Nicandra physalodes (apple of Peru)

Pictures

Picture

Title

Caption

Copyright

Flower and fruits

Mature N. physalodes plant, showing bell-shaped flowers and the papery calyx, which contains the berries and resembles a Chinese lantern.

©Chris Parker/Bristol, UK

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Nicandra physalodes (L.) Gaertner (1791)

Preferred Common Name

apple of Peru

Other Scientific Names

Atropa physaloides L.
Calydermos erosus Ruiz & Pav.
Nicandra physaloides (L.) Pers.
Physalis daturaefolia Lam.

International Common Names

English: Chinese lantern; shoo-fly plant (USA, South Africa); wild gooseberry (Zambia); wild hops (Australia)
Spanish: capuli cimarron
French: fausse coquerette; nicandre faux-alkekenge

Local Common Names

Angola: margarita; onigahongula
Bolivia: farolita; guackonto; tonto
Brazil: balão; bexiga; falso joá de capote; joá de capote; juá de capote; quintilho
Germany: Giftbeere, Blasen-
Indonesia: endog bangkok; tjeploekan
Indonesia/Java: ceplukan
Kenya: chemogong'it-chepitet
Madagascar: bereda
Netherlands: giftbes
Peru: capuli de lacosta; toccoro
South Africa: basterapplliepie; bitter-appelliefie; bloubitter; Peru apple; rivabe; wildebitter
Zimbabwe: mubumacembre

EPPO code

NICPH (Nicandra physalodes)

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Dicotyledonae
Order: Solanales
Family: Solanaceae
Genus: Nicandra
Species: Nicandra physalodes

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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Nicandra is a single species genus in the family Solanaceae. Whilst physalodes is the widely accepted spelling of the species name, it is also commonly referred to as physaloides. The generic Nicandra is named after Nikander, a poet of Asia Minor who lived about 100 BC and wrote of the medicinal uses of this plant. The specific name is derived from the Greek physo, meaning bladdery and alluding to the inflated calyx.

Description

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N. physalodes is an annual herb with a taproot, 1-2 m tall, occasionally to 4 m in Australia (Auld and Medd, 1987). Stems are extensively branched, hollow, heavily ribbed, soft, smooth and without hairs. Leaves are sparsely hairy, ovate-oblong, alternate, 6 to 25 cm long and 2.5 to 18 cm wide, with irregular, shallow or deeply lobed margins. Petioles are 1 to 20 cm long. The pale blue to white, bell-shaped flowers are 2.5 to 4 cm across and solitary in the axils of upper leaves on pedicels (stalks) 1 to 4 cm long. The calyx is 1 to 3 cm long, membranous, more or less 5-winged, enlarging to a bladder enclosing the fruit. Initially green, the calyx turns brown, becomes papery and resembles a Chinese lantern. The fruit is a berry, almost spherical, 1 to 1.5 cm in diameter, yellow and containing numerous seeds. Seeds are flattened, 1 to 1.5 mm in diameter, light brown and pitted.

Distribution

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N. physalodes orginates from South America (Moore, 1972; Auld and Medd, 1987), but is now distributed worldwide. It is reported to be a weed of 35 countries around the world from 50°N (Poland and eastern Canada) to 35°S (South Africa and Australia). It is most troublesome in southern and eastern Africa and Australia but is also widespread in the eastern Mediterranean, India, Central America and the central latitudes of South America (Holm et al., 1997).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 21 Jul 2022

