Mikania scandens

Pictures

Picture	Title	Caption	Copyright
Title Flowers Caption Mikania scandens (climbing hempvine); flowers. Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge, Florida, USA. September, 2009. Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Flowers	Mikania scandens (climbing hempvine); flowers. Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge, Florida, USA. September, 2009.	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Habit Caption Mikania scandens (climbing hempvine); habit, showing flowers and foliage. Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge, Florida, USA. September, 2009. Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Habit	Mikania scandens (climbing hempvine); habit, showing flowers and foliage. Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge, Florida, USA. September, 2009.	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Leaf Caption Mikania scandens (climbing hempvine); leaf. John Prince Park, Lake Worth, Florida, USA. September, 2009. Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Leaf	Mikania scandens (climbing hempvine); leaf. John Prince Park, Lake Worth, Florida, USA. September, 2009.	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Flowers and seeds Caption Mikania scandens (climbing hempvine); flowers and seeds. John Prince Park, Lake Worth, Florida, USA. September, 2009. Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Flowers and seeds	Mikania scandens (climbing hempvine); flowers and seeds. John Prince Park, Lake Worth, Florida, USA. September, 2009.	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Seeds Caption Mikania scandens (climbing hempvine); seeds. John Prince Park, Lake Worth, Florida, USA. September, 2009. Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Seeds	Mikania scandens (climbing hempvine); seeds. John Prince Park, Lake Worth, Florida, USA. September, 2009.	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Sprawling habit Caption Mikania scandens (climbing hempvine); sprawling habit. Alligator Alley, Florida, USA. November, 2003. Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Sprawling habit	Mikania scandens (climbing hempvine); sprawling habit. Alligator Alley, Florida, USA. November, 2003.	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Mikania scandens (L.) Willd.

International Common Names

• English: climbing hemp weed (USA); louse-plaster
• French: liane margoze
• Portuguese: guaco-do-jardim; guaco-do-quintal

EPPO code

• MIKSC (Mikania scandens)

Summary of Invasiveness

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Dicotyledonae
•                     Order: Asterales
•                         Family: Asteraceae
•                             Genus: Mikania
•                                 Species: Mikania scandens

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Description

Herbaceous, perennial vine; branching stem obscurely 6-angled to terate, ranging from glabrous to densely pilose; 8-15 cm internodes. Petioles glabrous or puberulent, 20-50 mm. Triangular to triangular-ovate leaf blades, 3-15 x 2-11 cm with cordate to hastate bases; margins subentire to undulate, crenate, or dentate, apices acuminate (tips often caudate), faces puberulent. Produces dense corymbiform flowers, with small heads 5-7 mm long. Corollas generally pinkish to purplish, occasionally white, 3-5.4 mm, dotted sparsely with glands, lobes triangular to deltate. Cypselae dark brown to blackish, 1.8-2.2 mm, also dotted with glands; pappi of 30-37 white or pinkish to purplish bristles 4-4.5 mm. Fruits are oblong 1-.5-2.5 mm long, brownish black, five angled resinous achenes; Chromosome number 2n=38 (Holm et al., 1991; Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2013).

Plant Type

Distribution

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

Risk of Introduction

If the records attributed to M. scandens are actually M. micrantha and/or other Mikania species (see Identity section), the risk of introduction of M. scandens is low in the near future since it has no horticultural use at present and does not appear to exhibit extensive long-distance dispersal. M. scandens does thrive in wetlands and can be weedy in areas subject to flooding (Moon et al., 1993), and thus transport of seeds or vegetative plant sections between wetland environments should be avoided.

Habitat

Habitat List

Biology and Ecology

Genetics

Chromosome number 2n=38 (Holm et al., 1991; Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2013). Tzeng (2003) compared the nrDNA ITS region of M. micrantha, M. cordata and M. scandens, and found a 97% phylogenetic similarity between M. micrantha, while M. scandens was considerably more divergent. Tzeng (2003) utilized plant material of M. micrantha and M. cordata from Taiwan, and used PCR, comparing the ITS sequence of these plants with that available for M. scandens on GeneBank. Few other studies are available on the genetics of M. scandens or other Mikania species. Further research would be useful in resolving the ongoing identity issues (see Identity section).

