Nezara viridula
(green stink bug)

Pictures

Top of page

Identity

Top of page

Preferred Scientific Name

• Nezara viridula (Linnaeus)

Preferred Common Name

• green stink bug

Other Scientific Names

• Cimex smaragdulus Fabricius
• Cimex torquatus Fabricius
• Cimex viridulus Linnaeus

International Common Names

• English: green shield bug; green vegetable bug; southern green stink bug; tomato and bean bug
• Spanish: chinche hedionda verde; chinche verde de las hortalizas; chinche verde del algodonero (Mexico); maya verde
• French: punaise verte; punaise verte du sud

Local Common Names

• Brazil: fede-fede da soja; percevejo verde
• Dominican Republic: chinche verde del arroz
• Germany: gruene reis-wanze
• Indonesia: kepik ijo; lembing
• Iran: sene bereng (sabs rang); seyn (Iran)
• Israel: hapishpesh hayarok
• Italy: cimice verdastra
• Japan: minami-aokamemusi
• Mexico: cinche verde del algodonero
• Netherlands: groene tabakswants
• Turkey: pis kokulu yesil bocek

EPPO code

• NEZAVI (Nezara viridula)

Taxonomic Tree

Top of page

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Metazoa
•         Phylum: Arthropoda
•             Subphylum: Uniramia
•                 Class: Insecta
•                     Order: Hemiptera
•                         Suborder: Heteroptera
•                             Family: Pentatomidae
•                                 Genus: Nezara
•                                     Species: Nezara viridula

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Top of page

Freeman's (1940) revision of the genus Nezara provides an accessible review of the nomenclatural history of the species, which has since remained stable. Todd and Herzog's (1980) review has a key to the stink bugs in North American soyabeans.

Species in the genus have various colour forms. Several such forms have been described, with about 10 in Nezara viridula (Hokkanen, 1986). Three N. viridula (green vegetable bug) forms were originally described as species in their own right, so the names N. viridula var. smaragdula (green), N. viridula var. torquata (yellow) and N. viridula var. aurantiaca (golden) appear in the literature, although they have no formal taxonomic standing (DeWitt and Godfrey, 1972). Other varietal names that have been used are dealt with by Hokkanen (1986). The green variety is the usual colour form of the species. Ironically, Linnaeus' type specimen was a red colour form (Freeman, 1940), which explains why the green bugs are sometimes given only varietal status.

Indications have emerged that more than one species (i.e. cryptic or sibling species) is included under the single name N. viridula (Jeraj and Walter, 1998), but what this means for pest management remains unclear.

Description

Top of page The general appearance and size of the eggs, five nymphal instars and adults of each sex has been detailed by Drake (1920) and Corpuz (1969) and outlined by Todd and Herzog (1980) and Todd (1989).

Eggs are deposited in tightly packed, single-layered rafts of about 60 (range of 30-130) eggs (Van den Berg et al., 1995). Each egg is tightly glued against other eggs and to the substrate, with no intervening gaps. Eggs are cream to yellow, slightly elongate, and circular from above. As they develop they become deep yellow, then pinkish, and finally bright orange. The head of the developing embryo becomes visible 3 days after oviposition, as a red crescent.

The antennae of nymphs have four segments. Adults were thought to have five (hence the name Pentatomidae), but recent investigations show that the second antennal segment has a false division (Jeram and Pabst, 1996). Nymphs have no wings, but wing pads are visible on fifth-instar nymphs. Nymphal colour changes progressively in successive instars. On hatching, the nymphs are mostly black. By the fifth instar, a considerable proportion of each is green. The instars can be differentiated from one another by colour and size variation (Kobayashi, 1959).

N. viridula adults are large green shield bugs, approxomately 15 x 8 mm in size. They are uniform apple-green above and a paler shade of green below. The green colour may be replaced by a red-brown. Three small white dots are usually evident on the front edge of the scutellum, where it joins the prothorax.

Distribution

Top of page The geographical origin of N. viridula is a matter of debate. The most likely origin is the Mediterranean area and/or the African mainland (Hokkanen, 1986; Jones, 1988).

Distribution Table

Top of page

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Risk of Introduction

Top of page N. viridula is so widespread that special quarantine precautions are not taken. However, if different species in the complex pose different risks to agriculture the situation may need revision.

N. viridula is known to transmit Nematospora spp. (in particular Nematospora coryli in Africa), which causes internal rots of cotton and beans (Ragsdale et al., 1979).

The feeding punctures made by green vegetable bugs provide access for fungal and bacterial infections (Todd and Herzog, 1980; Russin et al., 1988) some of which are toxic to vertebrates, for example, those that invade nut or maize kernels (Stringer et al., 1983; Payne and Wells, 1984). Even if the damage is not outwardly severe, the taste of the product may be badly affected, for example, hazelnuts (Genduso, 1974).

Hosts/Species Affected

Top of page N. viridula has been recorded from a great many mostly herbaceous, annual plant species. However, green vegetable bugs do not breed on all recorded hosts, and not even on all species on which it is a pest (for example, macadamias (Shearer and Jones, 1996a). Furthermore, breeding on many host plant species is sporadic and/or at low densities. Many of the hosts not used for breeding are only occasionally fed upon by adults (Drake, 1920; Todd and Herzog, 1980; Velasco et al., 1995). Host plant lists for N. viridula only provide information of a preliminary nature.

Although N. viridula is considered highly polyphagous, leguminous hosts are disproportionately represented (Todd and Herzog, 1980; Todd, 1989). Several species of Cruciferae, Poaceae, Malvaceae and Solanaceae are also attacked. Green vegetable bug performance varies significantly across species (Todd, 1989; Panizzi and Slansky, 1991; Velasco and Walter, 1992; Panizzi and Saraiva, 1993). Furthermore, various suitable host species affect nymphs differently from adults (Velasco and Walter, 1992).

Host species are perhaps most usefully treated as reproductive (or nymphal) hosts and/or hosts for adult maintenance. The major reproductive hosts include soyabean (wherever cultivated); wild radish in the USA, South America and Australia (Jones and Sullivan, 1982; Panizzi and Saraiva, 1993; Velasco et al., 1995); variegated thistles (Silybum marianum) in Australia (Clarke and Walter, 1993a) and rice (Kiritani et al., 1965).

Most other hosts support relatively little reproduction. Polyphagy therefore seems to be a rather specific adaptation to sustain the adults through periods when reproductive hosts are not available (Velasco and Walter, 1992). In some areas (for example, the southern coastal plain of the USA), N. viridula populations increase on alternative hosts (including non-cultivated ones) prior to invading soyabeans and transgenic cotton in late summer (Todd and Herzog, 1980; Jones and Sullivan, 1982; Turnipseed and Greene, 1996). In other areas (for example, south-east Queensland), the majority of N. viridula entering soyabeans are those that survived summer periods during which reproductive host plant species are not readily available (Velasco and Walter, 1992). For information on hosts in Brazil and Argentina, see Panizzi and Slansky (1991), Panizzi and Rossi (1991), Panizzi and Saraiva (1993) and Antonino (1996).

Different host species sustain the spring generation of offspring in different localities. In south-east Queensland the nymphs develop mainly on wild radishes and variegated thistles (Clarke and Walter, 1993a; Velasco et al., 1995). In spring, Japanese N. viridula adults feed on rape, radishes, wheat and barley before moving briefly onto potatoes to oviposit, and then onto rice (Kiritani et al., 1965). Those on the south-eastern coastal plain of the USA develop on wild radishes and wheat (South Carolina: Jones and Sullivan, 1982) or mustard, turnips, beets and red clover (Newsom et al., 1980). Similarly, subsequent generations feed on a different range of species in different localities.

Interpretations of the host relationships of N. viridula warrant further testing. The situation is, however, confused by two observations on different populations of N. viridula. Firstly, different populations of N. viridula may have host relationships in one area that are significantly different from those of other populations, sometimes in the same general area (Todd and Herzog, 1980; Panizzi and Meneguim, 1989; Panizzi and Slansky, 1991). Whether such differences are imposed by host plant availability in the different localities needs investigation. Secondly, the bugs themselves may be genetically different among localities (See Biology and Ecology.)

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

Top of page

Growth Stages

Top of page Fruiting stage, Post-harvest

Symptoms

Top of page N. viridula may attack all parts of a plant, including the stems (Panizzi and Rossi, 1991) and leaf veins, but the bugs feed mostly on fruiting structures and growing shoots (Todd and Herzog, 1980; Panizzi and Slansky, 1991).

In general, their piercing and sucking mouthparts puncture the plant tissues and form minute, hard, brownish or blackish spots. Feeding retards the growth of immature fruits, which the bugs prefer to over-ripe fruit, and distorts them, causing, for example, catfacing of peaches (Johnson et al., 1985) or premature drop. Flower drop in ornamental or cut flowers is sometimes a problem (Gough and Hamacek, 1989; Parrini and Rumine, 1989).

The feeding punctures also provide access for fungal and bacterial infections (Todd and Herzog, 1980; Russin et al., 1988), some of which are toxic to vertebrates, for example, those that invade nut or maize kernels (Stringer et al., 1983; Payne and Wells, 1984). Some of the pathogens seem to be responsible for the fruit drop that follows feeding, for example, citrus (Ali et al., 1978). Even if the damage is not outwardly severe, the taste of the product may be badly affected such as hazelnuts (Genduso, 1974).

Green vegetable bug feeding on pecans causes black pit, in which the kernel goes black and the fruit abscises. After shell hardening in both pecans and macadamias, bug feeding causes kernel spot which is a localized lesion in the kernel surface that may extend into the embryo (Dutcher and Todd, 1983).

Developing soyabean seeds from which N. viridula have fed usually do not grow to full size and are shrivelled and deformed. Older green seeds suffer only a black mark in a depression (Todd and Herzog, 1980). Seeds with only slight to moderate N. viridula damage may germinate at significantly lower rates than undamaged seeds (Berger et al., 1990).

Rice grains affected by N. viridula feeding do not fill completely. They shrivel and become covered with brownish spots and fungal growth (Lim, 1970; Ito, 1986).

Feeding by N. viridula on young tomatoes induces early maturity and reduces fruit size and weight (Lye et al., 1988). A reddish-yellow spot appears where N. viridula inserts its sucking tube. When cut the fruit is full of lumps and has no flavour (Drake, 1920).

List of Symptoms/Signs

Top of page

Biology and Ecology

Top of page

N. viridula has been widely investigated over a protracted period. The life cycle, ecology and behaviour of N. viridula have been reviewed (Todd and Herzog, 1980; Panizzi and Slansky, 1985; Waterhouse and Norris, 1987; Todd, 1989). N. viridula is classed by Todd (1989), as "... one of the most important pentatomid insect pests in the world ... It is cosmopolitan and highly polyphagous on many important food and fiber crops".

The ecology of N. viridula varies with locality, but the scale at which such variation manifests itself remains unclear. Interpretation of N. viridula ecology in any particular area requires considerably more information about the specific use made by both nymphs and adults of the various plant species available.

Life Cycle

The life cycle of green vegetable bugs is mostly multivoltine, with the extent of voltinism related to local differences in climate and the availability of host plants suitable for reproduction (Todd, 1989; Velasco and Walter, 1992; Cividanes and Parra, 1994a; Velasco et al., 1995; Chang and Chen, 1997).

Most green vegetable bugs undergo winter diapause, invariably in the adult stage, but in southern Brazil they continue reproducing on alternative host plants (Panizzi and Meneguim, 1989). Overwintering individuals generally, but not invariably, assume a russet colour (Seymour and Bowman, 1994). During warm periods they may emerge from their hiding places under bark, in litter, in thick vegetation, or behind panels of buildings, to feed (Kiritani et al., 1966; Todd and Herzog, 1980), which enhances survival. Cold tolerance has not been extensively investigated, and would be of differential importance for bugs at different latitudes. The survival of green vegetable bugs in different geographical localities, and the factors that influence their survival, have been described by Todd (1989) and Elsey (1993).

Adults leave their hibernation sites permanently in spring, start feeding, mainly nocturnally (Shearer and Jones, 1996b) and soon mate and oviposit. Eggs are deposited in the upper canopy of the herbaceous host plants, mostly under leaves or fruiting structures. They may take as long as 2-3 weeks to hatch in spring and autumn, but as few as 5 days in summer.

The first-instar nymphs do not feed, and form tight clusters at their natal site. Second- and third-instar nymphs also cluster, perhaps for protection, but they disperse if disturbed. Fourth- and fifth-instar nymphs do not aggregate. These older nymphs, along with adult green vegetable bugs, bask on the outer surface of the canopy or on the sunny side of those fruiting structures that emerge from the canopy. In the middle of the day, most bugs retreat into the canopy or to the shaded side of fruiting structures.

Nymphs in the fifth instar are sensitive to day length, which (in combination with temperature) determines entry into adult diapause (Todd, 1989). The developmental rate of nymphs is dictated by temperature and nutritional quality. Some studies indicate optimal temperatures are about 30°C, when the nymphal stage lasts about 23 days, but almost 8 weeks is needed to complete this stage at 20°C (Todd, 1989). A daytime temperature of 30°C for 14 h and a 10 h reduction in night-time temperature to 20°C resulted in an intermediate nymphal duration of 5 weeks in Australian bugs (Velasco and Walter, 1993a).

On primary host plant species (for example, soyabean), nymphs may develop up to twice as fast as on other species (for example, clover) at 27±5°C (Velasco and Walter, 1992). Brazilian nymphs, in contrast, do not survive well at 30°C, and oviposition by Brazilian bugs was greatest at 20°C, which led Cividanes and Parra (1994b) to conclude the species is better adapted to lower temperatures. Harris and Todd (1980a) discussed possible causes of such differences among studies of N. viridula.

The performance of N. viridula on some other host plants, and on various combination diets, has become available (Velasco and Walter, 1993b; Koymen and Karsavuran, 1995; Panizzi et al., 1996; Roychoudhury and Joshi, 1996; Shearer and Jones, 1996a; Panizzi and Mourao, 1999). Tests on macadamia demonstrate that N. viridula may be a pest on a crop, despite that crop species being a poor host and not supporting successful development of the nymphs (Shearer and Jones, 1996a) and though a host may be good for reproductive development of adult females, it may be relatively poor for nymphal development, as has been documented for Brazilian bugs on Japanese privet (Panizzi et al., 1996; Panizzi and Mourao, 1999).