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Africa
Angola	Present				Holm et al. (1979)
Botswana	Present				Holm et al. (1979)
Burundi	Present				Terry and Michieka (1987)
Congo, Republic of the	Present				Holm et al. (1979)
Egypt	Present	Introduced	1879		Seebens et al. (2017)
Eswatini	Present				Wells et al. (1986)
Ethiopia	Present				Stroud and Parker (1989)
Kenya	Present				Terry and Michieka (1987) Macharia et al. (2016) Charles et al. (2019)
Lesotho	Present				Wells et al. (1986)
Madagascar	Present				Holm et al. (1997)
Malawi	Present				Banda and Morris (1986)
Mozambique	Present				Holm et al. (1979)
Namibia	Present				Wells et al. (1986)
Rwanda	Present				Terry and Michieka (1987)
South Africa	Present				Henderson and Anderson (1966) Grabandt (1985) Wells et al. (1986)
Tanzania	Present				Terry and Michieka (1987) Smith et al. (2018)
Uganda	Present				Terry and Michieka (1987)
Zambia	Present				Bolnick (1995) CABI (Undated)
Zimbabwe	Present	Introduced	1917	Invasive	Seebens et al. (2017) Drummond (1984)
Asia
Bhutan	Present	Introduced	1963		Seebens et al. (2017) Parker (1992)
China	Present	Introduced			Seebens et al. (2017) Wang (1990)	First reported: 1840s
Hong Kong	Present	Introduced	1851		Seebens et al. (2017)
India	Present				CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Himachal Pradesh	Present				Sangar and Agrawal (1988)
-Karnataka	Present				Nalini et al. (1993)
-Uttar Pradesh	Present				Suteri et al. (1979)
Indonesia	Present				Holm et al. (1979)
-Java	Present				Everaarts (1981)
Iran	Present				Holm et al. (1979)
Japan	Present				Holm et al. (1979)
Nepal	Present				Holm et al. (1979)
South Korea	Present	Introduced	2001		Seebens et al. (2017)
Taiwan	Present	Introduced	1917		Seebens et al. (2017)
Thailand	Present				Holm et al. (1979)
Europe
Albania	Present	Introduced	1978		Seebens et al. (2017)
Austria	Present	Introduced			Seebens et al. (2017) Moore (1972)	First reported: <1855
Belgium	Present	Introduced	1853		Seebens et al. (2017)
Bulgaria	Present				Moore (1972)
Czechia	Present	Introduced	1853		Seebens et al. (2017)
Estonia	Present	Introduced	1957		Seebens et al. (2017)
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia	Present				Moore (1972)
Germany	Present	Introduced			Seebens et al. (2017)	First reported: 1900s
Hungary	Present				Moore (1972) Salamon and Burgyán (2004)
Ireland	Present	Introduced	1995		Seebens et al. (2017)
Lithuania	Present	Introduced	1960		Seebens et al. (2017)
Norway	Present	Introduced	1874		Seebens et al. (2017)
Poland	Present				Holm et al. (1979)
Portugal	Present	Introduced	1956		Seebens et al. (2017)
-Azores	Present	Introduced	1952		Seebens et al. (2017)
-Madeira	Present	Introduced	1872		Seebens et al. (2017)
Romania	Present	Introduced	1887		Seebens et al. (2017) Moore (1972)
Russia	Present	Introduced	1889		Seebens et al. (2017)
Slovakia	Present	Introduced	1864		Seebens et al. (2017)
Spain
-Canary Islands	Present	Introduced			Seebens et al. (2017)	First reported: 1940's
Switzerland	Present				Moore (1972)
Ukraine	Present	Introduced	1855		Seebens et al. (2017)
United Kingdom	Present	Introduced	1860		Seebens et al. (2017)
North America
Belize	Present				Holm et al. (1979)
Canada	Present	Introduced	1821		Seebens et al. (2017)
United States	Present				CABI (Undated a) Wang et al. (2019)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Hawaii	Present	Introduced	1850		Seebens et al. (2017) Holm et al. (1979) Wang et al. (2019)
-Ohio	Present				Runnels and Schaffner (1931)
Oceania
Australia	Present	Introduced	1890		Seebens et al. (2017) Horton (1979) Auld and Medd (1992)
-New South Wales	Present				Greenhalgh and Michael (1989) Auld and Medd (1992)
-Queensland	Present				Hawton (1976) Auld and Medd (1992)
-South Australia	Present				Auld and Medd (1992)
-Tasmania	Present				Auld and Medd (1992)
-Victoria	Present				Auld and Medd (1992)
-Western Australia	Present				Auld and Medd (1992)
New Zealand	Present				Rahman (1985)
South America
Argentina	Present				Marzocca (1979)
Bolivia	Present				Holm et al. (1997)
Brazil	Present				CABI (Undated a) Gobatto et al. (2019) Souza et al. (2019)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Bahia	Present				Lorenzi (1982)
-Distrito Federal	Present				Souza et al. (2019)
-Goias	Present				Lorenzi (1982) Souza et al. (2019)
-Minas Gerais	Present				Lorenzi (1982)
-Parana	Present				Lorenzi (1982)
-Rio Grande do Sul	Present				Lorenzi (1982)
-Santa Catarina	Present				Lorenzi (1982)
-Sao Paulo	Present				Lorenzi (1982) Gobatto et al. (2019)
Colombia	Present				Carmona B. and Jeffery (1972)
Peru	Present				Querci et al. (1995)