In a study of the pollen of 10 species of Asteraceae, Mondal et al. (1998) identified the following free amino acids; amino-n-butyric acid, aspartic acid, ornithine, and prolilne in a specimen reputed to be M. scandens.

Reproductive Biology

Borthwick et al. (1950) described M. scandens as an intermediate day plant in terms of flowering response to day-length. There are indications that M. scandens is autogamous (Nauman, 1981).

Seed dispersed may be facilitated by wind or in clothing or hair of animals (PIER, 2013). Seeds are retained in the soil as soil seed banks, although sometimes only a minor constituent of wetland seed bank communities, depending on the environment (Peterson and Baldwin, 2004; Neff et al., 2009). Vegetative reproduction may occur from broken stem fragments. Each node of the stem can produce new roots (PIER, 2013).

Physiology and Phenology

M. scandens exhibited a Type 2 germination response, similar to other related Asteraceae, meaning that the minimum temperature for germination decreases after ripening (Baskin et al., 1993). Neff et al. (2009) observed greater germination of M. scandens under non-flooded versus flooded conditions.

Moon et al. (1993) recorded increased growth rates of M. scandens under flooded conditions when grown in soil collected from the lakeside where it occurred in Florida. Flooded plants increased their aerenchyma tissue, indicating its ability to acclimatize to flooded conditions anatomically to facilitate increased oxygen diffusion to its tissues. The plant appears to utilize stomata located above the waterline to enable submerged parts of the plants to gain a sufficient supply of oxygen.

Longevity

M. scandens is a perennial vine that grows for approximately 20 years (USDA-NRCS, 2013) under favourable conditions.

Activity Patterns

In its native range in eastern North America, M. scandens primarily grows in the summer (USDA-NRCS, 2013).

Population Size and Density 

As a vine, M. scandens tends to appear in communities in later successional stages following the initial disturbance, once a substrate is available for its climbing habit. For example, Huffman and Lonard (1983) observed it colonizing swamps in Arkansas in the second stage of succession – the “water-willow herbaceous stage” as the water-willow mat grew in size allowing a variety of marsh plants to invade. As plant communities in the Atchafalaya Delta in Louisiana changed over time with the formation of islands, M. scandens was among species which declined over time, due to changes in water level and loss of vegetation to act as scaffolding for the vines (Shaffer et al., 1992), In a successional sequence involving increasing eutrophication, M. scandens populations is likely to increase over time (Vaithiyanathan and Richardson, 1999).

M. scandens is not an overly strong competitor. It is not generally found in disturbed environments (Weaver, 2009; Anderson et al., 2012) and exhibited higher populations where forests were thinned in Louisiana and Mississippi (McComb and Nobel, 1982).

M. scandens may form substantial seed banks in some areas; e.g., Peterson and Baldwin (2004) found that M. scandens dominated swamp hollows in Maryland and van der Valk and Rosburg (1997) recorded large seed banks (greater than 5000 per square metre) in the cattail zone of the Florida Everglades.

Nutrition

Eutrophic wetlands tend to support more vigorous growth of M. scandens, via higher levels of phosphorus and other nutrients (Vaithiyanathan and Richardson, 1999; King and Richardson, 2007). M. scandens is said to have a medium fertility requirement (USDA-NRCS, 2013).

Associations

M. scandens is colonized by arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, as observed in the Florida Everglades (Aziz et al., 1995).

Environmental Requirements

M. scandens prefers fine-medium textured wet soils pH (5.7-8.7) and can withstand some water-logging but has low salinity tolerance (USDA-NRCS, 2013). It requires a minimum frost-free period of 110 days, 75-150 cm of rain; and cannot withstand temperatures below -39ºC (USDA-NRCS, 2013).

Climate

Air Temperature

Rainfall

Soil Tolerances

Soil drainage

• free
• impeded
• seasonally waterlogged

Soil reaction

• alkaline
• neutral

Soil texture

• light
• medium

Water Tolerances

Natural enemies

Notes on Natural Enemies

Dow et al. (1990) found that M. scandens was a host to the nematode Tylenchulus palustris but not T. semipenetrans; both Tylenchulus species are pests of citrus in Florida.

The arctiid moth Cosmosoma myrodora feeds on M. scandens (Hristov and Conner, 2005), as does the soldier beetle, Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus (McLain, 1982).