Populations of N. viridula may have host relationships in one area that are significantly different from those of other populations, sometimes in the same general area (Todd and Herzog, 1980; Panizzi and Meneguim, 1989; Panizzi and Slansky, 1991). It is not known whether these are genetically different sibling species of N. viridula or whether these differences are imposed by host plant availability. Until recently, differences between populations in sound production and pheromone composition have been assumed to be produced by local adaptation within that locality. However, an alternative to that view has been suggested; the taxon N. viridula may contain unrecognized sibling species (Ryan et al., 1996) and recent tests support this interpretation (Jeraj and Walter, 1998).

That sibling species and not local adaptation may be involved is supported by the considerable migratory potential of the bugs, which means that the potential for gene flow among localities is thus considerable. In parts of Africa, they migrate in large groups under the influence of the Inter-Tropical Front (Bowden, 1973). Anecdotal evidence in Australia suggests that mass migration to overwintering sites may take place (Gu and Walter, 1989). Females in Japan reputedly fly up to a kilometre per day when moving between feeding and oviposition sites (Kiritani et al., 1965). Records of extended flights of hundreds of kilometres by individuals have also been documented (Hokkanen, 1986; Gu and Walter, 1989; Aldrich, 1990).

Pheromones

Nymphs have dorsal abdominal glands that secrete n-tridecane, which functions in nymphal aggregation and, at high concentrations, in dispersal (Lucchi and Solinas, 1990). Adults secrete n-tridecane from their paired metathoracic glands, as well as some (E)-2-hexenal and (E)-2-hexenyl acetate, which are adult alarm pheromones. These three compunds play a defensive role against certain potential predators including fire ants (Lucchi and Solinas, 1990; Pavis et al., 1994). Nymphs in aggregations suffer less predation than isolated nymphs (Todd, 1989). Another adult metathoracic gland compound, (E)-2-decenal, also attracts female egg parasitoids (Trissolcus basalis) (Mattiacci et al., 1993).

Questions remain, however, about the sex pheromones and the structures that secrete them. The pheromone gland is not discrete, but made up of numerous minute glands in the ventral subcuticular tissues (Lucchi, 1994). Several compounds are secreted by sexually active males (Aldrich et al., 1989; Borges, 1995). Evidence conflicts over their precise function. Field tests show that they attract adults of both sexes as well as fifth-instar nymphs and are thus said to be aggregation pheromones (Harris and Todd, 1980b).

In laboratory experiments, only sexually mature adult males are attracted by the compounds (Mitchell and Mau, 1971; Brezot et al., 1993). Most attention has been given to the cis- and trans-forms of bisabolene epoxide (Brezot et al., 1994) because bugs from different parts of the world were recorded having different ratios of these enantiomers (Aldrich et al., 1989, 1993). Two lines of evidence question this interpretation. Within-population variation in ratios is as great as that recorded among populations (Ryan et al., 1995) and different ratios of the cis- and trans-epoxides did not affect the attraction of females to males (Brezot et al., 1994).

Sound

The sexes communicate by means of substrate-borne vibrations in the form of a duet (Ota and Cokl, 1991; Ryan et al., 1996), which takes place after they arrive on a plant and have to locate one another (Ota and Cokl, 1991). Different strains have been documented (Harris et al., 1982; Kon et al., 1988) but recent research suggests that sibling species are involved. At least two species are known in the taxon N. viridula; bugs in Australia have significantly different songs and song alternation sequences from Slovenian bugs, and bugs from the two areas do not communicate effectively with one another even in confined spaces (Jeraj and Walter, 1998).

Natural enemies

Top of page

Notes on Natural Enemies

Top of page A comprehensive analysis of the natural enemies of N. viridula across the world is now available in Waterhouse (1998), which also contains a list of parasitoids, their geographic range and known host relations.

Insect Parasitoids

Several egg parasitoids have been recorded parasitizing N. viridula. Some have been introduced to other countries, but establishment and rates of parasitism have been low (Bennett, 1990). Relatively few parasitoids attack N. viridula regularly and at relatively high rates. Trissolcus basalis does so in several parts of the world (for example, Brazilian and Argentinian soyabeans: Foerster and de Queiroz, 1990; Liljesthröm and Camean, 1992; Corrêa-Ferreira and Moscardi, 1995). (E)-2-decenal, a compound secreted by the adult metathoracic gland of N. viridulis, attracts the female T. basalis (Mattiacci et al., 1993). Psix striaticeps in Togo also attacks N. viridulis at relatively high rates (Poutouli, 1995).

Other egg parasitoids are more sporadic or less abundant (or both). For example, Telenomus podisi accounts for only 2% of the parasitism of N. viridula in Brazil, even though parasitism rates overall reached 62% (Corrêa-Ferreira and Moscardi, 1995). Even in the laboratory, parasitism rates by this species are relatively low on N. viridula (Pacheco and Corrêa-Ferreira, 1998). Other bugs are attacked at much higher rates by T. podisi (and also T. mormideae), so these parasitoids are not primarily adapted to N. viridula.

Various other egg parasitoid species, such as Ooencyrtus johnsoni, O. californicus, Trissolcus brochymenae and T. urichi, also parasitize N. viridula only at low levels and erratically (Moreira and Becker, 1986; Hoffmann et al., 1991; Corrêa-Ferreira and Moscardi, 1995). Jones (1988) categorizes the host relationship with regard to N. viridula of most parasitoids recorded from the bug; most species have only been rarely recorded or are incidental parasitoids of N. viridula. Some of the parasitoid species have only recently been recorded and their status in relation to N. viridula awaits further clarification.

Flies in the family Tachinidae also attack the nymphs and adults, but few species are involved. The species most important in relation to N. viridula are mainly in the genus Trichopoda. A few species have been used in biological control or have been investigated for this purpose, for example, the recent introduction of T. giacomellii [Eutrichopodopsis nitens] from Argentina to Australia for release (Liljesthröm, 1994; Coombs, 1997) and the fortuitous establishment of T. pennipes in Italy (Colazza et al., 1996).

Rates of parasitism by T. giacomellii may vary across different host plants of N. viridula (Panizzi, 1988; La Porta, 1990). Despite reaching peaks as high as 80 or 100%, parasitism rates are usually lower than this (La Porta and de Crouzel, 1984; Corrêa-Ferreira, 1984; Panizzi, 1988; Liljesthröm and Bernstein, 1990; La Porta, 1990; Jones et al. 1996; Panizzi and Oliveira, 1999). Another aspect of Trichopoda parasitism is the proportionately greater parasitism rate of adult males of N. viridula (Corrêa-Ferreira, 1984; Menezes et al., 1985; La Porta, 1990; McLain et al., 1990; Salles, 1991) perhaps because the flies home in on the sex pheromone released by N. viridula males (Aldrich et al., 1989). Indeed, the risk of females being parasitized (by T. pennipes) derived primarily from their association with males during mating (McLain et al., 1990). The effect of parasitism by the tachinid on survival and reproductive output of bugs has been extensively quantified (Harris and Todd, 1982; Coombs and Khan, 1998b).

Rearing methods for T. pennipes have been described by Gianguiliani and Farinelli (1995) and adult food (Coombs, 1997), temperature requirements (Liljesthrom, 1996a, b) and host discrimination (Liljesthrom, 1996c) have been investigated. Various tachinid parasitoids use the sex pheromone to locate potential hosts, i.e. as kairomones (Aldrich et al., 1989). Patents have been taken out on these sesquiterpene epoxides and on the preparation process (Aldrich et al., 1990).

Arthropod Predators

A considerable diversity of predators has been recorded attacking N. viridula in various stages of its development (Drake, 1920; Kiritani and Hokyo, 1962; Stam et al., 1987; Van den Berg et al., 1995) but because of the nature of predation the number of observations is quite low. Virtually all of these predators are generalists, or are suspected of being so, but their impact (alone or in combination) has not been convincingly determined. See Todd (1989) and Waterhouse (1998) for information and a discussion of general predators.

There are increasing claims that ants have a strong impact on N. viridula eggs and nymphs, both in orchards (Yang, 1984; Seymour and Sands, 1993; Jones, 1995) and in soyabean fields (Krispyn and Todd, 1982; van den Berg et al., 1995). The thoughtful manipulation of ant populations could contribute considerably to achieving acceptable levels of biological control. Spiders may also contribute significantly to reducing N. viridula populations, but the data are not convincing (Kiritani and Hokyo, 1962).

Other Natural Enemies

To date, relatively few studies of N. viridula pathogens have been published, and no product has been developed for field use. For information on pathogens isolated from field-collected N. viridula, see Singh et al. (1991) on fungi, Williamson and von Wechmar (1992, 1995) and Nakashima et al. (1998) on viruses, and Bhatnagar et al. (1985) on nematodes. The virulence against N. viridula of several entomogenous fungi (for example, Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium and Paecilomyces spp.) derived from other insects, has been investigated in the laboratory (Leite et al., 1987; Shimaxu et al., 1994; Sosa et al. 1997). However, field trials show little promise (Sosa-Gomez and Moscardi, 1998).

For further information on natural enemies of N. viridula, see Waterhouse (1998) and Jones et al. (1996).

Impact

Top of page Introduction

N. viridula is highly polyphagous, although leguminous plants are preferred. In the absence of control measures, it is a major pest of soyabeans, macadamia, pecans and beans; and often an important pest of a wide range of grain, fruit, and vegetable crops. N. viridula is an economic pest in most areas where it occurs, especially in the southern USA, Central and South America, the Mediterranean, the Middle East, Africa, Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, Japan, and the Pacific Islands. It often occurs on a crop as one component, although frequently the most damaging, of a stink bug (pentatomid) complex.

Direct feeding is the main cause of yield losses. Stylet penetration and the injection of saliva damage plant tissue, causing blemishes, discoloration, and malformation; while sucking removes plant nutrient resources resulting in retarded growth. Blemishes reduce quality and marketability of many crops. Feeding contributes to reduced seed number and weight, and premature seed and fruit drop. Stylet sheaths can be counted as an indicator of feeding activity on many crops, and this can often be correlated with yield loss. All plant parts are fed on, but the preference is for growing shoots and developing fruit and seeds.

N. viridula is known to carry spores of fungal diseases from plant to plant, and can also transfer plant pathogens mechanically during feeding (Kaiser and Vakili, 1978; Waterhouse and Norris, 1987). It transmits spores of fungal species of Nematospora which cause internal rots of cotton, soyabeans, tomato, citrus, beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) and other crops. In Brazil, for example, it is reported to transmit Nematospora coryli, the causal agent of yeast-spot disease in soyabeans (Corso et al., 1975).

Soyabeans

In soyabean, the stink bug complex includes N. viridula, and species of Piezodorus, Acrosternum, Euschistus and Riportus. The species composition varies with locality. A range of pests other than stink bugs can also be associated with N. viridula in crops (Waterhouse and Norris, 1987). Stink bugs reduce seed yield, often expressed as 1000-seed weight, increase the proportion of seedless pods, and decrease germinability of seed (Miller et al., 1977; Waterhouse and Norris, 1987). Pods punctured during early endosperm formation are largely drained of their contents. The main cause of empty pods in South America is usually attack by N. viridula (Vicentini and Jimenez, 1977; Erejomovich, 1980). On infested plants, seed biomass can decrease considerably, although plants can show compensatory reactions to feeding at the early pod growing stage (Suzuki et al., 1991). In one study, damage-free seeds compensated for damaged seeds by exhibiting mean increases in weight of as much as 43.8% (Russin et al., 1987).

In practically all of the soyabean-growing regions of Brazil, the stink bug complex, in combination with the velvetbean caterpillar (Anticarsia gemmatalis), accounted for over 90% of the insecticides applied (Moscardi, 1993). Early maturing genotypes showed lower yields due to pentatomid damage in a study of host-plant resistance in Brazil (Gazzoni and Malaguido, 1996). In one experiment with Brazilian cultivars, a tolerant line (IAC100) gave the highest yield (2.7 and 3.1 t/ha with and without insecticide, respectively), the lowest percentage weight of totally deformed seeds, and the lowest foliar retention index (Fernandes et al., 1994). Heavy feeding damage can cause the retention of foliage, a condition bought on by the failure of seeds to develop properly (Todd and Herzog, 1980).

In the USA, N. viridula can cause considerable yield loss. During the early 1970s, N. viridula reduced soyabean yields by around 10% in South Carolina, which equalled the combined losses due to all other soyabean pests (Jones and Sullivan, 1982). Stink bugs have also caused significant quality and yield losses annually in Georgia, Florida, and Louisiana. Growers in Georgia, for example, lose around US$13 million annually (McPherson et al., 1995). Significant correlations occurred in Georgia for stink bug population peaks with percentage kernel damage, yield reductions and 100-seed weight reductions (McPherson, 1996). Studies of natural infestations in Louisiana showed that pentatomids fed preferentially on seeds in the upper halves of plants until high infestation levels forced them to feed lower; while even low infestation levels (1.5 bugs per metre of row) impacted seed weight (Russin et al., 1987). In laboratory studies, feeding punctures were more numerous on the proximal seeds of soyabean pods (Panizzi et al., 1995).

The extension of soyabean cultivation in central Italy has resulted in frequent heavy attack by N. viridula, with damage consisting of seed weight loss, altered seed composition, and reduced germinability (Colazza et al., 1986). In one survey, the mean yield loss was 17.6%, the oil content fell to 17.8% and the protein content rose in infested plants, while the rate of germination varied from 80% in resistant soyabean strains to 5% in susceptible ones (Colazza et al., 1985). N. viridula has also been recorded as a pest in France (Le Page, 1996).

In soyabean in Indonesia, high infestations of pentatomids (18-20 per plant) caused between 19 and 39% pod and seed damage (Supriyatin, 1992). A stink bug complex damaged soyabeans in Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan, with N. viridula causing concentrated attacks on the late season crop (Setokuchi et al., 1986).

In Australia, N. viridula can cause serious losses in soyabean (Passlow and Waite, 1971). In field experiments in Queensland, with caged soyabean plants infested with N. viridula, reduced seed yield and oil content occurred during pod fill, but not during pod elongation or pod ripening. Densities as high as 16 adults/m of row did not reduce yield at the late pod ripening stage (Brier and Rogers, 1991). That infestations do not reduce yield loss during the pod-ripening stage has been shown previously, but the situation regarding the pod elongation stage is less clear, with some evidence suggesting yield is lost and other results suggesting the opposite (Brier and Rogers, 1991).

