Moringa oleifera
(horse radish tree)

Pictures

Picture	Title	Caption	Copyright
Title Habit Caption Moringa oleifera (horse-radish tree); habit of tree in an agroforestry system, Philippines. Copyright ©Rafael T. Cadiz	Habit	Moringa oleifera (horse-radish tree); habit of tree in an agroforestry system, Philippines.	©Rafael T. Cadiz
Title Coppice Caption Moringa oleifera (horse-radish tree); coppice planted in garden. Copyright ©Rafael T. Cadiz	Coppice	Moringa oleifera (horse-radish tree); coppice planted in garden.	©Rafael T. Cadiz
Title Live fence Caption Moringa oleifera (horse-radish tree); live fence. Copyright ©Rafael T. Cadiz	Live fence	Moringa oleifera (horse-radish tree); live fence.	©Rafael T. Cadiz
Title Foliage Caption Moringa oleifera (horse-radish tree); foliage. Copyright ©A.R. Pittaway	Foliage	Moringa oleifera (horse-radish tree); foliage.	©A.R. Pittaway
Title Flowers Caption Moringa oleifera (horse-radish tree); flower colour may vary from white to creamy yellow. Copyright ©A.R. Pittaway	Flowers	Moringa oleifera (horse-radish tree); flower colour may vary from white to creamy yellow.	©A.R. Pittaway
Title Flowers Caption Moringa oleifera (horse-radish tree); flowers Copyright ©A.R. Pittaway	Flowers	Moringa oleifera (horse-radish tree); flowers	©A.R. Pittaway
Title Flowers Caption Moringa oleifera (horse-radish tree); flowers. Copyright ©Rafael T. Cadiz	Flowers	Moringa oleifera (horse-radish tree); flowers.	©Rafael T. Cadiz
Title Fruit Caption Moringa oleifera (horse-radish tree); the mature long, thin, fruits may grow up to 50cm. Copyright ©Rafael T. Cadiz	Fruit	Moringa oleifera (horse-radish tree); the mature long, thin, fruits may grow up to 50cm.	©Rafael T. Cadiz
Title Line artwork Caption 1. leaf 2. inflorescence 3. fruit Copyright PROSEA Foundation	Line artwork	1. leaf 2. inflorescence 3. fruit	PROSEA Foundation

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Moringa oleifera Lam.

Preferred Common Name

• horse radish tree

Other Scientific Names

• Guilandina moringa L.
• Hyperanthera moringa (L.) Vahl
• Moringa zeylanica Burmann

International Common Names

• English: behen tree; behn tree; ben-oil tree; benzolive tree; bridal veil; cabbage tree; clarifier tree; drumstick tree; moringa; mother's best friend; neverdie; radish tree; West Indian ben
• Spanish: moranga; paraíso blanco; paraíso francés; reseda
• French: acacia blanc; ben ailé; ben oléifère; brede morongy; moringa a grains tripteres; moringa ailé; moringa oleifère; mouroungue; pois quénique
• Arabic: rawag; ruwag
• Chinese: nugge
• Portuguese: acacia branca; moringuero; muringueiro
• German: behenbaum; behennussbaum; meerrettichbaum
• Thai: marum

