Myriophyllum heterophyllum (broadleaf watermilfoil)

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Myriophyllum heterophyllum Michaux, 1803

Preferred Common Name

broadleaf watermilfoil

International Common Names

English: American water-milfoil; variable watermilfoil

Local Common Names

Germany: Verschiedenblaettriges Tausendblatt
Netherlands: Ongelijkbladig vederkruid
USA: variable-leaf water milfoil

EPPO code

MYPHE (Myriophyllum heterophyllum)

Summary of Invasiveness

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M. heterophyllum is an aquatic plant native to southeast USA. It is considered invasive throughout New England and northwest USA and as an emerging invader in Europe because of its tendency for uncontrolled growth and subsequent formation of dense mats of submergent vegetative material throughout the water column and at the water surface. These mats prevent water flow, reduce sunlight, reduce oxygen availability, and impede swimming, boating and fishing. M. heterophyllum is banned from sale in some New England states and Washington state.

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Dicotyledonae
Order: Haloragidales
Family: Haloragidaceae
Genus: Myriophyllum
Species: Myriophyllum heterophyllum

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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Recent phylogenetic analysis identifies the species as being a member of a clade of Myriophyllum endemic to North America including: Myriophyllum pinnatum Britton, Sterns & Poggenb., Myriophyllum hippuroides Nutt. ex Torr. & A. Gray, Myriophyllum farwellii Morong, Myriophyllum humile Morong, Myriophyllum laxum Schuttl. ex Chapm., and Myriophyllum tenellum Bigelow (Moody and Les, 2010).

As with most milfoils, M. heterophyllum can be easily confused with other species of Myriophyllum, especially when only vegetative (non-flowering) material is available for identification: M. heterophyllum is known to hybridize with M. laxum (Moody and Les, 2002).

Common names include variable-leaf watermilfoil, two-leaf watermilfoil and broad-leaf watermilfoil. The exact origins of these names are not known, but are presumed to be North American. In the aquarium trade, M. heterophyllum may be sold as ‘myrio’, ‘foxtail’, or ‘parrotfeather’.

Description

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M. heterophyllum is an aquatic plant that has submerged vegetation with emergent flowering spikes. Plants hermaphroditic, occasionally monoecious. Stem stout, to 100 cm; internodes crowded. Submerged leaves 4- or 5-whorled or scattered, pectinate, oblong in outline, (1.5-)2-4 × 1-3 cm; segments in 5-12 pairs, filiform, 0.5-1.5 cm. Inflorescence a terminal spike of 4-whorled flowers, 5-35 cm, in monoecious plants lowermost flowers female, uppermost ones male; bracts persistent, eventually reflexed, lanceolate to oblong or obovate, 4-18 × 1-3 mm, margin sharply serrulate; bracteoles ovate, ca. 1.2 × 0.6 mm, margin serrate. Petals 1.5-3 mm. Stamens 4. Fruit 4-loculed, subglobose, 1-1.5 mm; mericarps with 2 finely tuberculate ridges abaxially, apex beaked (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2012).

Plant Type

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Herbaceous
Perennial
Seed propagated
Vegetatively propagated

Distribution

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The distribution of M. heterophyllum is generally known, but not documented in detail. Aiken (1981) lists its distribution in North America as ‘…Virginia to Florida, northward to Ontario and Michigan, and westward to Missouri and Texas’. The species is generally considered as native to the eastern part of the USA, except the northeastern region. It is considered non-native and invasive in New England, where it appears to have been introduced circa 1932 via escape from cultivation with subsequent spread via vegetative propagules (Les and Mehrhoff, 1999). Since its initial introduction to New England, it has spread throughout the region and is the most common invasive aquatic plant in New Hampshire (Thum and Lennon, 2009). It is not clear if M. heterophyllum was historically native to the mid-Atlantic region (Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania and Virginia). For example, it is treated as a non-native invasive species in New York and eastern Pennsylvania, but is considered an extremely rare native and threatened species in nearby Delaware. Part of the confusion regarding its historical status (native/non-native) in northeastern USA may result from confusion with the closely related species M. pinnatum, which is considered native along the eastern coast from Florida through eastern Massachussetts (Aiken, 1981). M. heterophyllum is also considered non-native in western USA: while it is not clear when it was first introduced here, its recent spread in the region - especially in Washington state - is causing concern among water resource managers. Two causes for concern include the possible misidentification of M. heterophyllum with the closely-related, morphologically similar, and endemic western watermilfoil, M. hippuroides, and the potential for hybridization between the two species.