Habitat

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N. physalodes is a common weed of fertile, arable land but also occurs on wasteland and roadsides. It was very common on the blacks soils of Western Australia but has been replaced by other weeds since the land has been irrigated (Holm et al., 1997). In Indonesia, it occurs on all but the driest soils at elevations of 400-2100 m (Everaarts, 1981) and up 2400 m in East Africa (Terry and Michieka, 1987).

Hosts/Species Affected

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Holm et al. (1997) cite N. physalodes as being a weed in 35 crops. A wide range of crop types are infested, including cereals, legumes (forage and food), pastures, trees (including vineyards and orchards) and vegetables.

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context	References
Allium cepa (onion)	Liliaceae	Other
Ananas comosus (pineapple)	Bromeliaceae	Other
Arachis hypogaea (groundnut)	Fabaceae	Main
Beta vulgaris (beetroot)	Chenopodiaceae	Other
Carica papaya (pawpaw)	Caricaceae	Other
Carthamus tinctorius (safflower)	Asteraceae	Other
Chrysanthemum (daisy)	Asteraceae	Unknown	Gobatto et al. (2019)
Coffea (coffee)	Rubiaceae	Main
Glycine max (soyabean)	Fabaceae	Main
Gossypium (cotton)	Malvaceae	Main
Hordeum vulgare (barley)	Poaceae	Main
Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato)	Convolvulaceae	Other
Lactuca sativa (lettuce)	Asteraceae	Other
Linum usitatissimum (flax)		Other
Medicago sativa (lucerne)	Fabaceae	Other
Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco)	Solanaceae	Other
Oryza sativa (rice)	Poaceae	Other
Phaseolus vulgaris (common bean)	Fabaceae	Main
Pisum sativum (pea)	Fabaceae	Other
Saccharum	Poaceae	Other
Solanum lycopersicum (tomato)	Solanaceae	Other	Macharia et al. (2016); Souza et al. (2019)
Solanum tuberosum (potato)	Solanaceae	Other
Sorghum bicolor (sorghum)	Poaceae	Main
Triticum aestivum (wheat)	Poaceae	Main
Vitis vinifera (grapevine)	Vitaceae	Other
Zea mays (maize)	Poaceae	Main

Biology and Ecology

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N. physalodes is an annual species and reproduces only by seed. Dormant seeds in the field can be induced to germinate in five days with favourable weather and soil moisture. Whilst year-round germination is possible, five times more plants grew in summer than in winter in Zimbabwe (Schwerzel et al., 1982). Seeds can be encouraged to germinate by breaking or removing the seed coat. Hocombe (1961) obtained 55% germination following acid scarification of seeds. The presence or absence of an iso-chromosome determines whether seeds of N. physalodes will germinate readily (2n = 20) or remain dormant (2n = 19) (Darlington and Janaki-Ammal, 1945). Seed longevity studies have shown that seeds of N. physalodes can remain viable for at least five years after burial to a depth of 75 cm or more, indicating that deep ploughing can increase survival of this weed (Schwerzel et al., 1982). There is evidence that chromosome-deficient seeds (2n = 19) can remain dormant during burial for 28 years (Holm et al.¸ 1997). In Zimbabwe, monthly cultivations exhausted the supplies of N. physalodes in the seed bank in 10 years but, in soil disturbed only once a year, 3.6% of seeds still germinated after 15 years (Schwerzel et al., 1982).