Local Common Names

• Brazil: quiabo-da-quina
• Cambodia: mrum'
• China: la mu
• Comoros: mondjé
• Costa Rica: marango
• Cuba: acacia; ben; flor de los masones; jazmín de España; moringa; palo blanco; palo jeringa; palo nefrítico; tilo francés
• Dominican Republic: libertad; olive; palo de abeja; palo de aceite
• Egypt: shagara al rauwaq
• Germany: pferderettichbaum
• Ghana: bagaruwar masar; barambo; bararuwar maka; gawara; gigandjah; habiwal hausa; konamarade; okwe; ovivo; rini maka; shipka hali; shuka halinka; vevu-ti; zogall-gandi
• Guatemala: perlas
• Honduras: maranga calalu
• India: achajadha; midhosaragavo; mulaga; munaga; munga ara; munga-arak; mungna; murinna; murungai; sahijan; saijan; saijna; sainjina; sajina; sanjina; segra; sekta ni sing; shajmah; shajna; shajua; shekta; shevgi; shobhanjana; sigru; soanjina; sobhanjana; sohnja; sondha; suhujna; tellamunaga
• Indonesia: daem mrom; kalor; kelor; marunga
• Jamaica: ben nut tree
• Kenya: mlonge; mlongo; mronge; mzunze
• Laos: 'ii h'um
• Malawi: chamwamba; kangaluni; sangoa
• Malaysia: gemunggai; meringgai; muringa
• Myanmar: dandalonbin; dan-da-lun
• Niger: zôgala gandi
• Nigeria: alim; bagaruwar maka; chigban wawa; danga; halim; idagbo monoye; koraukin zaila; okwe oyibo; rimin nacara; rimin turawa; samarin; zogale; zogalla-gandi
• Palau: malungkai
• Panama: árbol de las perlas; árbol do los aspáragos; jacinto
• Philippines: malungai; malungay; malunggai; malunggay; marunggai; murunga kai
• Puerto Rico: angela; jazmín francés; sen
• Senegal: ben alle; neverdaya
• Somalia: agomago; ewe igbale; ewe ile; idaga manoye; mirongo; mrongo
• Sudan: ghaliah; habbah halim; shagara al ruway
• Tanzania: mlonje
• Thailand: ma rum; makhonkom; phak nuea kai; phakihum; se cho ya
• Togo: bagaelan; baganlua
• Vietnam: chum ngây
• Zimbabwe: zakalanda

EPPO code

• MOHOL (Moringa oleifera)

Summary of Invasiveness

M. oleifera is a perennial tree thought to be native to India but now widely introduced and naturalized across the tropics and subtropics. It is also widely cultivated for a range of purposes including for human consumption, as livestock feed and for use in cosmetics. Its increasing commercialisation and international trade are likely to result in further spread of this species, though its sensitivity to low temperatures may restrict its distribution to tropical and subtropical regions. 

There is conflicting information about the invasive nature and potential spread of this species. It is listed as invasive in the British Indian Ocean Territory, China, Philippines, Palau, the Solomon Islands and Cuba; though there is a lack of information about its invasive nature or its effect on native flora and natural habitats in these countries. Furthermore, despite being listed as a weed in many countries, it has not been observed invading intact habitats or displacing native flora. As a result, M. oleifera should be regarded at present as a widely cultivated species with low invasive potential.

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Dicotyledonae
•                     Order: Capparidales
•                         Family: Moringaceae
•                             Genus: Moringa
•                                 Species: Moringa oleifera

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Moringa oleifera is one of 13 species in the genus Moringa, which is the only genus in the family Moringaceae (PROTA, 2017). According to Olson (2017) there are likely to be more species that have not yet been described, particularly in Africa. M. pterygosperma is an illegitimate name that has been wrongly attributed as a synonym of M. oleifera (Olson, 2017). The genus Moringa is derived from the Malayalam word 'muringo' from southern India (ICFRE, 1995). Olson (2002) suggested the use of informal terms to describe three sections within the genus: the 'bottle tree clade' with four species, the 'slender tree clade' with three, including M. oleifera, and the 'tuberous clade' with six species native to northeast Africa. This grouping was based on the use of DNA sequences, but was largely congruent with a previous study of wood anatomy (Olen and Carlquist, 2002). There are numerous common names for M. oleifera in its native India and in all countries where it has been introduced. In English, the names 'drumstick tree', 'horse radish tree' and the simple 'moringa' are all widely used.