Cowpeas

Cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata) can also suffer significant losses due to N. viridula. In screen-cage field tests in the southern USA, for example, initial infestations of cowpeas at early bloom with 3 adults/plant resulted in 100% pod damage, 99% average rate of seed abortion, and 100% loss in total seed yield (Schalk and Fery, 1982). Densities of 12 insects/row metre caused significant yield loss in another US study (Nilakhe et al., 1981).

Macadamias and Pecan

Damage by N. viridula to macadamia (Macadamia integrifolia) can be considerable. Yield loss varies with cultivar. In one study in Hawaii, USA, with seven cultivars of smooth-shell macadamia, two cultivars had 86 and 75% of their kernels damaged by N. viridula in a single month (September 1990), while another (Makai) had a maximum of 5.5% damaged during the entire 10 months in which the orchard was sampled (Jones and Caprio, 1992). Feeding by N. viridula resulted in a significant increase in macadamia nut abortion rates in smaller nuts (10-28 mm diameter) but not in full-size nuts. Studies also showed that, for full-size nuts, damage could occur both in the tree canopy and on the ground, generally within 1 week of nut drop (Jones and Caprio, 1994). Effective insecticidal control of N. viridula in a field trial in macadamia in South Africa reduced the incidence of damaged nuts from 29 to 10% (de Villiers and du Toit, 1984).

In Georgia, USA, the average estimated loss of pecans (Carya illinoinensis), at 1979 US$ values, to sucking bug kernel damage was US$216,000 per year (Dutcher and Todd, 1983). When caged on pecan before shell-hardening in Georgia, N. viridula caused between 34 and 53% fruit drop, while adults feeding on pecan kernels ingested, on average, 14 calories per feeding site (Dutcher and Todd, 1983). In a survey in South Africa, N. viridula accounted for only 0.4% of the 982 specimens collected in pecan orchards (Joubert and Neethling, 1994).

Grain Crops

In sorghum, the greatest yield reductions attributed to N. viridula take place during early development, from the milk stage of panicle development to maturity. Direct feeding on the grain accounts for most yield loss (Hall and Teetes, 1982a, 1982b). Field experiments in Louisiana, USA, on wheat, showed that feeding by N. viridula, at both the milk and soft dough stages, decreased germination, kernel weight and baking quality; although damaging levels of bugs are rare, at least in Louisiana (Viator et al., 1983). Similarly, in Pakistan, N. viridula causes only occasional economic damage to wheat (Anwar-Cheema et al., 1973).

In Orissa, India, grain damage to rice in paddy fields caused by three stink bug species including N. viridula was between 3 and 15% in the dry season, and 3 and 12% in the wet season (Gupta et al., 1993). Populations of pentatomids greater than economic threshold levels were found in 50% of the main rice crop and 100% of the ratoon crop in southern Florida, USA (Jones and Cherry, 1986). Serious outbreaks of N. viridula occurred on rice growing in several localities in Peninsular Malaysia in 1968-69 (Lim, 1970).

In field experiments in Louisiana, USA, N. viridula feeding on maize (Zea mays) caused significant reductions in ear weight and ear length, with two adults or more per plant. Feeding damage was most intense in younger plants. Yield reductions were mainly attributed to total ear loss, rather than to reductions in kernel weight (Negron and Riley, 1987). N. viridula is a superficial pest of maize in Brazil (Cruz et al., 1999).

Fruit and Vegetables

Feeding on young tomatoes by N. viridula induced early maturity and reduced fruit size and weight, as demonstrated in a study in Louisiana, USA (Lye et al., 1988). Green fruit were preferred to red fruit (Lye and Story, 1988). Older tomatoes that are even lightly attacked are unmarketable (Waterhouse and Norris, 1987). N. viridula is generally far less damaging to potato and other root crops; for example, being only a minor pest of potato in Brazil (Barbosa et al., 1983).

N. viridula can occur sporadically in large numbers in orchards of granadilla in South Africa. In experiments with cages of 2 bugs/cage around parts of purple granadilla (Passiflora edulis), flower loss, along with internal and external damage of the fruit, occurred (Froneman and Crause, 1989). On peaches (Prunus persica), N. viridula and other stink bugs feed on rapidly developing young fruit, causing fruit to be scarred and malformed, a condition known as 'catfacing' (Johnson et al., 1985).

A stink bug complex in South Africa caused significant losses in avocado (Persea americana) orchards. Before flowering and until the end of December, 10 or more bugs per tree are potentially harmful. From January until about 14 days before harvest, 20 or more bugs per tree led to large scale fruit damage (van den Berg et al., 1999). In a previous report, only 1.8% of avocados reaching the packing house in South Africa were rejected because of N. viridula feeding damage (Dennill and Erasmus, 1992). A heavy and damaging outbreak of N. viridula was reported on Citrus in Egypt (Attiah et al., 1974).

A linear relationship was observed between stink bug infestation of green gram (Vigna radiata) and seed loss in the field in Assam, India, with N. viridula being one of the most damaging pests (Hussain and Saharia, 1994).

Transgenic Cotton and Castor

The switch to transgenic cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) in the USA has seen N. viridula and other stink bugs invade this crop, due to reduced insecticide spraying. Damage to bolls in untreated Bt transgenic cotton in South Carolina in 1995, for example, ranged from 15 to 71%, resulting primarily from pentatomid damage. The yield losses from pentatomids were associated with the abundance of alternative hosts near the study sites (Greene and Turnipseed, 1996; Turnipseed and Greene, 1996). N. viridula is responsible for significant boll damage, to both lint and seeds, by external marking and internal feeding that leads to wart-like growth complexes (Bundy et al., 1999). N. viridula and other stink bugs damage young bolls in mid to late season, and a study in South Carolina concluded that treatment was necessary if more than 20% of bolls are penetrated during this time (Greene et al., 1997). In field-cage studies, boll damage by 5th instar N. viridula, the most damaging stage, decreased as boll age increased from 4 to 18 days from white bloom; although damage to 18-day-old and above bolls was negligible. Exposure of 13-day-old bolls singly to 5th instars for 7 days reduced boll yield by 59% compared with unexposed bolls (Greene et al., 1999).

N. viridula is a pest of castor (Ricinus communis) in the tropics, and a potential pest of this crop in recently planted orchards in Europe. In field plots in France and Italy that were artificially infested, typical damage was observed, with increased capsule shedding and, consequently, a decreased number of capsules and seeds, and reduced seed yield. Shedding and seed yield were not affected if infestations occurred at later stages (Conti et al., 1997).

Detection and Inspection

Top of page Considerable sampling effort is needed to monitor the presence and abundance of the pest adequately in soyabean (Todd and Herzog, 1980). This is because green vegetable bugs tend to specialize on seeds of particular ages, move into crops mainly when the seeds become suitable, and cause damage that is not readily visible in the growing crop. See Nagai et al. (1987) for a discussion of damage surveys. They have a clumped distribution early in the life cycle, which becomes random later.

The various sampling methods and their relative merits are discussed at length by Todd and Herzog (1980). Simple methods remain the most reliable, including sweep-netting and ground cloth methods (for example, Greene et al., 1997, 1998). Searching for eggs and damage is labour intensive and unreliable because they are not readily detected. Under the leaves should be searched especially. Nath and Dutta (1994) studied the optimum sample size in green gram.

In some low-growing crops, such as tomatoes, visual estimates of density are possible (Lye and Story, 1989), whereas in other low-growing crops such as soyabean, rice and cotton, green vegetable bugs are most readily detected by visual inspection, sweep-netting or shaking the insects onto a ground cloth. Kogan and Pitre (1980) give full details on these (and other) methods to sample arthropods from soyabean, including equipment construction and data conversion. Sweep-netting probably gives the best coverage for time spent in low-growing crops (Rudd and Jensen, 1977) and is useful if the bugs are patchily distributed.

Visual inspection is likely to be most efficient if it is timed to coincide with the basking behaviour of the bugs early in the day. The older nymphs, along with adult bugs, bask on the outer surface of the canopy or on the sunny side of the fruiting structures that emerge from the canopy. In the middle of the day, most bugs retreat into the canopy or to the shaded side of fruiting structures (Lockwood and Story, 1986).

General host plant surveys present serious problems because comparison of bug densities across plant species is required, and different species can rarely be sampled in a standard way. See Jones and Sullivan (1982) and Velasco et al. (1995) for examples of how this problem has been overcome.

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

Top of page N. viridula is most similar to congenerics and to species in the closely-related genus Acrosternum. It is distinguished mainly by the shape of the scent gland orifices and by features of the male genitalia (Freeman, 1940). See Azim and Shafee (1978) and Todd and Herzog (1980) for details on distinguishing the species.

N. viridula and the closely related N. antennata, which occurs sympatrically in Asia, can be differentiated from one another on the basis of colour and size variation (Kobayashi, 1959). The two species were distinguished one from the other by Freeman (1940) on the basis that N. attenata had black bands on antennal segements 3, 4 and 5 and prominent prothoracic angles, both of which N. viridula did not have. Differences in mating behaviour between N. antennata and N. viridula have been described by Kon et al. (1988) and Kon and Numata (1994).

Prevention and Control

Top of page

IPM Programmes

Participation in soyabean IPM programmes in Georgia, USA, have been low, probably because of the risk involved (Szmedra et al., 1990). In contrast, a soyabean IPM programme developed in Brazil is seen as a 'spectacular success story of IPM implementation for a major crop over a wide area', and has returned substantial economic, ecological and social benefits (Moscardi, 1993). The N. viridula component involves release of Trissolcus basalis (at least in the state of Paraná), which are produced centrally. See section on Egg Parasitoids for more information on these releases. Insecticides are applied at half the recommended doses with 0.5% NaCl added to the spray tank (Corso, 1993).

In the southern states of Brazil, early-maturing soyabean varieties are planted to escape N. viridula attack. Such varieties have also been used successfully as trap crops to concentrate bugs before the true crop matures, when they are treated chemically or with mass-released T. basalis. But this tactic is still at the experimental stage in relation to IPM in Brazil. Biological control efforts against N. viridula are likely to be enhanced if carried out in association with selective plantings of species that encourage both N. viridula and its parasitoids (Bennett, 1990). Different tillage treatments for soyabean plantings did not influence N. viridula population dynamics, so the tilling operations can be selected for predator conservation (Funderburk et al., 1990).

The possible use of neem seed extract (azadirachtin) in IPM programmes in pecans has been investigated by Seymour et al. (1995). This plant-derived compound seems to reduce feeding by the bugs even at low concentrations, so may well prove useful.

Cultural Control and Sanitary Methods

Crop sanitation has been advised (Waterhouse and Norris, 1987).

Limited use has been made of trap crops to reduce the impact of N. viridula on soyabean, but the approach has good potential (Drake, 1920; Todd and Herzog 1980; Todd, 1989). Early-maturing varieties can be used as trap crops to protect the later maturing, true crop, but insecticides should be applied to the trap crop before the main crop reaches pod set (Kobayashi and Cosenza, 1987; Todd and Schumann, 1988). Adjustment of the planting date of crops, as well as row width (Hussain and Saharia, 1993), allows a degree of manipulation of N. viridula numbers (Rizk et al., 1990; McPherson and Bondari, 1991). Sesbania rostrata has been tested as a trap crop for soybean in Indonesia (Naito, 1996). Intercropping of soyabean with other crops has been tested. The most promising combinations of crops are non-related ones (Das and Dutta, 1996).

In orchards, planting species more attractive to N. viridula than the crop itself shows some promise (Umana et al., 1993). Weed control is thought to reduce catfacing damage to peaches (Killian and Meyer, 1984) but does not reduce damage in soyabean (Altieri et al., 1981). The recommendation for transgenic cotton in the USA is to plant early and avoid areas where alternative hosts are growing (Turnipseed and Greene, 1996).

Todd (1989) lists three further approaches to cultural control of N. viridula that offer substantial benefit:

- use of alternatives crops that are less attractive than soyabean;
- attraction of N. viridula bugs to localized areas of highly attractive hosts late in the soyabean season, with their subsequent eradication with insecticides;
- elimination of preferred overwintering sites.

Host-Plant Resistance

Soyabean germplasm with resistance to N. viridula has been identified, but little progress has been made in the development of agronomically acceptable resistant cultivars or in quantifying the impact of resistant varieties on N. viridula abundance and pest status (Todd, 1989). In Brazil, a variety (IAC-100) resistant to stink bugs in general has been released to growers, and transfer of resistant genes into otherwise more suitable genotypes shows promise (Moscardi, 1993). Soyabean genotypes with resistance to N. viridula may influence parasitism rates negatively, at least to some extent, and warrants consideration (Orr et al., 1985). Recent emphasis has been on the local testing of different soyabean genotypes for resistance in Brazil (Lourencao et al., 1997, 1999), the USA and Thailand (Suwanpornskul and Khadkao, 1996). Correlated measures have also been sought to facilitate selection for resistance (Lopes et al., 1997).

Other crops are also being tested such as spine gourd and summer green gram in India (Sarma and Dutta, 1997; Shaw et al., 1998). Different pecan and macadamia cultivars show differential susceptibility to green vegetable bug attack, which in turn is related to shell thickness of the nuts (Dutcher and Todd, 1983; Jones and Caprio, 1992).

Chemical Control

Fourth- and fifth-stage N. viridula nymphs and adults bask outside the plant canopy until about mid-day, so application of insecticides is most effective at that time. Damage to nut crops may not be restricted to the time they are on the tree. For example, full-sized macadamia nuts may be damaged whilst on the tree, but even more so up to 1 week after they drop to the ground, and this needs to be taken into account when applying chemical treatment (Jones and Caprio, 1994).

A range of carbamates and organophosphates may control N. viridula, but their persistence is too low to prevent subsequent outbreaks (Waterhouse and Norris, 1987; Martins et al., 1990).

Alternative insecticides (tralomethrin, lambda-cyhalothrin and acephate) are less toxic and may reduce production costs, increase yield and improve soyabean quality (Chyen et al., 1992; Le Page, 1996; McPherson, 1996). Some of the synthetic pyrethroids tested gave greater residual control than acephate; however, permethrin, did not control N. viridula in soyabean (McPherson et al., 1995).