In Europe, it is found in Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Netherlands and Spain (EPPO, 2012, 2014).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 23 Apr 2020

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Asia
China	Present	Introduced			CABI (Undated); EPPO (2020)	Original citation: Yu et al. (2002, publ. 2003)
-Guangdong	Present	Introduced			Flora of China Editorial Committee (2012); EPPO (2020)
Europe
Austria	Present	Introduced			DAISIE (2009); EPPO (2020)
Belgium	Present	Introduced			DAISIE (2009); EPPO (2020)
Croatia	Present, Few occurrences				EPPO (2020)
France	Present, Few occurrences				EPPO (2020); Lebreton (2013)
Germany	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Hussner (2005); EPPO (2007); EPPO (2020)	First recorded in North Rhine-Westphalia in 1979. Found in eastern Germany since 1960 spreading west
Greece	Absent, Invalid presence record(s)				EPPO (2020)
Hungary	Absent, Unconfirmed presence record(s)				EPPO (2020)
Netherlands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Q-bank (2013); EPPO (2020)
Spain	Present	Introduced			Cirujano et al. (1997); EPPO (2020)
Sweden	Absent				EPPO (2020)
Switzerland	Present				EPPO (2020)
United Kingdom	Absent, Eradicated				Stace (1991); EPPO (2020)
North America
Canada	Present				EPPO (2020)
-Alberta	Present				EPPO (2020)
-British Columbia	Present				USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)	Potential for confusion with native M. hippuroides
-New Brunswick	Present				USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)
-Ontario	Present	Native			USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)
-Quebec	Present				USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)
Guatemala	Present				EPPO (2020)
Mexico	Present				USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)
United States	Present				EPPO (2020)
-Alabama	Present	Native			USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)
-Arkansas	Present	Native			USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)
-Connecticut	Present, Few occurrences	Introduced	1932	Invasive	Les and Mehrhoff (1999); USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)
-Delaware	Present, Few occurrences	Native			USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)	Considered native but very rare. Confusion with other species may complicate account of species here
-Florida	Present, Widespread	Native			USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)	Widespread throughout state, but not necessarily abundant
-Georgia	Present	Native			USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)	Known from locations throughout the state, but not necessarily abundant throughout
-Illinois	Present				USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)
-Indiana	Present				USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)	Occurs commonly in northern portion of state
-Iowa	Present				USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)
-Kansas	Present				USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)
-Kentucky	Present				USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)	Very rare species of special concern
-Louisiana	Present, Widespread				USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)
-Maine	Present, Few occurrences			Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)
-Maryland	Present				USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)
-Massachusetts	Present			Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)	Prohibited plant in this state
-Michigan	Present, Widespread	Native			USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)
-Minnesota	Present, Localized				USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)
-Mississippi	Present				USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)
-Missouri	Present	Native			USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)
-New Hampshire	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2008); Thum and Lennon (2010); EPPO (2020)
-New Jersey	Present				USDA-NRCS (2008)	Historical status of species uncertain and may be complicated by confusion with closely-related milfoils, especially M. pinnatum
-New Mexico	Present				EPPO (2020)
-New York	Present				USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)	Historical status of species uncertain and may be complicated by confusion with closely-related milfoils, especially M. pinnatum
-North Carolina	Present	Native			USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)	Occurs along the eastern portion of the state
-North Dakota	Present				USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)
-Ohio	Present, Few occurrences	Native			USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)	Considered endangered
-Oklahoma	Present, Localized	Native			USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)	Found in southeastern portion of state
-Oregon	Present				USDA-NRCS (2008)
-Pennsylvania	Present				USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)	Considered native and endangered to western portion of state. Considered non-native and invasive in eastern portion of state
-Rhode Island	Present				USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)
-South Carolina	Present, Widespread	Native			USDA-NRCS (2008)	Common in eastern portions of the state
-South Dakota	Present				USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)
-Tennessee	Present	Native			USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)
-Texas	Present				USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)
-Vermont	Present, Localized	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)	Discovered in 2008 in a single location, possibly eradicated after discovery
-Virginia	Present	Native			USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)
-Washington	Present, Few occurrences			Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)
-West Virginia	Present				USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)
-Wisconsin	Present	Native			USDA-NRCS (2008); EPPO (2020)

History of Introduction and Spread

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Although native to eastern North America, M. heterophyllum is not considered native to northeastern USA. The first recorded observation of the species in northeastern USA was from Bridgeport, CT in 1932. Les and Mehrhoff (1999) presume the original introduction can be attributed to escape from cultivation, with subsequent spread by vegetative propagules escaping cultivation. Recent genetic analyses suggest that M. heterophyllum may have been independently introduced to northeastern USA on several occasions (R Thum, Grand Valley State University, USA, personal communication, 2010).