The powdery mildew, Erysiphe cichoracearum [Golovinomyces cichoracearum] is known to infect M. scandens in the USA (Schmitt, 1955). Evans and Ellison (2005) described a rust species, Puccinia spegazzinii, on M. micrantha and plants identified as M. scandens in the neotropics. However, the voucher specimen identified as M. scandens was M. micrantha as confirmed by molecular analysis of the plant material (Ellison et al., 2004).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Pathway Causes

Pathway Vectors

Impact Summary

Economic Impact

Within its native range in eastern North America, M. scandens is rarely seen to have a negative impact, growing primarily in natural areas (Anderson et al., 2012). It is quite common in some areas, particularly in riparian zones and drainage ditches. M. scandens is capable of forming a fairly dense cover, outcompeting other plants through overtopping them and showing a “propensity to become a problematic weed in some areas” (Moon et al., 2003).

Environmental Impact

Impact on Habitats

Although M. scandens is fairly common in the southern part of its native range in North America, its weediness is only mentioned with respect to wetlands in Florida, such as the banks of the Oklawaha River (Moon et al., 1993).

Impact on Biodiversity

On Mariana Island, M. scandens is said to be one of the non-native species threatening the endangered plant species, Osmoxylon mariannense (US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2007). With only 10 known individuals of O. mariannense remaining in the wild, “a single adverse environmental events or a decline of successful reproduction in O. mariannense” (US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2007) could have serious consequences, and thus the threat of invasive competitors should be taken seriously. The report does refer to identification of M. scandens by Fosberg (1979), which is prior to when taxonomists began recognizing the confusion between M. scandens and M. micrantha (Parker, 1972), and thus it would be essential to verify the identity of the Mikania species on the island.

Although not noted as of concern, M. scandens has been listed as present in the Pabitora Wildlife Sanctuary, an Indian wildlife tropical grassland reserve where the one-horned rhinoceros occurs (Bairagee and Kalita, 2004). However, due to the location of this record being outside of Northern America, this record must therefore be refering to M. micrantha.

Threatened Species

Social Impact

The numerous flowers produced by Mikania species are reported as having potential allergenic effects, and produce amino acids that are precursors to allergenic pollen (Mondal et al., 1998).

Risk and Impact Factors

• Has a broad native range
• Tolerant of shade
• Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
• Reproduces asexually

• Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
• Host damage
• Modification of successional patterns

• Allelopathic
• Causes allergic responses
• Competition - monopolizing resources
• Competition - smothering
• Pest and disease transmission
• Rapid growth
• Produces spines, thorns or burrs

• Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant

Uses

Economic and Social Benefits

There are many published reports of medicinal uses of M. scandens around the world, but most of these are from outside North America, and thus the plants in question represent M. micrantha (see Identity section).

The plant identified as M. scandens in India and Bangladesh is utilized in that region for a variety of medical purposes, including use in folk medicine for the treatment of stomach ulcers (Herz et al., 1970; Hasan et al., 2009; Chandra et al., 2012). In a survey of villagers in the Eastern Himalayan zone of Arunachal Pradesh, India, M. scandens was cited as the most popular treatment for diarrhoea; villagers also used it as a blood coagulant (Tangjang et al., 2011). In Madagascar a cold tea from M. scandens has been used as a wash to treat scabies (Novy, 1997).

In vitro experiments showed that the flowers displayed marked anti-inflammatory properties (Chandra et al., 2012). Rural dwellers in India also utilize young Mikania leaves for management of insect bites and stings, and research has confirmed analgesic and in vitro antioxidant and antidiabetic activities of leaf material (Hasan et al., 2009; Pal, 2013). The antioxidants exhibit potential to treat diseases involving oxidants or free radicals. Dey et al. (2011b) reported that root extracts had more potent anti-inflammatory potential than aerial parts of the plant. Plant extracts were also shown to have locomotor depressant, muscle relaxant and sedative neuropharmacological properties (Dey et al., 2011a; 2012c). Another study found that an extract from M. scandens collected in India had potent liver protective activity (Maity and Ahmad, 2012).

Compounds from Mikania species are also used as antimicrobial folk medicines in the new world; the compound deoxymikanolide was identified as the principle active ingredient from M. micrantha (Lentz et al., 1998) and Radtke and König (2008) demonstrated antimicrobial activity from foliage. Deoxymikanolide was originally described from M. scandens (Herz et al., 1970), but this was clearly a misidentification (Lentz et al., 1998).