Peaches have been protected effectively with chlorpyrifos (Johnson et al., 1985).

The permissible amount of stained rice grains (including pecky rice) is too low to establish reliable control thresholds, and prophylactic applications of insecticides tend to be made against hemipteran rice pests in Japan, with N. viridula being the principal species in southern Japan (Ito, 1986).

Trials on insecticidal plant extracts such as azidarachtin do not compare in efficiency with synthetic insecticides (Ivbijaro and Bolaji, 1990). Some research has been conducted on insect growth regulators but they do not appear to be effective (Canela et al., 1995; McPherson and Gascho, 1999).

Disease transmission by N. viridula to citrus fruits has resulted in the use of insecticidal control methods in Cuba (Grillo and Alvares, 1983).

In South America, the addition of NaCl to insecticides is recommended because it lowers the required dosage (see IPM Programmes).

Resistance and chemical control in soyabean were evaluated by Gazzione (1995) and Rosso et al. (1995).

Field Monitoring and Economic Threshold Levels

Control strategies against N. viridula in soyabean should be related to the stage of pod development (Brier and Rogers, 1991). Early pod fill (stage R5: Kogan and Turnipseed, 1980) is the most sensitive stage, and the only one in which yield, seed weight and oil content was significantly reduced (Brier and Rogers, 1991). Bugs should be controlled before this stage is reached, i.e. towards the end of pod elongation. Once pod fill is completed, soyabeans are not at risk and control is not warranted unless planting seed or edible seed is being grown (Brier and Rogers, 1991; Suzuki et al., 1991). For further specific information on when control methods are warranted on soyabean, see Kogan et al. (1977), Kobayashi (1981), Panizzi and Slansky (1985) and McPherson et al. (1993).

For sorghum, the damage threshold is about four N. viridula adults per panicle for infestation from the milk stage of grain development to maturity, but about 16 adults from the soft dough stage to maturity (Hall and Teetes, 1982b).

When milk-stage wheat kernels are infested at levels of more than two adults per 20 spikes, control measures are warranted (Viator et al., 1983). In maize, two N. viridula adults per V15 stage plant causes significant reduction in yield (Negron and Riley, 1987). In contrast, the permissible levels of stained rice grains are too low for reliable thresholds to be established (Ito, 1986).

Cowpeas suffer significant yield loss only when N. viridula density reaches 12 per metre of row (Nilakhe et al., 1981), whereas passion fruit is treated at one pentatomid per metre (Neethling, 1992). In transgenic cotton, an arbitrary threshold of 1 bug/6 feet of row has been used (Greene and Turnipseed, 1996).

Prediction of population peaks has been attempted with a day degree temperature model (Cividanes and Figueiredo, 1997).

Biological Control

The geographical origin of N. viridula is a matter of debate, which warrants attention because accurate knowledge of its original distribution may yield specific parasitoids useful to control efforts. The most likely origin is the Mediterranean area and/or the African mainland (Hokkanen, 1986; Jones, 1988). Biological control efforts across the world have been summarized in detail by Waterhouse (1998).

Egg parasitoids

N. viridula has long been a target for biological control, mainly through the introduction of parasitic wasps and flies (see Waterhouse and Norris (1987), Bennett (1990), Clarke (1990)). Although success has been widely claimed, especially in Australia and Hawaii (Caltagirone, 1981; Waterhouse and Norris, 1987; Todd, 1989; Bennett, 1990) the degree of that success has been seriously questioned through the research of Clarke (1990, 1992) in Australia, and Jones (1995) in Hawaii.

The problems with the claims of success are as follows:

- The parasitoid said to have achieved successful control in Australia was the so-called Pakistan strain of Trissolcus basalis. However, T. basalis does not exist in Pakistan. The wasps sent originally from Pakistan to Australia are morphologically distinct from T. basalis and represent a new species, T. crypticus (Clarke, 1993). These are evidently parasitoids of species other than N. viridula in Pakistan (although they parasitize N. viridula eggs successfully in the laboratory) and have probably not established in Australia (Clarke, 1993).

- Parasitism of N. viridula eggs by T. basalis is relatively low in many situations, for example, in Hawaiian macadamia orchards (Jones, 1995) and soyabean in south-east Queensland (Clarke and Walter, 1993b).

- In many studies, most of the destruction of N. viridula eggs in the field was attributable to predators, mainly ants (Jones (1995) in Hawaii; Van den Berg et al. (1995) in Sumatra, Indonesia).

- Adequate post-release studies were never conducted on N. viridula populations, so the impact of the released natural enemies was never quantified. Any decline in N. viridula numbers at the time of natural enemy releases (at least in Australia) can be explained by changing agricultural practices, including the widespread introduction and prophylactic use of synthetic organic insecticides. Reduced use of synthetic organics in Australian vegetable crops has seen the re-emergence of N. viridula as a pest in areas where it was considered to have been under good biological control, but this has not been quantified.

The widely accepted success of T. basalis as a biological control agent led to it being distributed around the world for release, despite inaccurate claims of its inability to parasitize N. viridula eggs efficiently on soyabean (Turner, 1983) and its being restricted to coastal areas (Jones, 1988). The species achieves high levels of parasitism in soyabean in several parts of the world and is sometimes also abundant inland (Seymour and Sands, 1993).

As a consequence of its reputed success as a biological control agent in Australia and Hawaii (Waterhouse and Norris, 1987) T. basalis has been imported for release into places where it was already present, including Brazil (from Australia: Corrêa-Ferreira and Zamataro, 1989). The impact of such multiple strain introductions has never been accurately assessed (Clarke and Walter, 1995).

That the claimed results of these biological control projects are being questioned does not imply that T. basalis is not worth importing, and it has, since 1980, been introduced into Argentina from Australia (de Crouzel and Saini, 1983) and into California from France, Spain and Italy (Hoffmann et al., 1991). The species evidently causes high levels of parasitism in parts of South America (Corrêa-Ferreira and Moscardi, 1995, 1996), Pohnpei (Esguerra et al., 1993) and in Australian pecan orchards (Seymour and Sands, 1993).

The influence of T. basalis as a biological control agent will possibly be enhanced by the development of mass-release programmes for situations in which N. viridula populations breed up in a crop and thus attain pest status. Release programmes in Brazilian soyabean are reputedly successful (Moscardi, 1993; Corrêa-Ferreira and Moscardi, 1996) and the strategy has been tested elsewhere on other crops (Justo et al., 1997; Cameron and Rea, 1998).

Techniques to facilitate the production of egg parasitoids are quite advanced. In addition to mass-rearing techniques (Oi, 1991; Awadalla, 1996), storage of frozen hosts (Corrêa-Ferreira and Moscardi, 1993; Corrêa-Ferreira and de Oliveira, 1998), identification and development of kairomones (Sales, 1985; Bin et al., 1993; Mattiacci et al., 1993) and development of artificial hosts (Volkoff et al., 1992) have all been tackled, but none is yet available for commercial use.

Biological control by egg parasitoids is virtually never hampered by the influence of hyperparasitism, because hyperparasitoids of egg parasitoids are unusual. However, researchers should be aware that two species of pteromalids in the genus Acroclisoides parasitize T. basalis in the field in Australia (Clarke and Seymour, 1992).

Parasites of stages other than eggs
Parasitoids that attack nymphs and adults of N. viridula have also been used in biological control, and these organisms are being increasingly investigated for biocontrol purposes (see Parasitoids). These organisms show some potential but, to date, none has proved as successful as the egg parasitoids. Species from the area of origin of N. viridula may worth trying. In particular, of the species present in Africa, the most promising may be Bogosia antinorii, as it is apparently specific to N. viridula (Waterhouse, 1998).

Predators
An increasing number of publications claim that ants have a strong impact on N. viridula eggs and nymphs, both in orchards (Yang, 1984; Seymour and Sands, 1993; Jones, 1995) and in soyabean fields (Krispyn and Todd, 1982; van den Berg et al., 1995). The thoughtful manipulation of ant populations could contribute considerably to achieving acceptable levels of biological control. Spiders may also contribute significantly to reducing N. viridula populations, but the data are not convincing (Kiritani and Hokyo, 1962) and they are still being investigated in the laboratory (Sarma and Dutta, 1996b).

Pheromones
To date, no practical use has been made of N. viridula pheromones, either for monitoring or control purposes. Disagreement still exists as to the identity of the functional components in the pheromone blend.

References

Top of page

Afreh-Nuamah K, 1983. Insect pests associated with winged bean in Ghana. Annals of Tropical Research, 5(1):1-5

Aldrich JR, 1990. Dispersal of the southern green stink bug, Nezara viridula (L.) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae), by Hurricane Hugo. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington, 92(4):757-759

Aldrich JR, Lusby WR, Marron BE, Nicolaou KC, Hoffmann MP, Wilson LT, 1989. Pheromone blends of green stink bugs and possible parasitoid selection. Naturwissenschaften, 76(4):173-175

Aldrich JR, Numata H, Borges M, Bin F, Waite GK, Lusby WR, 1993. Artifacts and pheromone blends from Nezara spp. and other stink bugs (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae). Zeitschrift fur Naturforschung. Section C, Biosciences, 48(1-2):73-79

Aldrich JR, Oliver JE, Nicolaou KC, Marron BE, 1990. Sesquiterpene epoxides and process for their preparation. US Department of Agriculture and Patents, Washington, DC, USA: USDA.

Ali MA, Awadallah AM, El-Rahman AA, 1978. The susceptibility of certain citrus varieties to the green stink bug, Nezara viridula (L.) infestation. Proceedings of the Fourth Conference of Pest Control, September 30 - October 3, 1978. (Part I). Academy of Scientific Research and Technology and National Research Centre. Cairo Egypt, 115-122

Altieri MA, Todd JW, Hauser EW, Patterson M, Buchanan GA, Walker RH, 1981. Some effects of weed management and row spacing on insect abundance in soybean fields. Protection Ecology, 3(4):339-343

Annecke DP, Moran VC, 1982. Insects and mites of cultivated plants in South Africa. Durban, South Africa: Butterworths.

Antonino P, la Porta NC, Avalos DS, 1996. Importancia de las plantas hospederas en la dinamica poblacional de Nezara viridula (L.), plaga de soja. AgriScientia., 13:13-23. [publ. 1997].

Anwar Cheema M, Irshad M, Murtaza M, Ghani MA, 1973. Pentatomids associated with Gramineae and their natural enemies in Pakistan. Technical Bulletin, Commonwealth Institute of Biological Control, No. 16:47-67

APPPC, 1987. Insect pests of economic significance affecting major crops of the countries in Asia and the Pacific region. Technical Document No. 135. Bangkok, Thailand: Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific region (RAPA).

Attiah HH, Isa AL, Rofail F, 1974. An outbreak of Nezara viridula on citrus trees in Egypt. Agricultural Research Review, 52(1):81

Awadalla SS, 1996. Influence of temperature and age of Nezara viridula L. eggs on the scelionid egg parasitoid, Trissolcus megallocephalus (Ashm.) (Hym., Scelionidae). Journal of Applied Entomology, 120(7):445-448; 16 ref.

Azim MN, Shafee SA, 1978. Indian species of the genus Nezara Amyot and Serville (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 75(2):507-511

Ballanger Y, Jouffret P, 1997. La punaise verte et le soja. Un ravageur que l'on peut combattre, meme s'il reste beaucoup a apprendre a son sujet. Phytoma, 50 (497): 32-34.

Barbosa S, 1983. Potato insect pests in Brazil. Present status and future trends. In: Hooker WJ, ed. Proceedings of the international congress in celebration of the tenth anniversary of the International Potato Center, Lima, Peru, 22-27 February, 1982. 'Research for the Potato in year 2000' International Potato Center Lima Peru, 64-65

Baur ME, Boethel DJ, Boyd ML, Bowers GR, Way MO, Heatherly LG, Rabb J, Ashlock L, 2000. Arthropod populations in early soybean production systems in the mid-South. Environmental Entomology, 29(2):312-328.

Bennett FD, 1990. Potential for biological control of the stink bug Nezara viridula, a pest of macadamias. Acta Horticulturae, 275:679-684.

Berg H van den, Bagus A, Hassan K, Muhammad A, Zega S, 1995. Predation and parasitism on eggs of two pod-sucking bugs, Nezara viridula and Piezodorus hybneri, in soybean. International Journal of Pest Management, 41(3):134-142

Berg Mvan den, Steyn W, Greenland J, 1999. Monitoring stink bugs on avocado. Producers can reduce damage to fruit through monitoring and timely control. Neltropika Bulletin, No. 305:22.

Berger DA, Shokes FM, Herzog DC, Levengood WC, 1990. Prediction of germination of soybean seed damaged by stink bugs and in-field weathering. Proceedings - Soil and Crop Science Society of Florida, 49:177-180

Bhalani PA, Bharodia RK, 1988. Biology of green stink bug (Nezara viridula L.), a pest of pigeonpea in Gujarat State. Gujarat Agricultural University Research Journal, 14(1):72

Bharathimeena T, Sudharma K, Faizal MH, 2008. Seasonal incidence of pod bugs and their natural enemies in vegetable cowpea ecosystems of Kerala. Pest Management in Horticultural Ecosystems, 14(1):37-43.

Bhatnagar VC, Pawar CS, Jadhav DR, Davies JC, 1985. Mermithid nematodes as parasites of Heliothis spp. and other crop pests in Andhra Pradesh, India. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Animal Science, 94(5):509-515

Bin F, Vinson SB, Strand MR, Colazza S, Jones WA Jr, 1993. Source of an egg kairomone for Trissolcus basalis, a parasitoid of Nezara viridula. Physiological Entomology, 18(1):7-15

Blair BW, 1990. Insect and mite pests of tobacco in Zimbabwe: description, biology and damage. Harare, Zimbabwe; Tobacco Research Board, ii + 17 pp.

Bohlen E, 1973. Crop pests in Tanzania and their control. Berlin, Germany: Verlag Paul Parey.