The time from germination to flowering ranges from 43 to 54 days and to seed ripening, 53 to 64 days (Holm et al., 1997). A single plant of N. physalodes can produce 44,000 seeds and a pure stand of the weed can produce 22 billion seed/ha weighing about 4.4 t (Schwerzel 1967, 1970; Thomas and Schwerzel, 1982). Some seed lots are reported to be 90% viable (Holm et al., 1997). Dispersal is likely to occur through soil and water movement but Ridley (1930) suggested that ants are also responsible in East Africa. Contamination of seed crops is also thought to aid the spread of this weed.

Notes on Natural Enemies

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Little is reported of natural enemies of N. physalodes but this weed is a host of viruses, nematodes, fungal pathogens and insects which are crop pests.

Impact

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Rapid growth and canopy formation make N. physalodes a competitor for light against many crops. Cotton is critically damaged if this weed is allowed to remain for more than two weeks after germination of the crop. Thomas and Schwerzel (1968) attribute this predominantly to competition for light rather than for water or nutrients. In Australia, N. physalodes causes heavy losses in tropical pastures in Queensland (Holm et al., 1997). Populations of N. physalodes as low as 4.7 plants/m² have reduced maize yields by about 35% and can impede harvesting of the crop (Hawton, 1976). Seeds of N. physalodes are a contaminant of grass and legume seed crops grown in East Africa (Holm et al., 1997).

N. physalodes is an alternative host of several pests of crops, including alfalfa mosaic alfamovirus (Gallo and Ciampor, 1977), Cassava African mosaic bigeminivirus in India (Mathew and Muniyappa, 1993), Meloidogyne javanica in Zimbabwe (Ivens 1989) and Malawi (Hillocks et al., 1995), Meloidogyne arenaria in Java (Everaarts, 1981), Tomato Peru potyvirus (Fribourg, 1979), potato blight [Alternaria solani] in India (Singh and Nagaich, 1977), Potato leafroll luteovirus in Australia (Thomas, 1993), potato leafroll luteovirus (Everaarts, 1981), potato tuber moth [Phthorimaea operculella] (Broodryk, 1977), Potato Y potyvirus in India (Suteri et al., 1979), tobacco viruses in Zimbabwe (Shaw, 1979) and tomato yellow leaf curl bigeminivirus in Tanzania (Nono et al., 1996).

Uses

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The medicinal properties of N. physalodes have been recognized for over 2000 years. Among its chemical compounds is nicandrenone which has shown cytotoxicity against certain cancerous cells in mice and humans (Subramainan et al., 1973; Begley et al., 1972). Other chemicals are also present which have antifeedant properties against various insects, including Colorado beetle [Leptinotarsa decemlineata] (Britskii, 1982) and Epilachna varivestis (Ascher et al., 1981). The insect repellent properties of N. physalodes are indicated in one of its common names, shoo-fly. The high protein content of the seeds (>15%) makes them a useful food source for caged birds. Czekalski (1981) reports on the experimental use of the plant as fodder for animals.

Uses List

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General

Ornamental

Materials

Pesticide

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

Source of medicine/pharmaceutical

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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Several weedy species of Physalis have inflated calyces but the flowers are yellow to orange.

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

N. physalodes is readily controlled as a seedling or small plant by light tillage, hoeing or cutting. Deep cultivations can increase the longevity of N. physalodes seeds in the soil (Schwerzel et al., 1982) and frequent cultivations help to reduce the weed seed bank. Herbicides reported to control N. physalodes include: 2,4-D in pastures (Parsons, 1992); bentazon in maize (Saigusa et al., 1993) and soybeans (Parsons, 1992); bromofenoxim and bromoxynil in oats, barley and wheat (Richards et al., 1978); chlorthal dimethyl in onions (Richards, 1979) and vegetables (Parsons, 1992); dicamba in cereals (Parsons, 1992); fluometuron in cotton (Anon., 1980); fluorodifen in beans (de Groot, 1980); glufosinate-ammonium in stone fruit orchards, vineyards and bananas (Parsons, 1992); glyphosate for land preparation (Parsons, 1992); linuron in beans (de Groot, 1980), potatoes and soyabean (Parsons, 1992); metobromuron and DNBP in beans (Carmona and Jeffery, 1972); metolachlor in brassica crops (Parsons, 1992); metribuzin in soyabeans (Anon., 1978; Parsons, 1992) and tomatoes (Ward, 1973; Parsons, 1992); and prometryne in cotton (Anon., 1980).