Very little is known about the history of introduction to western USA. The Washington State Noxious Weed Control Board (2007) claims that only four populations of M. heterophyllum have been found in the state, all within private lakes, while the Aquatic Plant Monitoring project at the University of Washington has 5 locations listed throughout the state of Washington as having M. heterophyllum (see http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/eap/lakes/aquaticplants/).

In Europe, M. heterophyllum was first recorded in Germany in the 1960s, but details regarding its introduction and spread are lacking (Hussner, 2005). The species is also reportedly naturalized in Spain (Cirujano et al., 1997). It was first reported from France, in a private pond in Haute-Vienne department, in 2011 (Lebreton, 2013).

M. heterophyllum has also been reported in China (Yu et al., 2002), but details regarding its history and spread are lacking.

Introductions

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Introduced to	Introduced from	Year	Reason	Introduced by	Established in wild through		References	Notes
Introduced to	Introduced from	Year	Reason	Introduced by	Natural reproduction	Continuous restocking	References	Notes
China							Yu et al. (2002, publ. 2003)	Possibly from USA
Connecticut	USA	1932	Escape from confinement or garden escape (pathway cause)		Yes		Les and Mehrhoff (1999)	Has spread throughout northeastern USA
Germany		Circa 1960s			Yes		Hussner (2005)	Possibly from USA
Spain					Yes		Cirujano et al. (1997)	Possibly from USA
Washington	USA						Washington State Noxious Weed Control Board (2007)

Risk of Introduction

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M. heterophyllum is a popular plant in the aquarium and water gardening trades and can readily be obtained from any number of aquatic plant vendors under a variety of names. Plants genetically confirmed as M. heterophyllum have been purchased from a variety of vendors under a variety of common names (myrio, foxtail, and parrotfeather) and scientific names of (M. heterophyllum, M. pinnatum, M. tuberculum, M. aquaticum and M. simulans). Once escaped from an aquarium or cultivated pond, M. heterophyllum is capable of spreading through vegetative fragments. As such, it can be moved around by any number of water and animal vectors and may be commonly transported among water bodies on boats and boat trailers. Seeds may also be dispersed by animal vectors.

EPPO (2012) considers M. heterophyllum to have the potential to become invasive across Europe, 'especially in shallow lakes and channels.'

Habitat

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M. heterophyllum occurs primarily in lakes, ponds, rivers and swamps, but can also grow in a semi-terrestrial form when stranded on mudflats.

Gerber and Les (1996) found M. heterophyllum to be associated with water bodies that had higher pH and calcium levels relative to other species of milfoils in Michigan and Wisconsin. Thum and Lennon (2010) found M. heterophyllum to be associated with higher order lakes - large, low elevation lakes with relatively high pH, alkalinity and conductivity - in its introduced range in New Hampshire, USA. However, it is not clear whether these relationships hold true across different geographic areas where the species occurs, or among distinct genetic lineages of M. heterophyllum.

Habitat List

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Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Littoral
	Coastal areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
	Coastal areas	Present, no further details	Natural
	Mud flats	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
	Mud flats	Present, no further details	Natural
Freshwater

	Irrigation channels	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
	Irrigation channels	Present, no further details	Natural
	Lakes	Principal habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
	Lakes	Principal habitat	Natural
	Reservoirs	Principal habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
	Reservoirs	Principal habitat	Natural
	Rivers / streams	Principal habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
	Rivers / streams	Principal habitat	Natural
	Ponds	Principal habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
	Ponds	Principal habitat	Natural

Biology and Ecology

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Genetics

M. heterophyllum exhibits potentially important genetic variation as revealed by chloroplast DNA sequences and ITS DNA sequences. Moody and Les (2002) identified three different ITS lineages, and cpDNA structure across M. heterophyllum’s native range has been investigated (R Thum, Grand Valley State University, USA, personal communication, 2010). Furthermore, northeastern and western invasions are comprised of multiple cpDNA and ITS haplotypes from these different geographic origins.