Borges M, 1995. Attractant compounds of the southern green stink bug, Nezara viridula (L.) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae). Anais da Sociedade Entomologica do Brasil, 24(2):215-225

Brezot P, Malosse C, Mori K, Renou M, 1994. Bisabolene epoxides in sex pheromone in Nezara viridula (L.) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae): role of cis isomer and relation to specificity of pheromone. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 20(12):3133-3147

Brezot P, Malosse C, Renou M, 1993. Study of the attractivity of the male pheromone in Nezara viridula L. (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae). Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences. Series 3, Sciences de la Vie, 316(7):671-675

Brier HB, Rogers DJ, 1991. Susceptibility of soybeans to damage by Nezara viridula (L.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) and Riptortus serripes (F.) (Hemiptera: Alydidae) during three stages of pod development. Journal of the Australian Entomological Society, 30(2):123-128

Bundy CS, McPherson RM, Herzog GA, 1998. Stink bugs in a cotton/soybean ecosystem: impact on quality and yield. 1998 Proceedings Beltwide Cotton Conferences, San Diego, California, USA, 5-9 January 1998. Volume 2., 1172-1174; 11 ref.

Butani DK, 1984. Spices and pest problems: 3. Coriander. Pesticides, 18(9):15-17

CABI/EPPO, 1998. Nezara viridula. Distribution Maps of Plant Pests. Map No. 27, 2nd revision. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Caltagirone LE, 1981. Landmark examples in classical biological control. Annual Review of Entomology, 26:213-232

Cameron P, Rea J, 1998. Green bug. Commercial Grower, 53(3):22-23.

Canela R, Eizaguirre M, Arquerons X, Estrada J, 1995. Activity of several IGRs against Nezara viridula (L.) (Hem., Pentatomidae) eggs. Journal of Applied Entomology, 119(10):699-701; 16 ref.

Cantelo WW, Goodenough JL, Baumhover AH, Smith JS Jr, Stanley JM, Henneberry TJ, 1974. Mass trapping with blacklight: effects on isolated populations of insects. Environmental Entomology, 3(3):389-395

Chaudhary RP, 1982. Nepal. In: Sinclair JB, Jackobs JA, ed. Soybean seed quality and stand establishment. Proceedings of a Conference for Scientists of Asia, January 25-31, 1981, Colombo, Sri Lanka College of Agriculture, Illinois University Urbana, Illinois USA, 157-158

Chu YI, 1979. Some notes on the lepidopterous rice insect pests at Jawa Timur, Indonesia. NTU [National Taiwan University] Phytopathologist and Entomologist, No. 6:38-43

Chyen D, Wetzstein ME, McPherson RM, Givan WD, 1992. An economic evaluation of soybean stink bug control alternatives for the southeastern United States. Southern Journal of Agricultural Economics, 24(2):83-94

Cividanes FJ, Figueiredo JG, 1997. Previsao de ocorrencia de picos populacionais de percevejos pragas da soja em condicoes de campo. Anais da Sociedade Entomologica do Brasil, 26 (3):517-525.

Cividanes FJ, Parra JRP, 1994. Biology of soyabean pests with different temperatures and thermal requirements. I. Nezara viridula (L.) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae). Anais da Sociedade Entomologica do Brasil, 23(2):243-250

Cividanes FJ, Parra JRP, 1994. Ecological zoning of Nezara viridula (L.), Piezodorus guildinii (West.) and Euschistus heros (Fabr.) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) in four soyabean-producing states of Brazil. Anais da Sociedade Entomologica do Brasil, 23(2):219-226

Clarke AR, 1990. The control of Nezara viridula L. with introduced egg parasitoids in Australia. A review of a 'landmark' example of classical biological control. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, 41(6):1127-1146

Clarke AR, 1992. Current distribution and pest status of Nezara viridula (L.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) in Australia. Journal of the Australian Entomological Society, 31(4):289-297

Clarke AR, 1993. A new Trissolcus Ashmead species (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) from Pakistan: species description and its role as a biological control agent. Bulletin of Entomological Research, 83(4):523-527

Clarke AR, Seymour JE, 1992. Two species of Acroclisoides Girault and Dodd (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) parasitic on Trissolcus basalis (Wollaston) (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae), a parasitoid of Nezara viridula (L.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). Journal of the Australian Entomological Society, 31(4):299-300

Clarke AR, Walter GH, 1993. Biological control of the green vegetable bug Nezara viridula (L.) in eastern Australia: Current status and perspectives. In: Corey SA, Dall DJ, Milne WM, eds. Pest control and sustainable agriculture. Melbourne, Australia: CSIRO, 223-225.

Clarke AR, Walter GH, 1993. Variegated thistle (Silybum marianum (L.)), a non-crop host plant of Nezara viridula (L.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) in southeastern Queensland. Journal of the Australian Entomological Society, 32(1):81-83

Clarke AR, Walter GH, 1995. 'Strains' and the classical biological control of insect pests. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 73(10):1777-1790; 93 ref.

Colazza S, Bin F, 1995. Efficiency of Trissolcus basalis (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) as an egg parasitoid of Nezara viridula (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) in Central Italy. Environmental Entomology, 24(6):1703-1707; 17 ref.

Colazza S, Ciriciofolo E, Bin F, 1985. First observations on damage by Nezara viridula (L.) (Het., Pentatomidae) to soyabean in Central Italy. Atti XIV Congresso Nazionale Italiano di Entomologia sotto gli auspici dell'Accademia Nazionale Italiana di Entomologia, della Societa Entomologica Italiana e della International Union of Biological Sciences. Palermo - Erice - Bagheria, 28 maggio-1 giugno 1985 Palermo, Italy; Accademia Nazionale Italiana di Entomologia, 371-378

Colazza S, Ciriciofolo E, Bin F, 1986. Nezara viridula (L.) injurious to soyabean in central Italy (Rhynchota Pentatomidae). Informatore Agrario, 42(34):79-84

Colazza S, Giangiuliani G, Bin F, 1996. Fortuitous introduction and successful establishment of Trichopoda pennipes F.: adult parasitoid of Nezara viridula (L.). Biological Control, 6(3):409-411; 23 ref.

Conti E, Bin F, Estragnat A, Bardy F, 1997. The green stink bug, Nezara viridula L., injurious to castor, Ricinus communis L., in southern France. International conference on pests in agriculture, 6-8 January 1997, at le Corum, Montpellier, France. Volume 3., 1045-1052; 14 ref.

Coombs M, Khan S, 1998. Fecundity and longevity of green vegetable bug, Nezara viridula, following parasitism by Trichopoda giacomellii. Biological Control, 12(3):215-222; 18 ref.

Coombs M, Khan SA, 1998. Population levels and natural enemies of Plautia affinis Dallas (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) on raspberry, Rubus idaeus L., in south-eastern Queensland. Australian Journal of Entomology, 37(2):125-129; 22 ref.

Coombs MT, 1997. Influence of adult food deprivation and body size on fecundity and longevity of Trichopoda giacomellii: a South American parasitoid of Nezara viridula. Biological Control, 8(2):119-123; 22 ref.

Corpuz LR, 1969. The biology, host range, and natural enemies of Nezara viridula L. (Pentatomidae, Hemiptera). The Philippine Entomologist, 1:225-239.

Correa BS, Panizzi AR, Newman GG, Turnipseed SG, 1977. Geographical distribution and seasonal abundance of the main insect pests of soyabean and their predators. Anais da Sociedade Entomologica do Brasil, 6(1):40-50

Correa-Ferreira BS, 1984. Incidence of the parasite Eutrichopodopsis nitens Blanchard, 1966 in populations of the green bug, Nezara viridula (Linnpus, 1758). Anais da Sociedade Entomologica do Brasil, 13(2):321-330

Correa-Ferreira BS, Moscardi F, 1993. Storage techniques of stink bug eggs for laboratory production of the parasitoid Trissolcus basalis (Wollaston). Pesquisa Agropecuaria Brasileira, 28(11):1247-1253

Correa-Ferreira BS, Moscardi F, 1995. Seasonal occurrence and host spectrum of egg parasitoids associated with soybean stink bugs. Biological Control, 5(2):196-202

Correa-Ferreira BS, Zamataro CEO, 1989. Reproductive capacity and longevity of the egg parasitoids Trissolcus basalis (Wollaston) and Trissolcus mitsukurii Ashmead (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae). Revista Brasileira de Biologia, 49(2):621-626

CorrOa-Ferreira BS, Moscardi F, 1996. Biological control of soybean stink bugs by inoculative releases of Trissolcus basalis. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 79(1):1-7; 40 ref.

CorrOa-Ferreira BS, Oliveira MCNde, 1998. Viability of Nezara viridula (L.) eggs for parasitism by Trissolcus basalis (Woll.), under different storage techniques in liquid nitrogen. Anais da Sociedade Entomolo^acute~gica do Brasil, 27(1):101-107; 19 ref.

Corso IC, 1993. Use of cooking salt for reducing insecticide dosage in the control of soyabean pests. Comunicado Tecnico - Centro Nacional de Pesquisa de Soja Londrina, Brazil: Centro Nacional de Pesquisa de Soja, No. 45:7 pp.

Corso IC, Gazzoni DL, 1998. Sodium chloride: an insecticide enhancer for controlling pentatomids on soybeans. Pesquisa Agropecua^acute~ria Brasileira, 33(10):1563-1571; 17 ref.

Corso IC, Heinrichs EA, Lehman PS, 1975. The occurrence of the fungus Nematosphera coryli Peglion in bugs attacking soy bean. Anais da Sociedade Entomologica do Brasil, 4(1):49-52

Crouzel IS de, Saini ED, 1983. Importation of Trissolcus basalis (Wollaston) (Hym. Scelionidae) into Argentina for the biological control of Nezara viridula (L.) (Hem. Pentatomidae). Revista de la Sociedad Entomologica Argentina, 42(1/4):257-260

Cruz I, Viana PA, Waquil JM, 1999. Management of early pests of maize using seed treatment with systemic insecticides. Circular Te^acute~cnica - Centro Nacional de Pesquisa de Milho e Sorgo, No. 31:39 pp.; 3 ref.

Das R, Dutta SK, 1996. Effect of intercropping on infestation of insect pests of green gram. Journal of the Agricultural Science Society of North East India, 9(2):220-223.

Datta B, Chakravarty SA, 1977. On a collection of Pentatomidae (Insecta: Heteroptera) from Arunachal Pradesh, India. News Letter, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, 3(4):211-212

Dean GJW, 1978. Insect pests of rice in Laos. PANS, 24(3):280-289, 390

Dennill GB, Erasmus MJ, 1992. The insect pests of avocado fruits - increasing pest complex and changing pest status. Journal of the Entomological Society of Southern Africa, 55(1):51-57

DeWitt NB, Godfrey GL, 1972. The literature of arthropods associated with soybeans. II. A bibliography of the southern green stink bug, Nezara viridula (Linnaeus) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). Biological Notes, Natural History Survey Division, State of Illinois, No. 78:23 pp.

Dhamdhere SV, Bahadur J, Misra US, 1984. Studies on occurrence and succession of pests of okra at Gwalior. Indian Journal of Plant Protection, 12(1):9-12

Drake CL, 1920. The southern green stink bug in Florida. The State Plant Board of Florida, 4:41-94.

Drees BM, Rice ME, 1990. Population dynamics and seasonal occurrence of soybean insect pests in southeastern Texas. Southwestern Entomologist, 15(1):49-56

Dutcher JD, Todd JW, 1983. Hemipteran kernel damage of pecan. Miscellaneous Publications of the Entomological Society of America, 13(2):1-11

Elsey KD, 1993. Cold tolerance of the southern green stink bug (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae). Environmental Entomology, 22(3):567-570

Erejomovich JA, 1980. 'Empty pods' as a limiting factor for the cultivation of soyabean. Revista de la Facultad de Agronomia, Universidad de Buenos Aires, 1 (1):33-39.

Esguerra NM, William WS, Smith JR, 1993. Control of the green stinkbug, Nezara viridula, in the Federated States of Micronesia. Micronesica, No. 4 suppl:65-67

Fernandes FM, Athayde MLF, Lara FM, 1994. Performance of soybean cultivars in the field under stink bug attack. Pesquisa Agropecuaria Brasileira, 29(3):363-367

Foerster LA, Queiroz JMde, 1990. Natural incidence of parasitism of eggs of pentatomids on soyabeans in central-south Parana. Anais da Sociedade Entomologica do Brasil, 19(1):221-232

Freeman P, 1940. A contribution to the study of the genus Nezara Amyot and Serville (Hemiptera, Pentatomidae). Transactions of the Royal Entomological Society of London, 80:351-371.

Froneman IJ, Crause C, 1989. Damage to granadillas by the green vegetable bug. Subtropica, 10(5):11-15

Froneman IJ, Villiers EAde, 1990. Alternative chemical control of stinkbugs on macadamias. Inligtingsbulletin - Navorsingsinstituut vir Sitrus en Subtropiese Vrugte, 214:17-20

Funderburk JE, Wright DL, Teare ID, 1990. Preplant tillage effects on population dynamics of soybean insect pests. Crop Science, 30(3):686-690

Gallant JB, 1996. Note hemipterologique Nezara viridula (L.) (Heteroptera, Pentatomidae), espece en progression sur notre territoire? Bulletin and Annales de la Societe Royale Belge d'Entomologie, 132(4):405-406.

Gazzoni DL, Malaguido AB, 1996. Effect of stink bugs on yield, seed damage and agronomic traits of soybeans (Glycine max). Pesquisa Agropecua^acute~ria Brasileira, 31(11):759-767; 16 ref.

Genduso P, 1974. On the damage caused by Piezodorus lituratus (F.) to French honeysuckle (Hedysarum coronarium (L.)) and to fruit orchards. Bollettino del'Istituto di Entomologia Agraria e dell'Osservatorio di Fitopatologia di Palermo, 9:101-107

Gianguiliani G, Farinelli D, 1995. Technique for the laboratory rearing for Trichopoda pennipes F.(Diptera: Tachinidae), an adult parasitoid of the southern green stink bug, Nezara viridula (L.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). Journal of the Southern African Society for Horticultural Sciences, 5(1):55-56

Gough N, Hamacek EL, 1989. Insect induced bud fall in cultivated hibiscus and aspects of the biology of Macroura concolor (Macleay) (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae). Journal of the Australian Entomological Society, 28(4):267-277

Greene JK, Turnipseed SG, 1996. Stink bug thresholds in transgenic B.t. cotton. 1996 Proceedings Beltwide Cotton Conferences, Nashville, TN, USA, January 9-12, 1996: Volume 2., 936-938; 7 ref.