Baidya et al. (1995) found that in India, the Mikania they tested provided quality forage for goats or cattle. It was relatively rich in crude protein (17%), provided a reasonable source of other nutrients and produced soft, fairly palatable leaves. Baidya et al. (1995) described M. scandens as a common plant in marshy areas or road-sides, and distributed throughout Eastern Assam and South India (according to Singh et al., 1990); this is therefore referring to M. micrantha and not M. scandens (see Identity section).

Dey et al. (2012a; 2012b) showed that phytochemicals from both aerial parts and roots of the plant identified in India as M. scandens had considerable allelopathic potential, inhibiting both seed germination and radicle growth of Cicer arietinum and Triticum aestivum. Likewise, Piyasena and Dharmatne (2013), utilizing material referred to as M. scandens from Sri Lanka, found that aerial parts of the plant strongly inhibited seed germination via the compound mikanolide.

Environmental Services

M. scandens was listed as one of the plants involved in the recovery of a marsh community in Connecticut, USA after removal of invasive Phragmites australis (Farnsworth and Meyerson, 1999). In a habitat in Florida, host to the extinct dusky seaside sparrow (Ammodramus maritimus nigrescens), M. scandens is one of the constituents of the plant community (Holder et al., 1980). M scandens was also among the target plants for restoration of a wetland important for wildlife in the Florida Everglades (Smith et al., 2002) where it thrives in cattail (Typha domingensis) dominated zones (van der Valk and Rosburg, 1997). In some areas Mikania species may provide a nutritional food source for herbivorous mammals (Mondal et al., 2003; Matsubayashi et al., 2007).

Uses List

Animal feed, fodder, forage

• Fodder/animal feed

Environmental

• Revegetation
• Wildlife habitat

Human food and beverage

• Leaves (for beverage)

Materials

• Chemicals

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

• Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
• Traditional/folklore

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

Prevention and Control

Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Prevention

Avoiding excessive disturbance around waterways in areas vulnerable to invasion of M. scandens, (Moon et al., 1993), should prevent establishment of new populations.

Control

Control methods utilized for M. micrantha should also be effective for M. scandens. Herbicidal control methods may be somewhat limited by the occurrence of M. scandens in or near wetland areas.

Cultural Control and Sanitary Measures

Although excessive flooding does not promote growth of M. scandens (Baldwin et al., 2001), M. scandens has been shown to be flood resistant. Therefore, cultural measures to reduce the growth of M. scandens should be carried out in such a way to avoid its adaptive response to flooding (Moon et al., 1993).

Physical/Mechanical Control

Physical/mechanical control of M. scandens can be difficult due to the extensive growth of vines and their ability to propagate from fragments.

Biological Control

There have been some reports of efforts to control M. scandens by classical biological control using the thrips, Liothrips mikaniae from Trinidad (Waterhouse and Norris, 1987).  However, due to the location of these releases (outside of North America)and the distribution of M. scandens, it is likely that M. micrantha was the actual target.

It may be possible to manage Mikania species in some areas through livestock grazing.

Chemical Control

Control by herbicides such as glyphosate, 2,4-D or paraquat has been shown to be effective against Mikania species, but re-growth is possible after herbicide applications.

Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs

There is a need for plant taxonomists to check herbarium specimens and photos from geographic regions around the world where putatively M. scandens occurs outside its native range in eastern North America, i.e., to examine specimens from south-east Asia and the Pacific Islands to verify what species of Mikania occurs in these areas. Furthermore, the work of Tzeng (2003) comparing the nrDNA ITS region among Mikania species showing a strong divergence between M. micrantha and M. scandens could be replicated using putative M. scandens material from various accessions.

References

Alvarez-Aquino C; Williams-Linera G; Newton AC, 2005. Disturbance effects on the seed bank of Mexican cloud forest fragments. Biotropica, 37(3):337-342.

Anderson PJ; Weaver Jr RE; Neubig KM; Franks MS; Dixon WN, 2012. Which Mikania: native vine or noxious weed?, 37. Flordia, USA: Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. http://www.freshfromflorida.com/content/download/9956/136004/botcirc37

Anderson RR; Brown RG; Rappleye RD, 1968. Water quality and plant distribution along the Upper Patuxent River, Maryland. Chesapeake Science, 9(3):145-156.