References

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Ascher KRS, Schmutterer H, Glotter E, Kirson I, 1981. Withanolides and related ergostane-type steroids as antifeedants for larvae of Epilachna varivestis (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). Phytoparasitica, 9(3):197-205

Auld BA, Medd RW, 1987. Weeds. An illustrated botanical guide to the weeds of Australia. Melbourne, Australia; Inkata Press, 255 pp.

Auld BA, Medd RW, 1992. Weeds: An Illustrated Botanical Guide to the Weeds of Australia. Melbourne, Australia: Inkata Press.

Banda EA, Morris B, 1986. Common Weeds of Malawi. Lilongwe, Malawi: The University of Malawi.

Begley M, Crombie L, Ham P, Whiting D, 1972. Terpenoid constituents of the insect repellant plant Nicandra physalodes: X-ray structure of methyl steroid (Nic-3) acetate. Journal of the Chemical Society, Chemistry Communications (London), 19:1108.

Bolnick D, 1995. A Guide to the Common Wild flowers of Zambia and Neighbouring Regions. London, UK: Macmillan.

Britskii YaV, 1982. Antifeedants against the Colorado beetle. Zashchita Rastenii, No. 2:38-39

Broodryk SW, 1977. Phthorimaea operclella (Zell.). In: Kranz J, Schmutterer H, Koch W, eds. Diseases, Pests and Weeds of Tropical Crops. Berlin and Hamburg, Germany: Verlag Paul Parey, 429-431.

Carmona B-C, Jeffery LS, 1972. Chemical control of weeds in beans in the Medellin Valley. Revista, Facultad Nacional de Agronomia, Medellin, 27(2):57-70.

Czekalski M, 1981. Nicandra physalodes, a new fodder plant. Kosmos, Seria Biologica, Warsaw, 30:427-428.

Darlington C, Janaki-Ammal E, 1945. Adaptive iso-chromosomes in Nicandra. Annals of Botany, 9:267-281.

Drummond RB, 1984. Arable Weeds of Zimbabwe. Harare, Zimbabwe: Agricultural Research Trust of Zimbabwe.

Everaarts AP, 1981. Weeds of vegetables in the highlands of Java. Weeds of vegetables in the highlands of Java. Horticultural Research Institute. Pasarminggu, Jakarta Indonesia, 121 pp.

Fribourg CE, 1979. Host plant reactions, some properties, and serology of Peru tomato virus. Phytopathology, 69(5):441-445

Gallo J, Ciampor F, 1977. Transmission of alfalfa mosaic virus through Nicandra physaloides seeds and its location in embryo cotyledons. Acta Virologica, 21(4):344-346

Gobatto, D., Oliveira, L. A. de, Franco, D. A. de S., Velásquez, N., Daròs, J. A., Eiras, M., 2019. Surveys in the chrysanthemum production areas of Brazil and Colombia reveal that weeds are potential reservoirs of chrysanthemum stunt viroid. Viruses, 11(4), 355. doi: 10.3390/v11040355

Grabandt K, 1985. Weeds of Crops and Gardens in Southern Africa. Johannesburg, South Africa: Seal Publishing.

Greenhalgh WJ, Michpl PW, 1989. Recalcitrant weeds in herbicide trials at Camden, NSW. Acta Horticulturae, 247:253-256.

Groot W de, 1980. Review of results of weed control experiments in dry beans in Kenya. Proceedings of the Seventh East African Weed Science Conference, 55-62.