Greene JK, Turnipseed SG, Sullivan MJ, 1997. Treatment thresholds for stink bugs in transgenic B.t. cotton. 1997 Proceedings Beltwide Cotton Conferences, New Orleans, LA, USA, January 6-10, 1997: Volume 2., 895-898; 11 ref.

Greene JK, Turnipseed SG, Sullivan MJ, Herzog GA, 1999. Boll damage by southern green stink bug (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) and tarnished plant bug (Hemiptera: Miridae) caged on transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis cotton. Journal of Economic Entomology, 92(4):941-944; 29 ref.

Grillo H, Alvarez M, 1983. Nematospora coryli Peglion (Nematosporaceae: Hemiascomycetidae) and its vectors in citrus cultivation. Centro Agricola, 10(2):13-34

Grozea I, Stef R, Virteiu AM, Carabet A, Molnar L, 2012. Southern green stink bugs (Nezara viridula L.) a new pest of tomato crops in Western Romania. Research Journal of Agricultural Science, 44(2):24-27. http://www.rjas.ro/index.php/rjas/article/view/1659/1409

Grozea I, Virteiu AM, Stef R, Carabet A, Molnar L, Florian T, Vlad M, 2015. Trophic evolution of southern green stink bugs (Nezara viridula L.) in western part of Romania. Bulletin of University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca. Horticulture, 72(2):371-375. http://journals.usamvcluj.ro/index.php/horticulture/article/view/11391/9522

Gu H, Walter GH, 1989. Flight of green vegetable bugs Nezara viridula (L.) in relation to environmental variables. Journal of Applied Entomology, 108(4):347-354

Gupta SP, Prakash A, Choudhury A, Rao J, Gupta A, 1989. Pentatomid bugs reduce rice grain quality in farmers' fields in Orissa. International Rice Research Newsletter, 14(4):38

Gupta SP, Prakash A, Rao J, Gupta A, 1993. Qualitative losses of paddy grains due to bugs in the farmers fields of coastal Orissa. Indian Journal of Entomology, 55(3):229-236

Hall DG IV, Teetes GL, 1982. Yield loss-density relationships of four species of panicle-feeding bugs in sorghum. Environmental Entomology, 11(3):738-741

Hall DGIV, Teetes GL, 1982. Damage to grain sorghum by southern green stink bug, conchuela, and leaffooted bug. Journal of Economic Entomology, 75(4):620-625

Halteren Pvan, 1979. The insect pest complex and related problems of lowland rice cultivation in South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Mededelingen Landbouwhogeschool, 79(1):[4+] 111 pp.

Harris VE, Todd JW, 1980. Duration of immature stages of the southern green stink bug, Nezara viridula (L.), with a comparative review of previous studies. Journal of the Georgia Entomological Society, 15(2):114-124

Harris VE, Todd JW, 1980. Male-mediated aggregation of male, female and 5th-instar southern green stink bugs and concomitant attraction of a tachinid parasite, Trichopoda pennipes. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 27(2):117-126

Harris VE, Todd JW, 1982. Longevity and reproduction of the southern green stink bug, Nezara viridula, as affected by parasitization by Trichopoda pennipes. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 31(4):409-412

Harris VE, Todd JW, Webb JC, Benner JC, 1982. Acoustical and behavioral analysis of the songs of the southern green stink bug, Nezara viridula. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 75(3):234-249

Hasan N, Cervancia CR, 1986. Insect pest colonization and succession in wheat, Triticum aestivum L. Philippine Entomologist, 6(6):581-587

Hemala, V., Kment, P., 2017. First record of Halyomorpha halys and mass occurrence of Nezara viridula in Slovakia., Plant Protection Science, 53(4):247-253 http://www.agriculturejournals.cz/publicFiles/223996.pdf

Hoberlandt L, 1984. Heteroptera of Afghanistan. Acanthosomatidae, Cydnidae, Scutelleridae and Pentatomidae. Acta Faunistica Entomologica Musei Nationalis Pragp, 17(193):69-128

Hoffmann MP, Davidson NA, Wilson LT, Ehler LE, Jones WA, Zalom FG, 1991. Imported wasp helps control southern green stink bug. California Agriculture, 45(3):20-22

Hoffmann MP, Wilson LT, Zalom FG, 1987. Control of stink bugs in tomatoes. California Agriculture, 41(5-6):4-6

Hokkanen H, 1986. Polymorphism, parasites, and the native area of Nezara viridula (Hemiptera, Pentatomidae). Annales Entomologici Fennici, 52(1):28-31

Hussain S, Saharia D, 1993. Effect of plant spacing on the incidence of podfeeders in greengram (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek). Journal of the Agricultural Science Society of North East India, 6:77-78

Hussain S, Saharia D, 1994. Linear model for predicting seed loss in green gram due to pod feeders. Journal of the Agricultural Science Society of North East India, 7(1):98-99; 3 ref.

Ingram WR, 1979. Cotton entomology in Barbados and the Leeward Islands. Progress report 1 July 1977-9 December 1978. Cotton entomology in Barbados and the Leeward Islands. Progress report 1 July 1977-9 December 1978. Centre for Overseas Pest Research. London UK, 61 pp.

Ito K, 1986. Recent topics on the rice insect pests in Japan. (2) Ear sucking bugs. Seminar on rice insect pest control. Tsukuba, Sep. 18, 1986. Jointly organized by IRRI and NARC Japan; National Agricultural Research Center, 65-70

Ivbijaro MF, Bolaji OO, 1990. Effects of cypermethrin + dimethoate and extracts of Piper guineense and Azadirachta indica on the pests and yield of cowpea, Vigna unguiculata. Journal of Agricultural Science, 115(2):227-231

Jeraj M, Walter GH, 1998. Vibrational communication in Nezara viridula: response of Slovenian and Australian bugs to one another. Behavioural Processes, 44(1):51-58; 22 ref.

Jeram S, Pabst MA, 1996. Johnston's organ and central organ in Nezara viridula (L.) (Heteroptera, Pentatomidae). Tissue & Cell, 28(2):227-235; 40 ref.

Johnson CE, Pollet DK, Lancaster DM, 1985. Controlling insect pests on peaches. Louisiana Agriculture, 28(3):18-20

Jones DB, Cherry RH, 1986. Species composition and seasonal abundance of stink bugs (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) in southern Florida rice. Journal of Economic Entomology, 79(5):1226-1229

Jones VP, 1995. Reassessment of the role of predators and Trissolcus basalis in biological control of southern green stink bug (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) in Hawaii. Biological Control, 5(4):566-572; 20 ref.

Jones VP, Caprio LC, 1992. Damage estimates and population trends of insects attacking seven macadamia cultivars in Hawaii. Journal of Economic Entomology, 85(5):1884-1890

Jones VP, Caprio LC, 1994. Southern green stink bug (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) feeding on Hawaiian macadamia nuts: the relative importance of damage occurring in the canopy and on the ground. Journal of Economic Entomology, 87(2):431-435; 10 ref.

Jones WA, 1988. World review of the parasitoids of the southern green stink bug, Nezara viridula (L.) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae). Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 81(2):262-273

Jones WA, Shepard BM, Sullivan MJ, 1996. Incidence of parasitism of pentatomid (Heteroptera) pests of soybean in South Carolina with a review of studies in other states. Journal of Agricultural Entomology, 13(3):243-263; 67 ref.

Jones WA, Sullivan MJ, 1982. Role of host plants in population dynamics of stink bug pests of soybean in South Carolina. Environmental Entomology, 11(4):867-875

Joubert PH, Neethling C, 1994. Kernel damage to pecan nuts in the Nelspruit area of South Africa. Journal of the Southern African Society for Horticultural Sciences, 4(2):42-44.

Justo HDJr, Shepard BM, Elsey KD, 1997. Dispersal of the egg parasitoid Trissolcus basalis (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) in tomato. Journal of Agricultural Entomology, 14(2):139-149; 15 ref.

Kaiser WJ, Vakili NG, 1978. Insect transmission of pathogenic xanthomonads to bean and cowpea in Puerto Rico. Phytopathology, 68(7):1057-1063

Kaul V, Tiku AK, Uma Shankar, Monobrullah M, 2007. Green stink bug (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) recorded as a new pest of olive in India. Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology, 10(1):81-83. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B8JJN-4V6TFFF-G&_user=10&_coverDate=03%2F31%2F2007&_rdoc=14&_fmt=high&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%2343731%232007%23999899998%23785088%23FLP%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=43731&_sort=d&_docanchor=&_

Khaemba BM, Mutinga MJ, 1982. Insect pests of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) in Kenya. Insect Science and its Application, 3(4):281-286

Killian JC, Meyer JR, 1984. Effect of orchard weed management on catfacing damage to peaches in North Carolina. Journal of Economic Entomology, 77(6):1596-1600

Kiritani K, Hokyo N, 1962. Studies on the life table of the southern green stink bug Nezara viridula. Japanese Journal of Applied Entomology and Zoology, 6:125-140.

Kiritani K, Hokyo N, Kimura K, 1966. Factors affecting the winter mortality in southern green stink bug Nezara viridula (L.). Annals of the Entomological Society of France (N.S.), 2:199-207.

Kiritani K, Hokyo N, Kimura K, Nakasuji F, 1965. Imaginal dispersal of the southern green stink bug, Nezara viridula L., in relation to feeding and oviposition. Japanese Journal of Applied Entomology and Zoology, 9:291-297.

Kobayashi T, 1959. The developmental stages of some species of the Japanese Pentatomidae (Hemiptera). VII. Developmental stages of Nezara and its allied genera. Japanese Journal of Applied Entomology and Zoology, 3:221-231.

Kobayashi T, Cosenza GW, 1987. Integrated control of soybean stink bugs in the Cerrados. JARQ (Japan Agricultural Research Quarterly), 20(4):229-236

Kobayashi T, de Aguero G, 1988. Singular occurrence of soybean insect pests and the control of them under the severe drought condition in Paraguay. Japan Agricultural Research Quarterly, 22:157-160.

Kobayashi Y, 1976. Insect pests of soyabean in Japan and their control. Pest Articles & New Summaries, 22(3):336-349

Kogan M, Turnipseed SG, 1980. Soybean growth and assessment of damage by arthropods. In: Kogan M, Herzog DC, eds. Sampling methods in soybean entomology. New York, USA: Springer-Verlag, 3-29.

Kogan M, Turnipseed SG, Shepard M, De Oliveira EB, Borgo A, 1977. Pilot insect pest management program for soybean in southern Brazil. Journal of Economic Entomology, 70(5):659-663

Kon M, Oe A, Numata H, 1994. Ethological isolation between two congeneric green stink bugs, Nezara antennata and N. viridula (Heteroptera, Pentatomidae). Journal of Ethology, 12(1):67-71

Kon M, Oe A, Numata H, Hidaka T, 1988. Comparison of the mating behaviour between two sympatric species, Nezara antennata and N. viridula (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae), with special reference to sound emission. Journal of Ethology, 6(2):91-98

Koymen H, Karsavuran Y, 1995. Investigations on the effects of some foods on the fecundity and longevity of Nezara viridula (L.) (Heteroptera, Pentatomidae) in the laboratory. [In Turkish: Laboratuvar kosullarinda Nezara viridula (L.) (Heteroptera, Pentatomidae)'nin yumurta verimine ve omrune bazi besinlerin etkileri uzerinde arastirmalar. Turkiye Entomoloji Dergisi, 19(2):151-160.

Krispyn JW, Todd JW, 1982. The red imported fire ant as a predator of the southern green stink bug on soybean in Georgia. Journal of the Georgia Entomological Society, 17(1):19-26

Le Page R, 1996. Soja. Punaises: a surveiller pour traiter a temps. Oleoscope, 33:23-26.

Leite LG, Fraga AIA, Alves SB, 1987. Pathogenicity of Beauveria bassiana (Bals.) Vuill and Paecilomyces sp. to Nezara viridula L. Ecossistema, 12:20-24

Li CQ, 1985. On vertical distribution of natural enemies in paddy fields. Natural Enemies of Insects, 7(3):149-151

Lijesthr÷m G, Cameßn P, 1992. Parasitism of a population of the green stink bug Nezara viridula (L.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) by the egg parasitoid Trissolcus basalis (Woll.) (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae). Revista de la Facultad de Agronomi^acute~a (La Plata), 68:71-76; 14 ref.

Liljesthr÷m G, 1994. First consignment of Trichopoda giacomellii (Blanchard) (Diptera: Tachinidae) to Australia for the control of Nezara viridula (L.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). Neotro^acute~pica, 40(103/104):89-90.

Liljesthrom G, 1996. Discriminacion entre huespedes previamente parasitados y no parasitados por Trichopoda giacommellii (Diptera: Tachinidae) en condiciones de campo. Revista de la Sociedad Entomologica Argentina, 55(1-4):25-31.

Liljesthrom G, 1996. Estimacion de la temperatura umbral y de los requerimientos termicos necesarios para el desarrollo de pupas de Trichopoda giacomellii (Diptera: Tachinidae). Acta Entomologica Chilena, 20:19-22.

Liljesthrom G, 1996. Prediccion de la emergencia de adultos de Trichopoda giacomellii (Diptera: Tachinidae) en condiciones de campo. Revista de la Sociedad Entomologica Argentina, 55(1-4):143-148.

Liljesthrom G, Bernstein C, 1990. Density dependence and regulation in the system Nezara viridula (L.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), host and Trichopoda giacomellii (Blanchard) (Diptera: Tachinidae), parasitoid. Oecologia, 84(1):45-52

Lim GS, 1970. The importance and control of Nezara viridula Linnaeus on the rice crop in West Malaysia. Malaysian Agricultural Journal, 47(4):465-482

Lockwood JA, Story RN, 1986. The diurnal ethology of the southern green stink bug, Nezara viridula (L.), in cowpeas. Journal of Entomological Science, 21(2):175-184

Lopes ECA, Destro D, Montalvßn R, Ventura MU, PTrez Guerra E, 1997. Genetic gain and correlations among traits for stink bug resistance in soybeans. Euphytica, 97(2):161-166; 9 ref.

