where the aerial roots enter the soil (Heppner et al., 1987).
List of Symptoms/Signs
Top of page| Sign | Life Stages | Type |
|---|---|---|
| Inflorescence / frass visible | ||
| Inflorescence / internal feeding | ||
| Leaves / frass visible | ||
| Leaves / internal feeding | ||
| Leaves / shredding | ||
| Leaves / yellowed or dead | ||
| Stems / internal feeding | ||
| Stems / visible frass | ||
| Vegetative organs / frass visible | ||
| Vegetative organs / internal feeding | ||
| Whole plant / frass visible | ||
| Whole plant / internal feeding |
Biology and Ecology
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At 15°C, the life cycle of O. sacchari lasts ca 3 months: the eggs hatch in 12 days; larval development requires 50 days; the pupal stage lasts 20 days; and the adult lives for 6 days (Veenenbos, 1981). This period may be considerably reduced under warmer conditions, allowing up to eight generations per year (Giannotti et al., 1977; Heppner et al., 1987). At 25°C and 10% RH, the pre-oviposition period was 2.7 days, the oviposition period lasted 5.9 days; and 81.65 eggs were laid per female. The larval and pupal stages lasted 24.19 and 11.24 days, respectively. The complete life cycle from egg to adult took 37.91 days (Bergmann et al., 1995).
The female lays eggs in crevices in plant tissue, in groups of about five eggs, 50-200 in total, by means of a long ovipositor. The larvae, which burrow in the plant tissue, are extremely mobile and avoid light. They are very voracious.
In banana, the fruiting head is normally infested (Suplicy and Sampaio, 1982), but in ornamental plants the larvae mostly burrow in the stem (woody or fleshy plants such as cacti, Dracaena) or sometimes leaves and petioles (Begonia, Saintpaulia). Seedlings may be severely attacked (D'Aguilar and Martinez, 1982).
As a tropical pest, O. sacchari cannot apparently survive outdoor conditions in winter over most of the European and Mediterranean region. Its presence in the Atlantic Islands of Portugal [Madeira] and Spain [Canary Islands] suggests that it might survive in parts of the Iberian peninsula and North Africa. Billen (1987) has reviewed the taxonomy, biology, distribution and control of O. sacchari and refers to the existence of several species with similar biology in Africa, possibly to be regarded as members of the same complex.
Climate
Top of page| Climate | Status | Description | Remark |
|---|---|---|---|
| A - Tropical/Megathermal climate | Preferred | Average temp. of coolest month > 18°C, > 1500mm precipitation annually | |
| Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
| Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
| As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
| Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
| C - Temperate/Mesothermal climate | Preferred | Average temp. of coldest month > 0°C and < 18°C, mean warmest month > 10°C | |
| Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | |
| Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
| Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Tolerated | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) |
Natural enemies
Top of page| Natural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki | Pathogen | Larvae | ||||
| Steinernema feltiae | Parasite |
Notes on Natural Enemies
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There are no known natural enemies of O. sacchari. A successful establishment of the nematodes Steinernema feltiae, Heterorhabditis bacterophora and H. heliothidis in greenhouses was reported from Italy in the eradication of larvae of O. sacchari infesting potato and bamboo palms (Chamaedorea elegans) (Pena et al., 1990).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageNatural Dispersal (non-biotic)
O. sacchari can disperse itself by flight within glasshouses or over short distances in the field.
Seedborne Spread
Larvae may be transported through seedlings.
Agricultural Practices
The transport of infested banana fruits, pseudostems and peduncles may contribute to the dispersal of O. sacchari.
Movement in Trade
O. sacchari is liable to be carried in propagation material of host plants, for example, cuttings of Dracaena. Although there is some risk of the pest being present in imported banana fruits, there is very little chance that this pathway could lead to establishment in greenhouses.
Pathway Causes
Top of page| Cause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Breeding and propagation | Yes | |||
| Crop production | Yes | |||
| Horticulture | Yes | |||
| Nursery trade | Yes | |||
| Ornamental purposes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
Top of page| Vector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aircraft | Yes | |||
| Plants or parts of plants | Yes |
Plant Trade
Top of page| Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport | Pest stages | Borne internally | Borne externally | Visibility of pest or symptoms |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bark | ||||
| Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes | eggs; larvae | Yes | Yes | Pest or symptoms usually invisible |
| Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx | eggs; larvae | Yes | Yes | Pest or symptoms usually invisible |
| Leaves | adults; eggs; larvae; nymphs; pupae | Yes | Yes | Pest or symptoms usually invisible |
| Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches | adults; eggs; larvae; nymphs; pupae | Yes | Yes | Pest or symptoms usually invisible |
| Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport |
|---|
| Fruits (inc. pods) |
| Growing medium accompanying plants |
| Roots |
| Seedlings/Micropropagated plants |
| True seeds (inc. grain) |
| Wood |
Wood Packaging
Top of page| Wood Packaging not known to carry the pest in trade/transport |
|---|
| Loose wood packing material |
| Non-wood |
| Processed or treated wood |
| Solid wood packing material with bark |
| Solid wood packing material without bark |
Impact Summary
Top of page| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Economic/livelihood | Negative |
| Environment (generally) | Negative |
Impact
Top of pageO. sacchari is a serious pest of bananas in the Canary Islands and Brazil (Sampaio et al., 1983). Though widespread in Africa, its impact is relatively minor there because bananas are not a major export crop. It has been recorded in Morocco (CABI/EPPO, 1999) and could be a threat to the increasing production of bananas under polythene in Morocco and Spain.