Aziz T; Sylvia DM; Doren RF, 1995. Activity and species composition of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi following soil removal. Ecological Applications, 5(3):776-784.

Bacone JA; Hedge CL, 1979. A preliminary list of endangered and threatened vascular plants in Indiana. Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science, 89:359-371.

Baidya N; Mandal L; Banerjee GC, 1995. Nutritive values of Mikania scandens and Erythrina indica in Black Bengal goats. Small Ruminant Research, 18(2):185-187.

Bairagee A; Kalita J, 2004. Imperata cylindrical (Linn.) Raeusch in the grasslands of Pabitora Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam, India. Zoos' Print Journal, 19(4):1432-1434.

Baldwin AH; Egnotovich MS; Clarke E, 2001. Hydrologic change and vegetation of tidal freshwater marshes: field, greenhouse, and seed-bank experiments. Wetlands, 21(4):519-531.

Banerjee A; Matai S, 1990. Composition of Indian aquatic plants in relation to utilization as animal forage. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management, 28:69-73.

Barreto RW; Evans HC, 1995. The mycobiota of the weed Mikania micrantha in southern Brazil with particular reference to fungal pathogens for biological control. Mycological Research, 99(3):343-352

Baskin CC; Baskin JM; Leck MA, 1993. Afterripening pattern during cold stratification of achenes of ten perennial Asteraceae from Eastern North America, and evolutionary implication. Plant Species Biology, 8(1):61-65.

Borthwick HA; Parker MW; Hendricks SB, 1950. Recent developments in the control of flowering by photoperiod. The American Naturalist, 84:117-134.

Brouillet L; Coursol F; Favreau M, 2006. VASCAN. The database of Canadian vascular plants. VASCAN. The database of Canadian vascular plants. Herbier Marie-Victorin, Montréal, Canada: Institut de recherche en biologie végétale, Université de Montréal, unpaginated.

Chandra S; Dey P; Bhattacharya S, 2012. Preliminary in vitro assessment of anti-inflammatory property of Mikania scandens flower extract. Journal of Advanced Pharmacy Education & Research, 2(1):25-31.

Choudhury AK, 1972. Controversia Mikania (climber) - a threat to the forests and agriculture. Indian Forester, 98:178-186.

Cock MJW, 1982. Potential biological control agents for Mikania micrantha H. from the Neotropical region. Tropical Pest Management, 28:242-254.

Dey P; Chandra S; Chatterjee P; Bhattacharya S, 2011. Neuropharmacological properties of Mikania scandens (L.) Willd. (Asteraceae). Journal of Advanced Pharmaceutical Technology & Research, 2:255-259.

Dey P; Chandra S; Chatterjee P; Bhattacharya S, 2012. Allelopathic potential of aerial parts from Mikania scandens (L.) Willd. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 8(2):203-207.

Dey P; Chandra S; Chatterjee P; Bhattacharya S, 2012. Assessment of allelopathic property of Mikania scandens root. Current Trends in Biotechnology and Pharmacy, 6(3):322-327.

Dey P; Chandra S; Chatterjee P; Bhattacharya S, 2012. Neuropharmocological activities of Mikania scandens root. Global Journal of Pharmacology, 6(3):193-198.

Dey P; Chatterjee P; Chandra S; Bhattacharya S, 2011. Comparative in vitro evaluation of anti-inflammatory effects of aerial parts and roots from Mikania scandens. Journal of Advanced Pharmacy Education & Research, 1(6):271-277.

Dow RL; Inserra RN; Esser RP; Langdon KR, 1990. Distribution, hosts, and morphological characteristics of Tylenchulus palustris in Florida and Bermuda. Journal of Nematology, 22(4S):724-728.

Ellison CA; Evans HC; Ineson J, 2004. The significance of intraspecific pathogenicity in the selection of a rust pathotype for the classical biological control of Mikania micrantha (mile-a-minute weed) in Southeast Asia. In: Proceedings of the 11th International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds [ed. by Cullen, J. M. \Briese, D. T. \Kriticos, D. J. \Lonsdale, W. M. \Morin, L. \Scott, J. K.]. Canberra, Australia: CSIRO Entomology, 102-107.