Hawton D, 1976. Control of apple of Peru (Nicandra physalodes) in maize on the Atherton Tableland, Queensland. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, 16(82):765-770

Henderson M, Anderson JG, 1966. Common Weeds in South Africa. South Africa: Department of Agricultural and Technical Services.

Hillocks RJ, Stokes S, Jones M, 1995. Reproduction of Meloidogyne javanica on legume crops and some weed species associated with their cultivation in Malawi. Nematologica, 41(4):505-515

Hocombe S, 1961. Simple experiments on the greenhouse germination of some East African weed species. Miscellaneous Report No. 285. Arusha, Tanzania: Colonial Pesticides Research Institute.

Holm LG, Doll J, Holm E, Pancho JV, Herberger JP, 1997. World Weeds: Natural Histories and Distribution. New York, USA: John Wiley & Sons Inc.

Holm LG, Pancho JV, Herberger JP, Plucknett DL, 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. New York, USA: John Wiley and Sons, 391 pp.

Horton P, 1979. Taxonomic account of Nicandra (Solanaceae) in Australia. Journal of the Adelaide Botanical Garden, 1(6):351-356

Ivens GW, 1989. East African Weeds and their Control, 2nd edition. Nairobi, Kenya: Oxford University Press.

Lorenzi H, 1982. Weeds of Brazil, terrestrial and aquatic, parasitic, poisonous and medicinal. (Plantas daninhas de Brasil, terrestres, aquaticas, parasitas, toxicas e medicinais.) Nova Odessa, Brazil: H. Lorenzi, 425 pp.

Macharia, I., Backhouse, D., Wu, S. B., Ateka, E. M., 2016. Weed species in tomato production and their role as alternate hosts of Tomato spotted wilt virus and its vector Frankliniella occidentalis. Annals of Applied Biology, 169(2), 224-235. doi: 10.1111/aab.12297

Marzocca A, 1979. Manual de Malezas. 3rd edition. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Editorial Hemisferio Sur.

Mathew AV, Muniyappa V, 1993. Host range of Indian cassava mosaic virus. Indian Phytopathology, 46(1):16-23

Moore DM, 1972. 1. Nicandra. In: Tutin TG, Heywood VH, Burges NA, Moore DM, Valentine DH, Walters SM, Webb DA, eds. Flora Europaea, Volume 3. Diapensiaceae to Myoporaceae. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 193.

Nalini AS, Prabhakar AS, Uppar DS, 1993. Weed flora of University of Agricultural Sciences campus Dharwad. Farming systems, 9(1-2):59-60.

Nono-Womdim R, Swai IS, Green SK, GTbrT-SelassiT K, Laterrot H, Marchoux G, Opena RT, 1996. Tomato viruses in Tanzania: identification, distribution and disease incidence. Journal of the Southern African Society for Horticultural Sciences, 6(1):41-44; 13 ref.

Parker C, 1992. Weeds of Bhutan. Weeds of Bhutan., vi + 236 pp.

Parsons JM(Editor), 1992. Australian weed control handbook. Melbourne, Australia; Inkata Press.

Querci M, Owens RA, Vargas C, Salazar LF, 1995. Detection of potato spindle tuber viroid in avocado growing in Peru. Plant Disease, 79(2):196-202

Rahman A, 1985. Weed control in maize in New Zealand. Special Publication, Agronomy Society of New Zealand, No. 4:37-45

Richards PVM, 1979. Chemical weed control in onions. Hortus, 26:56-58.

Richards PVM, Schwerzel PJ, Lindert HJA van, Budd GD, Oosterman HM, 1978. Herbicide evaluation. Rhodesia, Agronomy Institute, Weed Research Team: Annual report 1975-77. Salisbury, Zimbabwe: Department of Research and Specialist Services, 11-24.

Ridley H, 1930. The Dispersal of Plants throughout the World. Kent, UK: Reeve and Ashford.

Runnels HA, Schaffner JH, 1931. Manual of Ohio Weeds. Ohio, USA: Ohio Agricultural Experimental Station, Bulletin No. 475.

Saigusa M, Shibuya K, Abe T, 1993. Ecological study and control of Nicandra physalodes (L.) Pers. on dent corn field. Journal of Japanese Society of Grassland Science, 39:71-76.