M. heterophyllum is known to hybridize with M. laxum (Moody and Les, 2002).

Reproductive Biology

Reproduction may occur through asexual vegetative propagation and also sexual reproduction (seed production). Asexual vegetative propagation is thought to be the dominant mode of reproduction in introduced populations (e.g. Washington State Noxious Weed Control Board factsheet) (http://www.nwcb.wa.gov/). The emergent flowers are wind-pollinated.

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

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Latitude North (°N)	Latitude South (°S)	Altitude Lower (m)	Altitude Upper (m)
50	25

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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Natural Dispersal

Natural dispersal is through floating fragments in water.

Vector Transmission

Various animal vectors (e.g. waterfowl) may carry fruits or floating fragments.

Accidental Introduction

Accidental introduction can result from release from aquaria, escape from cultivate ponds, and accidental transport on boats or boat trailers.

Intentional Introduction

M. heterophyllum is sometimes used as an aquarium plant and as an ornamental plant in ponds (EPPO, 2012).

Pathway Causes

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Cause	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Hitchhiker	May attach to boats and boat trailers		Yes
Internet sales		Yes	Yes	Kay and Hoyle, 2001; Moody et al., 2008
Pet trade		Yes	Yes	Kay and Hoyle, 2001; Moody et al., 2008

Pathway Vectors

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Vector	Notes	Long Distance	Local
Floating vegetation and debris	Vegetative fragments can re-root		Yes
Mail	Internet sales	Yes	Yes
Pets and aquarium species		Yes	Yes
Ship hull fouling			Yes
Ship structures above the water line			Yes
Water			Yes

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Economic/livelihood	Positive and negative
Environment (generally)	Positive and negative

Economic Impact

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In general, aquatic invasive weeds in the USA cost about $110 million annually (Pimentel et al., 2000). In the specific case of M. heterophyllum, it has been associated with up to a 40% decrease in property values in New Hampshire (Halstead et al., 2003) in addition to costs associated with control.

Environmental Impact

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M. heterophyllum is highly competitive and able to outcompete other aquatic plants. It forms dense mats of submergent vegetative material throughout the water column and at the water surface, which can prevent water flow, reduce sunlight and reduce oxygen availability. The resulting low oxygen conditions can harm or kill aquatic organisms (EPPO, 2012).

Social Impact

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M. heterophyllum forms dense stands in water bodies, which have negative effects on boating, swimming and aesthetics.

Risk and Impact Factors

Top of page Invasiveness

Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Highly mobile locally
Fast growing
Has high reproductive potential
Reproduces asexually
Has high genetic variability

Impact outcomes

Damaged ecosystem services
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Monoculture formation
Negatively impacts animal health
Negatively impacts livelihoods
Negatively impacts aquaculture/fisheries
Negatively impacts tourism
Reduced amenity values
Transportation disruption
Negatively impacts animal/plant collections

Impact mechanisms

Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition - shading
Hybridization
Rapid growth
Rooting

Likelihood of entry/control

Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
Difficult to identify/detect in the field
Difficult/costly to control

Uses List

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Environmental

Wildlife habitat

General

Pet/aquarium trade

Detection and Inspection

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Morphological keys (such as Aiken, 1981) are available but rely mostly on characters of flowers and fruits, which may not be present, as M. heterophyllum rarely flowers. It can best be recognised by its dense underwater growth and undivided, serrate emergent leaves (Q-bank, 2015).

Genetic identifications using the nuclear ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer regions (ITS) have become common (Moody and Les, 2002; Thum et al., 2006).

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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M. heterophyllum may be confused with any number of Myriophyllum species. In general, Myriophyllum are distinguished by characters of flowers and fruits, which may not be present. Vegetative material of M. heterophyllum may especially be confused with closely related species M. humile, M. farwelli, M. pinnatum, M. laxum, and M. hippuroides. However, misidentifications with more distantly related species also occur (Aiken, 1981; Thum et al., 2006), especially M. verticillatum.

Genetic identifications using the nuclear ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer regions (ITS) have become common (Moody and Les, 2002; Thum et al., 2006). However, further work on the reliability of these markers based on much larger sample sizes is needed.

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Prevention

M. heterophyllum is listed as a prohibited plant in several New England states and Washington state, USA, in efforts to prevent its introduction via escape from the aquarium trade.