Ervin GN, 2007. An experimental study on the facilitative effects of tussock structure among wetland plants. Wetlands, 27(3):620-630.

Evans HC; Ellison CA, 2005. The biology and taxonomy of rust fungi associated with the neotropical vine Mikania micrantha, a major invasive weed in Asia. Mycologia, 97(4):935-947.

Farnsworth EJ; Meyerson LA, 1999. Species composition and inter-annual dynamics of a freshwater tidal plant community following removal of the invasive grass, Phragmites australis. Biological Invasions, 1:115-127.

Fish and Wildlife Service US, 2004. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; determination of endangered status and prudency determination for designation of critical habitat for two plant species from the CNMI. Federal Register, 69(68)., USA: US Fish and Wildlife Service, 18499-18507.

Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2013. Flora of North America North of Mexico. Flora of North America. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=1

Fosberg FR; Sachet MH; Oliver R, 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian Dicotyledonae. Micronesica, 15:1-295.

Ghani A, 2003. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, 2. Dhaka, Bangladesh 603 pp.

Gough L; Grace JB, 1994. The influence of vines on an oligohaline marsh community: results of a removal and fertilization study. Oecologia, 112:403-411.

Gough L; Grace JB; Taylor KL, 1994. The relationship between species richness and community biomass: the importance of environmental variables. Oikos, 70(2):271-279.

Harvill AM Jr, 1965. The vegetation of Parramore Island, Virginia. Castanea, 30(4):226-228.

Hasan SMR; Mariam Jamila; Majumder MM; Raushanara Akter; Hossain MM; Mazumder MEH; Alam MA; Rumana Jahangir; Rana MS; Arif M; Rahman S, 2009. Analgesic and antioxidant activity of the hydromethanolic extract of Mikania scandens (L.) Willd. leaves. American Journal of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 4(1):1-7.

Herz W; Subramaniam PS; Santhanam PS; Aota K; Hall AL, 1970. Structure elucidation of sesquiterpene dilactones from Mikania scandens (L.) Willd. The Journal of Organic Chemistry, 35(5):1453-1464.

Holder GL; Johnson MK; James JL, 1980. Cattle grazing and management of dusky seaside sparrow habitat. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 8(2):105-109.

Holm LG; Plucknett DC; Pancho JV; Herberger JP, 1991. The world’s worst weeds: distribution and biology. Florida, USA: Krieger Publishing Company, USA.

Holmes WC, 1975. A revision of Mikania scandens and relatives (Compositae). Mississippi, USA: Mississippi State University.

Holmes WC, 1993. The genus Mikania (Compositae: Eupatorieae) in the Greater Antilles. Texas, USA: Botanical Research Institute of Texas, 69 pp.

Hristov N; Conner WE, 2005. Effectiveness of tiger moth (Lepidoptera, Artiidae) chemical defenses against an insectivorous bat (Eptesicus fuscus). Chemoecology, 15:105-113.

Huffman RT; Lonard RI, 1983. Successional patterns on floating vegetation mats in a southwestern Arkansas bald cypress swamp. Castanea, 48(2):73-78.

Hunt KW, 1943. Floating mats on a southeastern coastal plain reservoir. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 70:481-8.

Josekutty PC; Wakuk EE; Joseph MJ, 2002. Invasive weedy angiosperms in Kosrae, Federated States of Micronesia. Micronesica Supplement, 6:61-65. [Invasive species and their management.]

King RM; Robinson H, 1987. The genera of the Eupatorieae (Asteraceae). Systematic Botany, 14(2):263-266.

King RS; Richardson CJ, 2007. Subsidy-stress response of macroinvertebrate community biomass to a phosphorus gradient in an oligotrophic wetland ecosystem. Journal of the North American Benthological Society, 26(3):491-508.

Lee MAB; Snyder KL; Valentine-Darby P; Miller SJ; Ponzio KJ, 2005. Dormant season prescribed fire as a management tool for the control of Salix caroliniana Michx. in a floodplain marsh. Wetlands Ecology and Management, 13(4):479-487.

Lentz DL; Clark AM; Hufford CD; Meurer-Grimes B; Passreiter CM; Cordero J; Ibrahimi O; Okunade AL, 1998. Antimicrobial properties of Honduran medicinal plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 63(3):253-263.