Louren¦ao AL, Miranda MAC, Pereira JCVNA, Ambrosano GMB, 1997. Resistance of soyabean to insects: X. Performance of cultivars and lines in relation to stink bugs and defoliators. Anais da Sociedade Entomolo^acute~gica do Brasil, 26(3):543-550; 18 ref.

Lourencao AL, Pereira JCVNA, de Miranda MAC, Ambrosano GMB, 1999. Danos de percevejos e de lagartas em cultivares e linhagens de soja de ciclos medio e semi-tardio. Anais da Sociedade Entomologica do Brasil, 28(1):157-167.

Lucchi A, Solinas M, 1990. The scent gland system of Nezara viridula (L.) (Rhynchota, Heteroptera, Pentatomidae). I. - The adult dorsal abdominal glands. Frustula Entomologica, 13(26):237-263

Lye BH, Story RN, 1988. Feeding preferences of the southern green stink bug (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) on tomato fruit. Journal of Economic Entomology, 81(2):522-526; 17 ref.

Lye BH, Story RN, 1989. Spatial dispersion and sequential sampling plant of the southern green stink bug (Hemipitera: Pentatomidae) on fresh market tomatoes. Environmental Entomology, 18(1):139-144

Lye BH, Story RN, Wright VL, 1988. Southern green stink bug (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) damage to fresh market tomatoes. Journal of Economic Entomology, 81(1):189-194

Martins JC, Valerio MA, Moreira LA, 1990. ED formulations for the control of Nezara viridula (L., 1758) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) on soyabeans. Anais da Sociedade Entomologica do Brasil, 19(1):51-58

Mattiacci L, Vinson SB, Williams HJ, Aldrich JR, Bin F, 1993. A long-range attractant kairomone for egg parasitoid Trissolcus basalis, isolated from defensive secretion of its host, Nezara viridula. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 19(6):1167-1181

McLain DK, Marsh NB, Lopez JR, Drawdy JA, 1990. Intravernal changes in the level of parasitization of the southern green stink bug (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), by the feather-legged fly (Diptera: Tachinidae): host sex, mating status, and body size as correlated factors. Journal of Entomological Science, 25(4):501-509

McPherson RM, 1996. Relationship between soybean maturity group and the phenology and abundance of stink bugs (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae): impact on yield and quality. Journal of Entomological Science, 31(2):199-208; 15 ref.

McPherson RM, Boethel DJ, Funderburk JE, Wier AT, 1995. The effect of alternative southern green stink bug (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) insecticide controls on soybean pest management, quality and yield. Journal of Entomological Science, 30(2):216-236

McPherson RM, Bondari K, 1991. Influence of planting date and row width on abundance of velvetbean caterpillars (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and southern green stink bugs (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) in soybean. Journal of Economic Entomology, 84(1):311-316

McPherson RM, Douce GK, Hudson RD, 1993. Annual variation in stink bug (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) seasonal abundance and species composition in Georgia soybean and its impact on yield and quality. Journal of Entomological Science, 28(1):61-72

McPherson RM, Gascho GJ, 1999. Interactions in entomology: mid-season Dimilin and boron treatment impact on the incidence of arthropod pests and yield enhancement of soybeans. Interactions in entomology. Proceedings of the 62nd meeting of the Georgia Entomological Society, Jekyll Island, GA, USA, 15 April 1998. Journal of Entomological Science, 34(1):17-30.

McPherson RM, Layton RC, McLaurin WJ, Mills WAIII, 1998. Influence of irrigation and maturity group on the seasonal abundance of soybean arthropods. Journal of Entomological Science, 33(4):378-392; 18 ref.

Meglic V, Virant-Doberlet M, ?u?tar-Vozlic J, Su?nik S, Cokl A, Miklas N, Renou M, 2001. Diversity of the southern green stink bug Nezara viridula (L.) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae). Journal of Central European Agriculture, 2(3/4):241-249.

Menezes EB, Herzog DC, D'Almada PJ, 1985. A study of parasitism of the southern green stink bug, Nezara viridula (L.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), by Trichopoda pennipes (F.) (Diptera: Tachinidae). Anais da Sociedade Entomologica do Brasil, 14(1):29-35

Miller LA, Rose HA, McDonald FJD, 1977. The effects of damage by the green vegetable bug, Nezara viridula (L.) on yield and quality of soybeans. Journal of the Australian Entomological Society, 16(4):421-426

Mitchell WC, Mau RFL, 1971. Response of the female southern green stink bug and its parasite, Trichopoda pennipes, to male stink bug pheromones. Journal of Economic Entomology, 64:856-859.

Moreira GRP, Becker M, 1987. Pre-emergence mortality of egg parasitoids of Nezara viridula (Linnpus, 1758) (Heteroptera, Pentatomidae) in soyabean crops. Anais da Sociedade Entomologica do Brasil, 16(2):297-313

Moscardi F, 1993. Soybean integrated pest management in Brazil. FAO Plant Protection Bulletin, 41(2):91-100

Nagai V, Rossetto CJ, Lourencao AL, 1987. Resistance of soyabean to insects. IX. Sampling for evaluation of stink bug damage. Bragantia, 46(2):365-370

Naito A, 1996. Insect pest control through use of trap crops. Agrochemicals Japan, No. 68:9-11.

Nakashima N, Sasaki J, Tsuda K, Yasunaga C, Noda H, 1998. Properties of a new picorna-like virus of the brown-winged green bug, Plautia stali. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 71(2):151-158.

Nath MB, Dutta SK, 1994. Optimum sample size for estimation of Nezara viridula (L.) field population in green gram. Journal of the Agricultural Science Society of North East India, 7(2):212-213; 4 ref.

Neethling C, 1992. Thioflo now registered for stinkbugs on granadillas. Inligtingsbulletin - Instituut vir Tropiese en Subtropiese Gewasse., No. 237:13

Negron JF, Riley TJ, 1987. Southern green stink bug, Nezara viridula (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae), feeding in corn. Journal of Economic Entomology, 80(3):666-669

Netam PK, Ganguli RN, Dubey AK, 2007. Insect pest succession in okra. Environment and Ecology, 25(1):177-180.

Newsom LD, Kogan M, Miner FD, Rabb RL, Turnipseed SG, 1980. General accomplishments toward better pest control in soybean. In: Huffaker CB, ed. New Technology of Pest Control. New York, USA: John Wiley, 51-78.

Nilakhe SS, Chalfant RB, Singh SV, 1981. Evaluation of southern green stink bug damage to cowpeas. Journal of Economic Entomology, 74(5):589-592

Ohno K, Alam MZ, 1992. Hereditary basis of adult color polymorphism in the southern green stink bug, Nezara viridula Linne (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae). Applied Entomology and Zoology, 27(1):133-139

Oi DH, 1991. Investing in biological control: initiation of a parasite mass rearing program for macadamia nut orchards in Hawaii. In: Proceedings of the 1989 ADAP Crop Protection Conference, held May 18-19, 1989, Honolulu, Hawaii. Research and External Services for the College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources at the University of Hawaii Cooperative of External Services. Honolulu, Hawaii: The Service. Dec 1991. (134), 128-130.

Orr DB, Boethel DJ, Jones WA, 1985. Biology of Telenomus chloropus (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) from eggs of Nezara viridula (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) reared on resistant and susceptible soybean genotypes. Canadian Entomologist, 117(9):1137-1142

Ota D, Cokl A, 1991. Mate location in the southern green stink bug, Nezara viridula (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae), mediated through substrate-borne signals in ivy. Journal of Insect Behavior, 4(4):441-447

Ozsaydi N, Ozgur AF, 1993. Determination of the damage caused by Nezara viridula (L.) (Het., Pentatomidae). Turkiye Entomoloji Dergisi, 17(3):157-168

Pacheco DJP, CorrOa-Ferreira BS, 1998. Potencial reprodutivo e longevidade do parasitoide Telenomus podisi Ashmead, em ovos de diferentes especies de percevejos. Anais da Sociedade Entomologica do Brasil, 27(4):585-591.

Panizzi A, Vivan LM, CorrOa-Ferreira BS, Foerster LA, 1996. Performance of southern green stink bug (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) nymphs and adults on a novel food plant (Japanese privet) and other hosts. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 89(6):822-827; 21 ref.

Panizzi AR, 1988. Parasitism by Eutrichopodopsis nitens (Diptera: Tachinidae) of Nezara viridula (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) on different host plants. Documentos - Centro Nacional de Pesquisa de Soja, EMBRAPA, 36:82-83

Panizzi AR, 2002. Stink bugs on soybean in Northeastern Brazil and a new record on the southern green stink bug, Nezara viridula (L.) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae). Neotropical Entomology, 31(2):331-332.

Panizzi AR, Hirose E, 1995. Seasonal body weight, lipid content, and impact of starvation and water stress on adult survivorship and longevity of Nezara viridula and Euschistus heros. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 76(3):247-253

Panizzi AR, Meneguim AM, 1989. Performance of nymphal and adult Nezara viridula on selected alternate host plants. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 50(3):215-223

Panizzi AR, Mourao PM, 1999. Ecology, behavior and bionomics: mating, ovipositional rhythm and fecundity of Nezara viridula (L.) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) fed on privet, Ligustrum lucidum Thunb., and on soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merrill fruits. Anais da Sociedade Entomolo^acute~gica do Brasil, 28(1):35-40; 9 ref.

Panizzi AR, Niva CC, Hirose E, 1995. Feeding preference by stink bugs (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) for seeds within soybean pods. Journal of Entomological Science, 30(3):333-341; 13 ref.

Panizzi AR, Oliveira EDM, 1999. Seasonal occurrence of tachinid parasitism on stink bugs with different overwintering strategies. Anais da Sociedade Entomolo^acute~gica do Brasil, 28(1):169-172; 11 ref.

Panizzi AR, Rossi CE, 1991. The role of Acanthospermum hispidum in the phenology of Euschistus heros and of Nezara viridula. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 59(1):67-74

Panizzi AR, Saraiva SI, 1993. Performance of nymphal and adult southern green stink bug on an overwintering host plant and impact of nymph to adult food-switch. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 68(2):109-115

Panizzi AR, Slansky F Jr, 1985. Review of phytophagous pentatomids (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) associated with soybean in the Americas. Florida Entomologist, 68(1):184-214

Panizzi AR, Slansky F Jr, 1985. Review of phytophagous pentatomids (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) associated with soybean in the Americas. Florida Entomologist, 68(1):184-214

Panizzi AR, Slansky F Jr, 1991. Suitability of selected legumes and the effect of nymphal and adult nutrition in the southern green stink bug (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Pentatomidae). Journal of Economic Entomology, 84(1):103-113

Parrini C, Rumine P, 1989. Diseases and pests of greenhouse-grown snapdragon and stock. Colture Protette, 18(12):29-38; 27 ref.

Passlow T, Waite GK, 1971. Green vegetable bug as a soybean pest. Queensland Agricultural Journal, 97:491-493.

Paterson HEH, 1991. The recognition of cryptic species among economically important insects. In: Zalucki MP, ed. Heliothis: Research Methods and Prospects. New York, USA: Springer-Verlag, 1-10.

Pavis C, Malosse C, Ducrot PH, Descoins C, 1994. Dorsal abdominal glands in nymphs of southern green stink bug, Nezara viridula (L.) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae): chemistry of secretions of five instars and role of (E)-4-oxo-2-decenal, compound specific to first instars. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 20(9):2213-2227

Pavlovcic P, Kavar T, Meglic V, Doberlet MV, 2008. Genetic population structure and range colonisation of Nezara viridula. Bulletin of Insectology [Papers presented at the 4th European Hemiptera Congress, Turin, Italy, 10-14 September 2007.], 61(1):191-192. http://www.bulletinofinsectology.org/

Payne JA, Wells JM, 1984. Toxic penicillia isolated from lesions of kernel-spotted pecans. Environmental Entomology, 13(6):1609-1612; 20 ref.

Porta NC la, Crouzel ISde, 1984. Basic studies for the biological control of Nezara viridula (L., 1758) (Hemiptera, Pentatomidae) in Argentina. Revista de la Sociedad Entomologica Argentina, 43(1/4):119-143

Porta NCla, 1990. Evaluation of field parasitism by Trichopoda giacomellii (Blanch.) Guimaraes, 1971 (Diptera: Tachinidae) on Nezara viridula (L.) 1758 (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). Revista Chilena de Entomologia, 18:83-87

Porta NCla, 1992. Population dynamics of Trissolcus basalis (Wollaston) 1858 (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae). I. Life statistics. Revista de la Sociedad Entomologica Argentina, 50(1-4):267-275

Poutouli W, 1995. Some oophagus parasitoids observed on Heteroptera in Togo. Journal of African Zoology, 109(3):259-267; 26 ref.

Prabhakar B, Rao PK, Rao BHK, 1986. Studies on the seasonal prevalence of certain Hemiptera occurring on sorghum. Entomon, 11(2):95-99

Protic L, Roganovic D, 2002. Heteroptera on Cupressus sempervirens (Linnaeus) in Montenegro (state community of Serbia and Montenegro). Acta Entomologica Serbica, 7(1/2):17-27.

Rabindra Prasad, Devendera Prasad, 2007. Occurrence and succession of insect pests of linseed under agro-climatic condition of Ranchi (Jharkhand). Indian Journal of Entomology, 69(1):7-10.

Rajendram GF, Devarajah FR, 1990. Survey of some rice insect pests and their predators in three districts of Sri Lanka. Journal of the National Science Council of Sri Lanka, 18(1):79-92

Rajpal Singh, Joshi AK, 2003. Pests of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus Moench.) in Paonta Valley, Himachal Pradesh. Insect Environment, 9(4):173-174.

Ramiro ZA, Batista Filho A, Machado LA, Santos JCC dos, Faria AMde, 1988. Survey of pests in four cultivars and two lines of soya in Orlandia, S.P. I - stink bugs. Anais da Sociedade Entomologica do Brasil, 17(supl.):5-17

Rédei D, Torma A, 2003. Occurrence of the Southern green stink bug, Nezara viridula (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) in Hungary. Acta Phytopathologica et Entomologica Hungarica, 38(3/4):365-367.