Banned from Connecticut in 2003 (CT invasive plants council http://nbii-nin.ciesin.columbia.edu/ipane/ctcouncil/CT_Invasive_Plant_List.htm)

Banned in Massachusetts as of January 1, 2006 (possibly earlier) (Massachusetts Dept. of Agriculture Resources http://www.mass.gov/agr/)

Banned in Maine as of September 1, 2000 (Chapter 722 H.P. 1843 – L.D. 2581 = A law in Maine designed to prevent the spread of invasive aquatic plants)

Banned in Vermont as of 2003 (Vermont Dept. of Agriculture http://www.vermontagriculture.com/)

Banned in Washington as of 2005 (Washington Administrative Code title 16, chapter 16-750)

In Europe it has been included on the EPPO List of Invasive Alien Plants since 2012 (http://www.eppo.int/INVASIVE_PLANTS/ias_lists.htm#IAPList).

Rapid response

The Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation has developed a rapid response programme (see http://www.mass.gov/dcr/).

Public awareness

Voluntary lake monitoring programmes have been established in some states to detect invasion by invasive aquatic plants (for example, in Maine: http://www.mainevolunteerlakemonitors.org/).

Eradication

‘Small, recently detected infestations may be successfully eradicated through careful and thorough hand-pulling or using a tarpaulin.’ However, this can cause M. heterophyllum to fragment and spread further, so care must be taken (EPPO, 2014).

Eradication after establishment is not likely.

Control

Physical/mechanical control

Measures include mechanical harvesting, hand harvesting, suction harvesting, blanketing – a large blanket is placed over the population, limiting light and stressing the plants, ‘drawdown’ – water is drawn down in a reservoir area and milfoil beds are exposed to dry substrate, heat, cold, ice, etc. (Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation http://www.mass.gov/dcr/).

Movement control

Movement control is through inspection of boats and boat trailers on public waterbodies, also signs posted to inform boaters of the risks of transporting milfoil. Wash stations are available at some boat launches to provide a means of ridding milfoil fragments from boats.

Chemical control

2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) – A systemic herbicide that is absorbed by vegetative tissue disrupts cellular growth, ultimately killing the plant.

Fluridone – A systemic herbicide that is absorbed by vegetative tissue, causing bleaching. Fluridone inhibits the synthesis of carotenoid pigments, which play a protective role in the plant. Lack of carotenoid pigments leads to slow death via reduced food production and damage by sunlight.

Triclopyr – A systemic herbicide that is absorbed by vegetative tissue. Triclopyr inhibits the synthesis of important plant enzymes, which causes plant death.

Monitoring and Surveillance

Voluntary lake monitoring programmes have been established in some states to detect invasion by invasive aquatic plants (for example, in Maine: http://www.mainevolunteerlakemonitors.org/)

In general, the taxonomy and geographic distribution of M. heterophyllum is not well understood. In particular, additional taxonomic study is necessary for the development of reliable identification methods, particularly of vegetative forms. This is especially relevant where native, rare and endangered status’s overlap among species that may be confused. For example, M. pinnatum is considered historically native to northeastern USA and may currently be rare. M. heterophyllum in contrast is considered invasive, and misidentification has serious implications for control versus conservation.

In addition, further study of the habitat requirements and development of ecological niche models would be useful for this species. Gerber and Les (1996) found M. heterophyllum to be associated with water bodies that had higher pH and calcium levels relative to other species of milfoils in Michigan and Wisconsin. Thum and Lennon (2010) found M. heterophyllum to be associated with higher order lakes - large, low elevation lakes with relatively high pH, alkalinity and conductivity - in its introduced range in New Hampshire, USA. However, it is not clear whether these relationships hold true across different geographic areas where the species occurs, or among distinct genetic lineages of M. heterophyllum.

Finally, while economic and recreational impacts are clear, scientific studies documenting the impacts on biota and ecosystems are absent.

References

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Aiken SG, 1981. A conspectus of Myriophyllum (Haloragaceae) in North America. Brittonia, 33:57-69.

Cirujano S; Medina L; Stübing G; Peris JB, 1997. Myriophyllum heterophyllum Michx. (Haloragaceae), naturalized in Spain. Anales del Jardín Botánico de Madrid, 55(1):164-165.