Description

M. oleifera is a small, fast-growing, drought-deciduous tree or shrub, often 8-10 m tall, sometimes to 12-18 m. It has a wide-open, typically umbrella-shaped crown, usually with a single clear bole, with smooth, light coloured or greyish-green bark. It tends to be deep-rooted (Dalla Rosa, 1993). Leaves imparipinnate, rachis 12-25 cm long, pubescent, 2-6 pairs of pinna 3-6 mm long, each with 3-5 pairs of pale green, obovate leaflets 1-2 cm long, terminal leaflets slightly larger, basal leaflet pairs sometime tripinnate (von Maydell, 1986). The foliage is light and moves in the slightest breeze giving light shade. The description by ICFRE (1995) of M. oleifera from India differs in part from that of African M. oleifera by von Maydell (1986), with more pairs of pinna (5-10 pairs) and leaflets (6-9 pairs). Sweet-scented flowers, cream white, arranged in panicles, with 5 unequal petals slightly larger than the sepals (von Maydell, 1986), yellow dots at the base (Vogt, 1996), petals narrowly spathulate, veined, white, bracts linear, calyx 5-lobed, linear-lanceolate, reflexed, puberulous outside, 5 stamens, fertile alternating with 5-7 staminodes, filaments villous at the base, ovary 1-celled, oblong, villous, ovules many, style slender (ICFRE, 1995). The long, pointed and triangular cross-section fruits are very distinctive, up to 1-2 cm broad, often 30-50 cm long, up to 120 cm long in some cultivated varieties, containing oily black seeds up to 1 cm in diameter in a typical 3-winged seed coat. Unripe green pods are somewhat fleshy, becoming fibrous and greyish when mature, persistent on the tree. In India, trees shed leaves in December-January followed by regrowth in February-March; flowering is in January-March with ripe fruits in April-June, but all year round in irrigated conditions (ICFRE, 1995).

Plant Type

Distribution

M. olerifera is found worldwide in the tropics and subtropics. The species is present in Asia, Africa, North America, Central America, the Caribbean, South America and Oceania (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012; Godino et al., 2017; Missouri Botanical Garden, 2017; PIER, 2017; PROTA, 2017). There is some dispute between authors on the extent of the native distribution of M. oleifera; India is the only country common to all proposed distributions. Vogt (1996) noted that the tree is thought to originate from northern India, and this restricted native range is followed in the distribution list. Von Maydell (1986) and Dalla Rosa (1993) suggest the origin as India and Arabia, whereas others consider East African and/or South East Asian populations as native. According to studies by Olson (2017), M. oleifera is only found in the wild in the hilly lowlands of northwestern India and elsewhere where it is listed as growing in the wild, the species is either found as a cultivated plant or as a remnant of old cultivation. It is possible that there could be wild populations in eastern Pakistan but there is no conclusive evidence to support this.

It is reported to be invasive in British Indian Ocean Territory, China, the Philippines, Cuba, Palau and the Solomon Islands (Oviedo Prieto et al., 2012; PIER, 2017).

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

Godino et al. (2017) report that M. oleifera was introduced from India to Africa, the southeast of Asia and the Philippines in ancient times. They also report that it was introduced into the Americas and Europe with the arrival of the Spanish to the Philippines. However, current records suggest that this species does not occur in Europe. It has since been widely introduced and is probably present in most countries with a tropical climate (Csurhes and Navie, 2016; PROTA, 2017). M. oleifera was introduced as an ornamental plant from India to some African countries by the British (Adu-Dapaah et al., 2017). It had been introduced to Niger by the beginning of the 20th Century (Pasternak et al., 2017). There are records of the species from the late 1800s to early 1900s in the Caribbean, Mexico and Central America (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2017; NMNH, 2017). In Australia, it is reported as spreading slowly, forming dense thickets around parent plants (Csurhes and Navie, 2016).