Rizk GA, Moftah EA, Karaman GA, Abdel-Naby AA, 1990. Effectiveness of different planting dates on the population density of some sucking pests attacking soyabean plants in Minia Region. Assiut Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 21(3):141-151

Rodriguez Velez J, 1974. Observations on the biology of the green bug, Nezara viridula (L.) in the Valle del Fuerte, Sinaloa. Folia Entomologica Mexicana, No. 28:5-12

Rojas-Izaguirre JA, Cruz-Ramos T, 1987. Preliminary studies on chrysomelid behaviour in areas of soyabean fields. Centro Agricola, 14:71-79.

Ross S, 1998. Farmers' perceptions of bean pest problems in Malawi. Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), Regional Programmes in Africa; Dar es Salaam; Tanzania. African Occasional Publications Series No. 25, 31 pp.

Roychoudhury N, Joshi KC, 1996. A new record of occurrence and biology of Nezara viridula (L.) on Sesbania sesban (L.) Merrill. Indian Journal of Forestry, 19(2):137-144; 38 ref.

Rudd WG, Jensen RL, 1977. Sweep net and ground cloth sampling for insects in soybeans. Journal of Economic Entomology, 70(3):301-304

Russin JS, Layton MB, Orr DB, Boethel DJ, 1987. Within-plant distribution of, and partial compensation for, stink bug (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) damage to soybean seeds. Journal of Economic Entomology, 80(1):215-220

Russin JS, Orr DB, Layton MB, Boethel DJ, 1988. Incidence of microorganisms in soybean seeds damaged by stink bug feeding. Phytopathology, 78(3):306-310; 22 ref.

Ryan M, 1996. An investigation of discontinuities in the sexual behaviour of green vegetable bugs, Nezara viridula (Linnaeus) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae). PhD Thesis, Department of Entomology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane.

Ryan MA, Cokl A, Walter GH, 1996. Differences in vibratory sound communication between a Slovenian and an Australian population of Nezara viridula (L.) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae). Behavioural Processes, 36:183-193.

Ryan MA, Moore CJ, Walter GH, 1995. Individual variation in pheromone composition in Nezara viridula (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae): how valid is the basis for designating "pheromone strains"? Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. B, Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, 111(2):189-193

Saha NN, Saharia D, 1983. Insects injurious to soybean in Assam. Journal of Research, Assam Agricultural University, 4(2):167-169

Saini ED, 1984. Identification of the eggs of pentatomids (Heteroptera) found in soyabean crops. Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia Agrapecuaria (IDIA), Nos. 425-428:79-84

Sales FJM, 1985. Normal reactions of females of the parasite Trissolcus basalis (Wollaston) (Hym.: Scelionidae) to the kairomonal extract of the eggs of the host, Nezara viridula (L.) (Hem.: Pentatomidae). Fitossanidade, 6/9:109-110

Salini S, 2011. Polymorphism in southern green stink bug, Nezara viridula (L.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). Current Biotica, 4(4):482-485. http://www.currentbiotica.com/curl.aspx?url=Journals4-IssueIV/CB4(4)-Short-notes-4.pdf

Salisbury A, Barclay MVL, Reid S, Halstead A, 2009. The current status of the southern green shield bug, Nezara viridula (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), an introduced pest species recently established in south-east England. British Journal of Entomology and Natural History, 22(3):189-194. http://www.benhs.org.uk

Salles LAB, 1991. Aspects of Trichopoda pennipes (Fabricius) (Diptera: Tachinidae) oviposition and its relation to parasitization on the adults of Nezara viridula (Linnpus) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae). Pesquisa Agropecuaria Brasileira, 26(1):39-44

Sarma KK, Dutta SK, 1996. Population dynamics of Nezara viridula (L.) on summer green gram. Journal of the Agricultural Science Society of North East India, 9(1):55-59.

Sarma KK, Dutta SK, 1996. Predatory efficiency of the spider Thomisus sp. on Nezara viridula (L.) and Riptortus linearis (Fab.) adults. Journal of the Agricultural Science Society of North East India, 9(1):113-114; 9 ref.

Sarma KK, Dutta SK, 1997. A comparison of population trends of pod sucking bugs on two summer green gram varieties. Journal of the Agricultural Science Society of North East India, 10(2):206-210; 10 ref.

Schalk JM, Fery RL, 1982. Southern green stink bug and leaffooted bug: effect on cowpea production. Journal of Economic Entomology, 75(1):72-75

Setokuchi O, Nakagawa M, Yoshida N, 1986. Damage and control of stink bugs on autumn soybean in Kagoshima Prefecture. Proceedings of the Association for Plant Protection of Kyushu, 32:130-133

Seymour J, Bowman G, Crouch M, 1995. Effect of neem seed extract on feeding frequency of Nezara viridula L. (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) on pecan nuts. Journal of the Australian Entomological Society, 34(3):221-223; 16 ref.

Seymour JE, Bowman GJ, 1994. Russet coloration in Nezara viridula (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae): an unreliable indicator of diapause. Environmental Entomology, 23(4):860-863

Seymour JE, Sands DPA, 1993. Green vegetable bug (Nezara viridula [L.]) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) in Australian pecans. In: Corey SA, Dall DJ, Milne WM, eds. Pest control and Sustainable Agriculture. Melbourne, Australia: CSIRO, 226-228.

Shaw SS, Mukherjee SC, Tripathi AK, Mahajan V, Bhandarkar S, Sinha SK, 1998. Incidence of insect pests on genotypes of spine gourd in Madhya Pradesh. Pest Management in Horticultural Ecosystems, 4(2):133-134.

Shearer PW, Jones VP, 1996. Diel feeding pattern of adult female southern green stink bug (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). Environmental Entomology, 25(3):599-602; 23 ref.

Shearer PW, Jones VP, 1996. Suitability of macadamia nut as a host plant of Nezara viridula (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). Journal of Economic Entomology, 89(4):996-1003; 29 ref.

Shimaxu M, Teixeira Alves R, Kishino KI, 1994. Investigation on entomogenous fungi in the Cerrado Region and their utilization for microbial control of pests. Relatorio tecnico do projeto nipo-brasileiro de cooperacao em pesquisa agricola 1987/1992, No.:202-214

Shylesha AN, Rao KR, 2004. Insect pests of passionfruit Passiflora edulis Sims in Meghalaya. Indian Journal of Entomology, 66(4):357-360.

Singh AP, Prem-Chand, Sinha AK, 1977. A note on pest complex of lucerne in Bihar. Current Research, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, 6:123-124.

Singh SM, Pathak SC, Kulkarni N, Naidu J, Dubey V, 1991. First report of phaeohymphomycosis of Nezara viridula Linn. (Insecta: Heteroptera) caused by Curvularia lunata. Mycopathologia, 116(1):37-43

Sithole SZ, Milliano WAJ de, Kaula G, Motalaote B, Mtisi E, Kunene S, Lepheana FTM, 1987. The insect pest situation in sorghum at research stations in SADCC countries during the 1985/86 cropping season. Proceedings of the Third Regional Workshop on Sorghum and Millets for Southern Africa, Lusaka, Zambia, 6-10 October 1986 Bulawayo, Zimbabwe; SADCC/ICRISAT Sorghum and Millet Improvement Programme, 375-381

Smilanick JM, Zalom FG, Ehler LE, 1996. Effect of methamidophos residue on the pentatomid egg parasitoids Trissolcus basalis and T. utahensis (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae). Biological Control, 6(2):193-201; 30 ref.

Snodgrass GL, Adamczyk JJ Jr, Gore J, 2005. Toxicity of insecticides in a glass-vial bioassay to adult brown, green, and southern green stink bugs (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae). Journal of Economic Entomology, 98(1):177-181. HTTP://www.esa.catchword.org

Song ZQ, 1987. Studies on the occurrence and control of green bug in Algeria. Journal of Shenyang Agricultural University, 18(1):27-33; 2 ref.

Sosa-G=mez DR, Moscardi F, 1998. Laboratory and field studies on the infection of stink bugs, Nezara viridula, Piezodorus guildinii, and Euschistus heros (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) with Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana in Brazil. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 71(2):115-120; 18 ref.

Sosa-Gomez DR, Boucias DG, Nation JL, 1997. Attachment of Metarhizium anisopliae to the southern green stink bug Nezara viridula cuticle and fungistatic effect of cuticular lipids and aldehydes. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 69(1):31-39; 29 ref.

Sosa-Gomez DR, Moscardi F, 1995. Different foliar retention in soyabean caused by stink bugs (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae). Anais da Sociedade Entomologica do Brasil, 24(2):401-404

Sosa-Gomez DR, Takachi CY, Moscardi F, 1993. Determination of synergism and differential susceptibility of Nezara viridula (L.) and Euschistus heros (F.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) to insecticides used in mixtures with sodium chloride. Anais da Sociedade Entomologica do Brasil, 22(3):569-576

Stam PA, Newsom LD, Lambremont EN, 1987. Predation and food as factors affecting survival of Nezara viridula (L.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) in a soybean ecosystem. Environmental Entomology, 16(6):1211-1216

Stringer SJ, Harville BG, Henshaw JN, Marshall JG, 1983. Aflatoxins in Louisiana hybrid corn. Louisiana Agriculture, 26:10-11.

Su TH, Tseng HK, 1984. The introduction of an egg parasite, Trissolcus basalis (Wollaston), for control of the southern green stink bug, Nezara viridula (L.) in Taiwan. Journal of Agriculture and Forestry, 33(2):49-54

Supriyatin, 1992. Assessment of yield loss caused by pod damaging pests on soybean in Indonesia. Proceedings of the 3rd international conference on plant protection in the tropics, Genting Highlands, Malaysia, 20-23 March 1990, 164-167.

Suwanpornskul R, Khadkao S, 1996. Screening soybean for resistance to pod sucking bugs. TVIS Newsletter, 1(1):22.

Suzuki N, Hokyo N, Kiritani K, 1991. Analysis of injury timing and compensatory reaction of soybean to feeding of the southern green stink bug and the bean bug. Applied Entomology and Zoology, 26(3):279-287; 16 ref.

Szmedra PI, Wetzstein ME, McClendon RW, 1990. Economic threshold under risk: A case study of soybean production. Journal of Economic Entomology, 83(3):641-646

Todd JW, 1989. Ecology and behavior of Nezara viridula. Annual Review of Entomology, 34:273-292

Todd JW, Herzog DC, 1980. Sampling phytophagous pentatomidae on soybean. In: Kogan M, Herzog DC, eds. Sampling Methods in Soybean Entomology. New York, USA: Springer-Verlag, 438-478.

Todd JW, Schumann FW, 1988. Combination of insecticide applications with trap crops of early maturing soybean and southern peas for population management of Nezara viridula in soybean (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). Journal of Entomological Science, 23(2):192-199

Turhan N, Tunc A, Belli A, Kismir A, Ksakurek N, 1983. Studies on the determination of the insect and mite fauna of soyabean (Glycina max L.) in the Cukurova district. Bitki Koruma Bulteni, 23(3):148-169

Turner JW, 1983. Influence of plant species on the movement of Trissolcus basalis Woolaston (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) a parasite of Nezara viridula L. Journal of the Australian Entomological Society, 22(3):271-272

Turnipseed SG, Greene JK, 1996. Strategies for managing stink bugs in transgenic B.t. cotton. 1996 Proceedings Beltwide Cotton Conferences, Nashville, TN, USA, January 9-12, 1996: Volume 2., 935-936; 2 ref.

Umana R G, Masis CE, Campos Melendez LF, 1993. Cultural and chemical control of macadamia (Macadamia integrifolia Maiden & Betche) nut drop and rotting in Costa Rica. Manejo Integrado de Plagas, No. 26:1-4

Velasco LRI, Walter GH, 1992. Availability of different host plant species and changing abundance of the polyphagous bug Nezara viridula (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). Environmental Entomology, 21(4):751-759

Velasco LRI, Walter GH, 1993. Influence of temperature on survival and reproduction of Nezara viridula (L.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). Journal of the Australian Entomological Society, 32(3):225-228

Velasco LRI, Walter GH, 1993. Potential of host-switching in Nezara viridula (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) to enhance survival and reproduction. Environmental Entomology, 22(2):326-333

Velasco LRI, Walter GH, Harris VE, 1995. Voltinism and host plant use by Nezara viridula (L.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) in southeastern Queensland. Journal of the Australian Entomological Society, 34(3):193-203; 24 ref.

Viator HP, Pantoja A, Smith CM, 1983. Damage to wheat seed quality and yield by the rice stink bug and southern green stink bug (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). Journal of Economic Entomology, 76(6):1410-1413

Vicentini R, Jimenez HA, 1977. Lack of seed in soyabean fruits. Serie Tecnica, Estacion Experimental Regional Agropecuaria Parana, No.47, 30pp.

Villiers EA de, Toit WJdu, 1984. Effect of pyrethroid insecticides on the green vegetable bug, Nezara viridula, on macadamia nuts. Information Bulletin, Citrus and Subtropical Fruit Research Institute, No.146:17-20

Volkoff N, Vinson SB, Wu ZX, Nettles WC Jr, 1992. In vitro rearing of Trissolcus basalis (Hym., Scelionidae) an egg parasitoid of Nezara viridula (Hem., Pentatomidae). Entomophaga, 37(1):141-148

Waterhouse DF, 1993. The Major Arthropod Pests and Weeds of Agriculture in Southeast Asia. ACIAR Monograph No. 21. Canberra, Australia: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, 141 pp.

Waterhouse DF, 1998. Biological Control of Insect Pests: South-east Asian Prospects. Canberra, Australia: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR), 127 pp.

Waterhouse DF, Norris KR, 1987. Biological control: Pacific prospects. viii + 454pp

Williamson C, Wechmar MBvon, 1992. Two novel viruses associated with severe disease symptoms of the green stinkbug Nezara viridula. Journal of General Virology, 73(9):2467-2471; 23 ref.

Williamson C, Wechmar MBvon, 1995. The effects of two viruses on the metamorphosis, fecundity, and longevity of the green stinkbug, Nezara viridula. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 65(2):174-178

Yadav LS, Yadav PR, 1983. Pest complex of cowpea (Vigna sinensis Savi) in Haryana. Bulletin of Entomology, 24(1):57-58

Yang P, 1984. The application of Oecophylla smaragdina Fabr. in South Fujian. Fujian Agricultural Science and Technology, No. 5:23-25

Links to Websites

Top of page

Distribution Maps

Top of page