DAISIE, 2009. Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe. http://www.europe-aliens.org

EPPO, 2007. EPPO reporting service no. 2007/085. EPPO reporting service no. 2007/085. Paris, France: European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization, unpaginated. http://archives.eppo.org/EPPOReporting/2007/Rse-0704.pdf

EPPO, 2011. EPPO Reporting Service. EPPO Reporting Service. Paris, France: EPPO. http://archives.eppo.org/EPPOReporting/Reporting_Archives.htm

EPPO, 2012. Myriophyllum heterophyllum (Haloragaceae). Invasive Alien Plants. Paris, France: European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. http://www.eppo.int/INVASIVE_PLANTS/iap_list/Myriophyllum_heterophyllum.htm

EPPO, 2014. PQR database. Paris, France: European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. http://www.eppo.int/DATABASES/pqr/pqr.htm

Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2012. Flora of China Web. Cambridge, USA: Harvard University Herbaria. http://flora.huh.harvard.edu/china/

Gerber D; Les D, 1996. Habitat differences among seven species of Myriophyllum (Haloragacea) in Wisconsin and Michigan. Michigan Botanist, 35:75-86.

Halstead JM; Michaud J; Hallas-Burt S; Gibbs JP, 2003. Hedonic analysis of effects of a nonnative invader (Myriophyllum heterophyllum) on New Hampshire (USA) lakefront properties. Environmental Management, 32(3):391-398.

Hussner A, 2005. Distribution of alien aquatic plants in the river Erft (North Rhine-Westphalia). (Zur Verbreitung aquatischer Neophyten in der Erft, Nordrhein-Westfalen.) Frankfurter Geobotanische Kolloquie, 19:55-58.

Kay SH; Hoyle ST, 2001. Mail order, the internet, and invasive aquatic weed. Journal Aquatic Plant Management, 39:88-91.

Lebreton A, 2013. Myriophyllum heterophyllum Michaux [Haloragaceae] in Haute-Vienne (Limousin, France), and the situation of this invasive plant in France and in Europe. (Myriophyllum heterophyllum Michaux [Haloragaceae] en Haute-Vienne (Limousin, France), et situation de cette plante invasive en France et en Europe.) Bulletin OEPP/EPPO Bulletin, 43(1):180-192. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1365-2338

Les DH; Mehrhoff LJ, 1999. Introduction of nonindigenous aquatic vascular plants in Southern New England: a historical perspective. Biological Invasions, 1(2/3):281-300. http://www.springerlink.com/(yqxryu55evlqoi4524ps0d45)/app/home/contribution.asp?referrer=parent&backto=issue,18,19;journal,25,26;linkingpublicationresults,1:103794,1

Moody ML; Les DH, 2002. Evidence of hybridity in invasive watermilfoil (Myriophyllum) populations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 99(23):14867-14871.

Moody ML; Les DH, 2010. Systematics of the aquatic angiosperm genus Myriophyllum (Haloragaceae). Systematic Botany, 35:1-19.

Moody ML; Les DH; Ditomaso JM, 2008. The role of plant systematics in invasive aquatic plant management. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management, 46:7-15.

Pimentel D; Lach L; Zuniga R; Morrison D, 2000. Environmental and economic costs of nonindigenous species in the United States. BioScience, 50(1):53-65.

Q-bank, 2013. Comprehensive databases of quarantine plant pests and diseases. http://www.q-bank.eu/

Stace C, 1991. New Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Thum RA; Lennon JT, 2010. Comparative ecological niche models predict the invasive spread of variable-leaf milfoil (Myriophyllumheterophyllum) and its potential impact on closely related native species. Biological Invasions, 12(1):133-143. http://www.springerlink.com/content/x065475764481jnh/?p=b8eb71c07ab345d1a474d1e523242c58&pi=12

Thum RA; Lennon JT; Connor J; Smagula AP, 2006. A DNA fingerprinting approach for distinguishing native and non-native milfoils. Lake and Reservoir Management, 22:1-6.

USDA-NRCS, 2008. The PLANTS Database. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov/

Washington State Noxious Weed Control Board, 2007. Washington State noxious weed list. Washington State noxious weed list. unpaginated. http://www.nwcb.wa.gov

Yu Dan; Wang Dong; Li ZhenYu; Funston AM; 2002, publ. 2003. Taxonomic revision of the genus Myriophyllum (Haloragaceae) in China. Rhodora, 104(920):396-421.