Introductions

Risk of Introduction

Conflicting information about where M. oleifera is invasive and where it is naturalized complicates the assessment of its risk of introduction. It is reported as invasive by some authors (Oviedo-Prieto et al., 2012; PIER, 2017), but elsewhere it is reported as having a low risk of spread, being cultivated rather than naturalized or as having no effect on natural vegetation (Csurhes and Navie, 2016; Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2017; Olson, 2017). Nevertheless, its importance as a multi-use tree and its commercialisation could promote its introduction and use (Csurhes and Navie, 2016). Some organisations are actively promoting its use, for example, in home gardens as a source of nutrition (Biodiversity for Food and Nutrition, 2017). Godino et al. (2017) list its sensitivity to low temperatures as the most important limiting factor for its distribution, limiting its occurrence to tropical and subtropical areas. However, its distribution range could expand as active research is being carried out to create cultivars for different purposes (Godino et al., 2017; Palada et al., 2017). Its popularity makes the species a medium to high introduction risk.

Habitat

In its native range, M. oleifera is found in the tropical moist deciduous forests, southern tropical dry deciduous forests and primary seral type forests in northern India (ICFRE, 1995). Where introduced in Africa, it is often found growing along stream banks or in savannas (von Maydell, 1986). It also occurs along roadsides, in urban areas, wastelands and coastal areas (Csurhes and Navie, 2016).

Habitat List

Biology and Ecology

Genetics

Most of the genetic variation of M. oleifera is reported in India (Ganesan et al., 2014; PROTA, 2017). The species has various cultivars, including some allowing its cultivation as an annual in temperate climates (Godino et al., 2017). The chromosome numbers reported for the species are n=11 and 2n=28 (PROTA, 2017). DNA barcode information for the species is available at the Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLD, 2017).

Germplasm collections are stored at various facilities worldwide (Patricio and Palada, 2017; USDA-ARS, 2017). The World Vegetable Center at Taiwan maintains collections of four Moringa species, the majority of which are M. oleifera and are used for research and to supply germplasm material to universities, governmental and non-governmental organisations and private companies in 15 countries (Palada et al., 2017). Collections are also maintained at the International Moringa Germplasm Collection in Mexico as well as in Burkina Faso and the Philippines (IMGC, 2017; PROTA, 2017).  

Reproductive Biology

M. oleifera reproduces by seed and vegetatively by cuttings (PROTA, 2017). Discarded branches can remain viable for long periods (Csurhes and Navie, 2016). In vitro propagation procedures for the species have been developed and are discussed by Al-Khalifah and Shanavaskhan (2017). Both geitonogamy and xenogamy are reported for M. oleifera (Jyothi et al., 1990). Sunbirds have been reported as pollinators for this species (PROTA, 2017), however further information about the pollinators of M. oleifera is unclear. Bhattacharya and Mandal (2017) argue that a large number of insects from the orders Thysanoptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera and Coleoptera are needed for successful pollination. Jyothi et al. (1990) list Xylocopa and Amegilla bees as the major pollinators. Krieg et al. (2017) list bees as possible pollinators.

Physiology and Phenology

M. oleifera lives up to 20 years from seed and about 10-15 years from cuttings (Godino et al., 2017). Since it is a fast-growing plant, some cultivars are grown as annuals in temperate regions (Olson, 2017).

In India, trees shed leaves in December-January followed by regrowth in February-March; flowering is in January-March with ripe fruits in April-June, but all year round in irrigated conditions (ICFRE, 1995). Pollen viability is over 88% (Silva et al., 2011). The seeds of M. oleifera do not have a significant dormancy, they lose viability relatively fast and are are usually not viable after two years (Csurhes and Navie, 2016).

Associations

M. oleifera forms endophytic associations with species of Fusarium, Xylaria, Pestalotiopsis, Aspergillus, Nigrospora, Stachybotrys, Rhizoctonia and Macrophomina (Carbungco et al., 2017).