Sangar RBS, Agrawal HO, 1988. Potato virus Y causing mosaic disease of winter cherry. Indian Phytopathology, 41(4):509-512

Schwerzel P, 1967. Seed production of some common Rhodesian weeds. PANS, 13:215-217.

Schwerzel P, 1970. Weed seed production study. PANS, 16:357.

Schwerzel P, Thomas P, Oosterman H, 1982. Weed biology. Annual Report of the Weed Research Team, 1979-80. Zimbabwe: Department of Research and Specialist Services, Henderson Research Station.

Shaw M, 1979. Control recommendations. Rhodesian Tobacco Today, 2(8):13-17

Singh DS, Nagaich BB, 1977. Nicandra physaloides Gprtn. - an additional host of Alternaria solani (Ellis & Mart.) Jones and Grout. causing early blight of potato. Science and Culture, 43(10):453-454

Souza, T. A., Macedo, M. A., Inoue-Nagata, A. K., 2019. Natural infection of apple-of-Peru (Nicandra physaloides) with Tomato chlorosis virus in Brazil. Plant Disease, 103(3), 593. doi: 10.1094/PDIS-03-18-0399-PDN

Stroud A, Parker C, 1989. A Weed Identification Guide for Ethiopia. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization.

Subramainan S, Sethi P, Adam G, 1973. Structure of nicandrenone from Nicandra physalodes. Indian Journal of Pharmacy, 35:123-124.

Suteri BD, Joshi CC, Bala S, 1979. Some ornamentals and weeds as reservoirs of potato virus Y and cucumber mosaic virus in Kumaon. Indian Phytopathology, 32(4):640

Terry PJ, Michieka RW, 1987. Common Weeds of East Africa. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Thomas JE, 1993. Alternative hosts and the epidemiology of potato leafroll virus in Queensland. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, 44(8):1905-1916

Thomas P, Schwerzel P, 1968. A cotton weed competition experiment. Proceedings of the 9th British Weed Control Conference, Brighton, UK. Farnham, UK: British Crop Protection Council, 737-743.

Thomas P, Schwerzel P, 1982. The facts about weeds and their effects on crops. In: Ventner HA van de, Mason M, eds. Proceedings of the 4th National Weed Conference, South Africa. Cape Town, South Africa: A A Balkema, 55-59.

Tutin TG, Heywood VH, Burges NA, Moore DM, Valentine DH, Walters SM, Webb DA, 1972. Flora Europaea. Vol. 3. Diapensiaceae to Myoporaceae. London, Cambridge University Press., UK xxix+370pp.

Vernon R, unda. Field guide to important arable weeds of Zambia. Field guide to important arable weeds of Zambia. Department of Agriculture Chilanga Zambia, 151pp.

Wang ZR, 1990. Farmland Weeds in China. Beijing, China: Agricultural Publishing House.

Ward JR, 1973. Sencor - a new triazinon herbicide. Proceedings of the 2nd Victorian Weeds Conference. W1973, 5. New Chemicals. Melbourne, Australia: Weed Science Society of Victoria, 3-5.

Wells MJ, Balsinhas AA, Joffe H, Engelbrecht VM, Harding G, Stirton CH, 1986. A catalogue of problem plants in South Africa. Memoirs of the botanical survey of South Africa No 53. Pretoria, South Africa: Botanical Research Institute.

Zambia, Department of Agriculture, Research Branch, 1978. Annual report, weed control research 1976-1977. Annual report, weed control research 1976-1977. Mt. Makulu Research Station. PO Box 7, Chilanga Zambia, 33 pp.

Zambia, Ministry of Agriculture and Water Affairs, Department of Agriculture, 1980. Annual report of the weed control research and extension team, 1979. Annual report of the weed control research and extension team, 1979. Mt. Makulu Research Station. P.O. Box 7, Chilanga Zambia, 58 pp.

Distribution References

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Links to Websites

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Website	URL	Comment
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway	https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.

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Nicandra physalodes (apple of Peru)

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