Distribution References

CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI

Cirujano S, Medina L, Stübing G, Peris J B, 1997. Myriophyllum heterophyllum Michx. (Haloragaceae), naturalized in Spain. Anales del Jardín Botánico de Madrid. 55 (1), 164-165.

DAISIE, 2009. Pinctada radiata. In: Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe (DAISIE), The World Jewellery Confederation, CIBJO/Sector 3/Pearl Commission. 60 pp. http://www.europe-aliens.org/index.jsp

EPPO, 2007. Myriophyllum heterophyllum. In: EPPO reporting service, Paris, France: European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. unpaginated. http://archives.eppo.org/EPPOReporting/2007/Rse-0704.pdf

EPPO, 2020. EPPO Global database. In: EPPO Global database, Paris, France: EPPO.

Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2012. Flora of China Web., Cambridge, USA: Harvard University Herbaria. http://flora.huh.harvard.edu/china/

Hussner A, 2005. Distribution of alien aquatic plants in the river Erft (North Rhine-Westphalia). (Zur Verbreitung aquatischer Neophyten in der Erft, Nordrhein-Westfalen.). Frankfurter Geobotanische Kolloquie. 55-58.

Lebreton A, 2013. Myriophyllum heterophyllum Michaux [Haloragaceae] in Haute-Vienne (Limousin, France), and the situation of this invasive plant in France and in Europe. (Myriophyllum heterophyllum Michaux [Haloragaceae] en Haute-Vienne (Limousin, France), et situation de cette plante invasive en France et en Europe.). Bulletin OEPP/EPPO Bulletin. 43 (1), 180-192. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1365-2338 DOI:10.1111/epp.12017

Les D H, Mehrhoff L J, 1999. Introduction of nonindigenous aquatic vascular plants in Southern New England: a historical perspective. Biological Invasions. 1 (2/3), 281-300. http://www.springerlink.com/(yqxryu55evlqoi4524ps0d45)/app/home/contribution.asp?referrer=parent&backto=issue,18,19;journal,25,26;linkingpublicationresults,1:103794,1 DOI:10.1023/A:1010086232220

Q-bank, 2013. Comprehensive databases of quarantine plant pests and diseases., http://www.q-bank.eu/

Stace C, 1991. New Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Thum R A, Lennon J T, 2010. Comparative ecological niche models predict the invasive spread of variable-leaf milfoil (Myriophyllumheterophyllum) and its potential impact on closely related native species. Biological Invasions. 12 (1), 133-143. http://www.springerlink.com/content/x065475764481jnh/?p=b8eb71c07ab345d1a474d1e523242c58&pi=12 DOI:10.1007/s10530-009-9437-0

USDA-NRCS, 2008. The PLANTS Database. In: The PLANTS Database, Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov/

Links to Websites

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Website	URL	Comment
Connecticut Invasive Plant Council	http://nbii-nin.ciesin.columbia.edu/ipane/ctcouncil/CT_Invasive_Plant_List.htm
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway	https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS)	http://griis.org/	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.
Massachusetts Department of Agricultural Resources	http://www.mass.gov/agr/
Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation	http://www.mass.gov/dcr/
University of Washington Aquatic Plant Monitoring Project	http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/eap/lakes/aquaticplants/
USDA-PLANTS	http://plants.usda.gov
Vermont Department of Agriculture	http://www.vermontagriculture.com/
Washington State Noxious Weed Control Board (NWCB)	http://www.nwcb.wa.gov/

Organizations

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Europe: DAISIE - Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe, Web-based service, http://www.europe-aliens.org

France: European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organisation (EPPO), OEPP/EPPO, 1 rue Le Notre, 75016 Paris, http://www.eppo.org/

USA: MVLMP (Maine Volunteer Lake Monitors), 24 Maple Hill Road, Auburn, ME 04210, http://www.mainevolunteerlakemonitors.org

Contributors

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01/06/09 Original text by:

Ryan Thum, Grand Valley State University Grand Valley State University, Annis Water Resources Institute, 224 Lake Michigan Center, 740 West Shoreline Drive, Muskegon, MI 49441, 616-331-3989, USA

Matthew Zuelig, Grand Valley State University, Annis Water Resources Institute, 224 Lake Michigan Center, 740 West Shoreline Drive, Muskegon, MI 49441, 616-331-3989, USA

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Datasheet

Myriophyllum heterophyllum (broadleaf watermilfoil)

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