Climate

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

Air Temperature

Rainfall

Rainfall Regime

Soil Tolerances

Soil drainage

• free

Soil reaction

• acid
• alkaline
• neutral

Soil texture

• heavy
• light
• medium

Special soil tolerances

• saline

Natural enemies

Notes on Natural Enemies

A range of natural enemies of M. oleifera are reported by Mridha and Barakan (2017) including the pathogens Fusarium pallidoroseum, Cochliobolus hawaiiensis, Leveillula taurica and species in the genus Diplodia as well as a range of pests including Gitona distigma, Noorda blitealis, Eupterote mollifera, Aphis gossypii, Ceroplastodes cajani, Myllocerus spp., Tetranychus urticae, Leptoglossus phyllopus, Bemisia spp., Ulopeza phaeothoracica, Zonocerus variegatus and Formica rufa.

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Natural Dispersal

M. oleifera seeds are winged and can be dispersed over short distances by wind. The wings also aid seed dispersal in streams. The pods float on water helping the dispersal of the species (Csurhes and Navie, 2016).

Accidental Introduction

Populations of M. oleifera have been observed near dumpsites, which suggests the species is establishing from seeds or cuttings from garden waste (Csurhes and Navie, 2016).

Intentional Introduction

Most of the current distribution of M. oleifera is as a result of its deliberate introduction for cultivation (Csurhes and Navie, 2016).

Pathway Causes

Pathway Vectors

Economic Impact

M. oleifera is one of the host plants of Leveillula taurica, which causes major damage to papaya (Carica papaya). Caution is needed when the species occurs near papaya plantations (Mridha and Barakan, 2017).

Environmental Impact

Impact on Habitats

The species is considered by Csurhes and Navie (2016) as a potentially invasive or moderately invasive plant in tropical regions, and a species that is spreading but still occurs in low densities and is not considered an immediate problem. According to the Flora of North America (Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2017), the species is occasionally reported to be established along roadways and disturbed areas, but without reports of it invading intact habitats. Olson (2017) reports that the species only reproduces around houses, vacant lots, roads and margins of agricultural fields close to sites where it is cultivated; it has never been observed invading intact primary habitats or displacing native flora.

Although M. oleifera is not considered an invasive species in Australia, Csurhes and Navie (2016) report that M. oleifera might pose a threat to the natural systems of the country. Heuzé et al. (2017) report that more research is needed when used for water purification in fish ponds as it was found that regrowth of bacteria is promoted when its use is combined with chlorine treatments.

Impact on Biodiversity

M. oleifera seed powder can be toxic to animals, especially to fish (Heuzé et al., 2017). Because of this, its use has been recommended for the control of predators in fish ponds.

The possibility of the clearing of areas for the cultivation of M. oleifera could impact native vegetation.

Social Impact

According to Olson (2017) although there are few side effects from the consumption of M. oleifera it has shown an abortifacient potential at high doses.

Risk and Impact Factors

• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Highly adaptable to different environments
• Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
• Pioneering in disturbed areas
• Long lived
• Fast growing
• Has high reproductive potential
• Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
• Reproduces asexually
• Has high genetic variability

• Pollen swamping
• Rapid growth

• Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Uses

Economic Value

Most of the production and international trade of M. oleifera comes from India, in canned produce, fresh fruits, oil, seeds and leaf powder (PROTA, 2017). India has an annual production of 1.1-1.3 million tons of tender pods (Tak and Maurya, 2017). In Africa, the species is produced for both local and international trade, mainly for the leaves and fruits (PROTA, 2017). Ghana is one of the African countries where the species is commercialized for the local and international markets, including the USA (Adu-Dapaah et al., 2017). In Niger the demand is higher than the current level of production and efforts are being made to increase its cultivation, as about half of the moringa consumed is imported from Nigeria (Pasternak et al., 2017). Moringa oleifera leaf powder (MLP) is the most common food additive product in Europe. As a result, Moritz (2017) outlines the need for quality control measurements to comply with the laws and regulations of Europe. The leaf powder is also increasing in popularity in other countries. For example, it is becoming more frequently available in stores in the USA.