Elsewhere, it presents a risk principally for woody or perennial ornamentals grown in glasshouses, and could not survive outdoors. It may also cause damage among tubers and roots.
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page Invasiveness- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Capable of securing and ingesting a wide range of food
- Highly mobile locally
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Gregarious
- Host damage
- Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
- Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
- Difficult to identify/detect in the field
Diagnosis
Top of page Larval infestations in the early stages are practically undetectable. At a later stage fleshy plants may be completely hollowed out. In woody plants infested tissues may feel soft. At a later stage frass may be detected on the infected plant tissues or beneath the plants. Dead leaves lie underneath the plants.Detection and Inspection
Top of page
On ornamental plants, O. sacchari is difficult to intercept at importation inspections, additional post-entry inspections are recommended.
On Strelitzia species, the larvae fed on the collar and roots of the plants (Porcelli and Parenzan, 1993).
Prevention and Control
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Environmental manipulation techniques offer a suitable alternative for quarantine procedures.
Thermal control experiments were carried out exposing Dracaena fragrans stems to 44°C. Exposure of 45 minutes had no effect on propagation and 60 minutes had no permanent damage to foliage. Mortality of insects was related to thermal exposure. Few larvae survived 15 minutes of exposure and no larvae survived 30 minutes (Hansen et al., 1997).
Inundation techniques were discussed by Cheek (1994) for propagation material.
Eradication in greenhouses by chemical treatment and sanitation has proved possible in several northern European countries, but not in Italy, where the pest is established in greenhouses. The adult moths can be controlled by fogging with permethrin. The aim is to kill all adults before they can lay eggs. When an affected greenhouse is cleared and replanted, the soil should be steamed (or removed) to eliminate any residual pupae. Billen (1987) has reviewed the chemical control methods tried out in greenhouses in various European countries. Gianotti et al. (1977) suggests that chemical control measures might be most effective if applied between 20.00 and 24.00h.
Sex pheromones are being studied in Italy (Rotundo and Tremblay, 1982) and Brazil (Ioneda et al., 1983).
Yam tubers (White Lisbon) were treated in Barbados by dipping the tubers in a solution of carbaryl or by covering the tubers by lime and/or ash (Gibbs, 1991).
Banana fields in Brazil were dusted with several combinations of insecticides. The dusting method was significantly better than the spray method (Pigatti et al., 1982). There seems no significant amount of residue present in the skin or flesh of bananas using the dusting method (Guindani et al., 1978).
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
Top of pageThe taxonomy of Opogona species requires clarification. The genus belongs to the Hieroxestinae. According to Robinson and Nielsen (1993), there are about 270 known species but this number could rise to 300, with many undescribed species held in museums, most belonging to the genus Opogona. This means that the species currently identified as O. sacchari belongs to a species complex for which correct identifications do not yet exist. It is possible that several unnamed species could be introduced at this stage.
References
Top of pageAnon., 1999. Report. Research Centre for Plant Protection, Denmark.
Cheek S, 1994. Assessing the potential use of biological control agents in the UK against plant pests of quarantine concern. In: British Crop Protection Council, eds. Proceedings - Brighton Crop Protection Conference, Pests and Diseases, 1994. Bracknell, UK: BCPC Publications, vol. 1, 175-182.
Cheng GF, Yang JK, 1997. Plant Protection, 23(1):33-35.
Cintra AF, 1975. Opogona sp., a new pest of banana crops in Sao Paulo. Biologico, 41(8):223-231
Cintra AF, 1975. The banana pest now has a name! Biologico, 41(12):364.
Clercq R De, Luchene I Van, 1977. Verbondsnieuws voor de Belgische Sierteelt, 21(15):499-501.
Durrant JH, 1925. Entomologist's Monthly Magazine lxi, 12-13.
EPPO, 2014. PQR database. Paris, France: European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. http://www.eppo.int/DATABASES/pqr/pqr.htm
Izhevskii SS, 1992. New pests of greenhouse plants. Zashchita Rastenii (Moskva), No. 12:26-27
Pointel JG, 1967. Agronomie Tropicale 22(11):1053-1077.
Robinson GS, Tuck KR, 1997. Phylogeny and composition of the Hieroxestinae (Lepidoptera: Tineidae). Systematic Entomology, 22(4):363-396; 25 ref.
Suplicy Filho N, Sampaio AS, 1982. Pests of banana. Biologico, 48(7):169-182
Distribution Maps
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