Its commercialisation is under evaluation in other countries including the Philippines and Israel (Dar, 2017; Makin and Solowey, 2017; Patricio et al., 2017). It has a growing use as a cosmetic (Amaglo et al., 2017). The commercialisation of M. oleifera has also been proposed on a large scale for biofuel production and as a flocculant (Csurhes and Navie, 2016; Heuzé et al., 2017; PROTA, 2017).

Social Benefit

M. oleifera is a small, fast-growing tropical tree, well-known for its multi-purpose attributes, wide site adaptability and ease of establishment (PROTA, 2017). Amaglo et al. (2017) report over 140 organisations worldwide that have initiatives to introduce Moringa species to communities to lessen malnutrition, to purify water and to produce oils for cooking and as a biodiesel. 

The principal value of M. oleifera lies in the multitude of non-wood products that can be made from every part of the tree (Heuzé et al., 2017; PROTA, 2017). Its high nutritional value and the use of the leaves, pods and flowers for human consumption as well as for livestock feed all add to its value (EOL, 2017; PROTA, 2017). The leaves of M. oleifera are very nutritious, with a taste resembling watercress, and are sometimes eaten as a salad or in soups. They contain 15-20% protein and 50% nitrogen-free extract (dry weight) and are rich in micronutrients and vitamins (Barminas et al., 1999; Tarwadi and Agte, 2003) including carotene and ascorbic acid (ICFRE, 1995). In African countries, moringa leaves are used as a flavouring, and can be added to meat preparations. The dried leaves can be used as tea and also as a pot herb in the preparation of soup and porridge. After grinding, dried leaves store well for a long time and can be used as a flavouring or as a health supplement, for which use there are also capsule and tablet preparations (Ambrose et al., 2016). The green pods can be picked and eaten when they first appear to when they become too woody to snap easily (HDRA, 2002). They can be boiled as green beans, an essential ingredient in the making of 'sambhar', a south Indian curry, and are a valuable addition to the diet especially during the dry season when the pods are available. However, the pods of some varieties are bitter and may be harmful if eaten in large quantities (Dalla Rosa, 1993). The green seeds are also shelled and eaten as peas. The flowers can be made into a drink. The roots are also edible, with the mashed, peeled root producing a seasoning similar to horseradish sauce (Armoracia rusticana).

Apart from being used as a food, the leaves are also fed as mulch to animals to increase their milk yield. They also assist nitrogen fixation in the soil when used as manure. The wood is of limited use. M. oleifera is grown in home gardens, as a hedging plant in and around fields and as a shade tree. It is also used for supports for vine crops such as pepper (Piper spp.) (Mathew et al., 1996).

The seed powder is a coagulant, well known for its ability to purify water and so has great potential for improving livelihoods in countries where it is present (Folkard and Sutherland, 1996). In the Nile Valley, the common name for M. oleifera is 'shagara al rauwaq', meaning 'tree for purifying' (von Maydell, 1986). Powder from dehusked seeds is stirred in a little water for half an hour, and the resulting solution is added to a large vessel of water to be cleaned, where it is left for 24 hours. The solution clarifies high and medium turbid water and reduces acidity (Oluwalana et al., 1999). M. oleifera also inhibits bacterial populations in dirty water (Kumar and Gopal, 1999).

The seed contains approximately 40% oil, the 'ben-oil' or 'behen oil' that is highly valued in India for a variety of uses. It is used by perfume makers for its ability to absorb and retain fragrance and for making cosmetics and soaps (Dastur, 1951). It is also used by watchmakers as a very fine lubricant (Ramachandran et al., 1980) and in oil lamps where it burns without smoking. It is also a cooking oil, with an oleic acid content similar to olive and avocado oil (Banerji et al., 2003). The resulting oil press-cake is not suitable as a feed due to high levels of saponin and alkaloids, but can be used as a mineral-rich fertilizer.

M. oleifera produces a mucilaginous exudate gum ('ben gum'), which is white, changing to reddish-brown or brownish-black on exposure to air. This gum is used for a large variety of uses, such as seasoning, medicine for stomach ailments (Dalla Rosa, 1993), tanning leather and in calico printing (Nautiyal and Venhataraman, 1987) where it replaces 'tragacanth' gum, which it resembles (ICFRE, 1995).

The bark is used for preparing fibres for rope making and as a source of tannin (Heuzé et al., 2017). Seed husks, a by-product of seed production, are a source of high quality activated carbon produced by steam pyrolysis (Warhurst et al., 1997). Crushed leaves have even been reported as a cleaning agent for cooking pans and walls. After leaf fall, the leaves act as a mulch and improve soil nutrition, and studies have shown some biopesticidal effects of M. oleifera plant extracts on crop pests including Alternaria alternata (Ranjan et al., 1999) and Heterodera cajani (Singh and Singh, 2001). Extracts from the leaves have been shown to enhance the growth of various species of agricultural importance, including peanut, soybean, sugarcane and coffee (Heuzé et al., 2017).

Most parts of the tree can be used in a variety of medicinal preparations (Chopra et al., 1956; Lizzy et al., 1968; Perry, 1980; Singh et al., 1983; PROTA, 2017), and are known to have antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, analgesic and anti-tumour effects. M. oleifera extracts have been recorded as a treatment for a range of ailments including anaemia, mouth sores, rheumatism, diabetes, venomous bites, scurvy, heart problems and skin disorders.

The leaves, pods, flowers and small twigs are a useful fodder for cattle, sheep, goats, camels (Negi, 1977), poultry and even fish (Richter et al., 2003). It is a good feed supplement for livestock and poultry species, providing proteins, vitamins and minerals (Briones et al., 2017). However, priority use of the leaves and pods as a human food means that only excess production will be used as fodder.

The species has also been used as a model plant for undergraduate student’s classes at Penn State University, USA (Bates and Bicksler, 2017).

Environmental Services

The flowers are a valuable bee forage (Little and Wadsworth, 1964; PROTA, 2017).

M. oleifera has a high rate of carbon dioxide absorption, which makes the species an important resource for the mitigation of climate change (Amaglo et al., 2017). Caceres et al. (1991) suggest that the species could be used in reforestation programs.

Uses List

Animal feed, fodder, forage

• Fishmeal
• Fodder/animal feed
• Invertebrate food

Environmental

• Agroforestry
• Amenity
• Boundary, barrier or support
• Erosion control or dune stabilization
• Revegetation
• Shade and shelter
• Soil improvement
• Wildlife habitat
• Windbreak

Fuels

• Biofuels
• Fuelwood

General

• Botanical garden/zoo
• Research model
• Ritual uses
• Sociocultural value

Human food and beverage

• Beverage base
• Emergency (famine) food
• Food additive
• Fruits
• Gum/mucilage
• Honey/honey flora
• Leaves (for beverage)
• Oil/fat
• Root crop
• Seeds
• Vegetable

Materials

• Bark products
• Cosmetics
• Dyestuffs
• Fertilizer
• Fibre
• Green manure
• Gums
• Lipids
• Miscellaneous materials
• Mulches
• Oils
• Resins
• Wood/timber

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

• Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
• Traditional/folklore

Ornamental

• Seed trade

Wood Products

Pulp

• Long-fibre pulp
• Short-fibre pulp

Sawn or hewn building timbers

• Fences
• For light construction

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

M. oleifera is sometimes misidentified as a member of either the Fabaceae or Bignoniaceae families due to similarities in fruit morphology. M. oleifera can be distinguished from these families by the stalked glands at the leaf base and rachis articulations; the three-valved fruits; the three-winged seeds and by a pungent horseradish odour from the leaves (Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2017).

Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs

There is some contradictory information about the invasive nature of M. oleifera.

References

Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. In: Smithsonian Contributions to Botany , 98. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution.1192 pp. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm

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03/12/17 Updated by:

Jeanine Vélez-Gavilán, University of Puerto Rico - Recinto Universitario de Mayagüez, Puerto Rico

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