MacKee HS, 1994. Catalogue of introduced and cultivated plants in New Caledonia. (Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie.) Paris, France: Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, unpaginated.

Maity T; Ahmad A, 2012. Protective effect of Mikania scandens (L.) Willd. against isoniazid induced hepatotoxicity in rats. International Journal of Pharamcy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 4:466-469.

Manrique V; Diaz R; Cuda JP; Overholt WA, 2011. Suitability of a new plant invader as a target for biological control in Florida. Invasive Plant Science and Management, 4(1):1-10.

Mathies PS; Holmes WC; Allen AS, 1983. The vascular flora of Cunningham Brake, a cypress-gum swamp in Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana. Castanea, 48(1):24-31.

Matsubayashi H; Lagan P; Majalap N; Tangah J; AbdSukor JR; Kitayama K, 2007. Importance of natural licks for the mammals in Bornean inland tropical rain forests. Ecological Research, 22(5):742-748. http://www.springerlink.com/link.asp?id=112404

McComb WC; Noble RE, 1982. Response of understory vegetation to improvement cutting and physiographic site in two mid-south forest stands. Castana, 47(1):60-77.

McLain DK, 1982. Density dependent sexual selection and positive phenotypic assortative mating in natural populations of the soldier beetle, Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus. Evolution, 36(6):1227-1235.

Merrill ED, 1925. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants. Manila, Philippines: Bureau of Printing.

Mondal AK; Sanjukta Parui; Sudhendu Mandal, 1998. Analysis of the free amino acid content in pollen of nine Asteraceae species of known allergenic activity. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine, 5(1):17-20.

Mondal P; Biswas P; Rajendran D, 2003. Micronutrient status of soil, plant and dairy cattle in coastal saline zone of West Bengal. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 73(9):1077-1080.

Moon M; Rattray MR; Putz FE; Bowes G, 1993. Acclimatization to flooding of the herbaceous vine, Mikania scandens. Functional Ecology, 7(5):610-615.

Muniappan R; Cruz J; Bamba J, 2002. Invasive plants and their control in Micronesia. Micronesica Supplement, 6:85-92.

Nauman CE, 1981. A re-examination of Mikania Willd. (Compositae) in Florida. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 108(4):467-471.

Neff KP; Rusello K; Baldwin AH, 2009. Rapid seed bank development in restored tidal freshwater wetlands. Restoration Ecology, 17(4):539-548.

Novy JW, 1997. Medicinal plants of the eastern region of Madagascar. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 55(2):119-126.

Pal D, 2013. Comparative analysis of in vitro antioxidant activity of two selected plants with a reference to antidiabetic profile. Asian Journal of Chemistry, 25(4):2165-2169.

Pal RK; Das KK, 2001. Record of new host plants of Bihar hairy caterpillar Spilosoma oblique Wlk. at Murshidabad district of West Bengal. Environment and Ecology, 19(2):489-490.

Parker C, 1972. The Mikania problem. PANS, 18(3):312-315.

Peekel PG, 1984. Flora of the Bismarck Archipelago for naturalists [ed. by Henty, E. E.]. Lae, Papua New Guinea: Office of Forests, Division of Botany, 638 pp.

Peterson JE; Baldwin AH, 2004. Variation in wetland seed banks across a tidal freshwater landscape. American Journal of Botany, 91(8):1251-1259.

PIER, 2013. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html

Piyasena KGNP; Dharmaratne HRW, 2013. Allelopathic activity studies of Mikania scandens. Natural Product Research, 27(1):76-79.

Pratiwi NM, 1989. Identification of important weeds in some industrial forest plantations at Benakat, South Sumatra. Buletin Penelitian Hutan, 519:56-67.

Radtke OA; König W, 2008. Leaf and cortex extracts of Mikania scandens (Asteraceae) exhibit cytotoxic effects against Spironucleus meleagridis trophozoites from turkey-cock and antibacterial properties. Planta Medica, 74(9):941.

Raulerson L, 2006. Checklist of Plants of the Mariana Islands. University of Guam Herbarium Contribution, 37. 1-69.

Robinson BL, 1934. The variability of two wide-ranging species of Mikania. Contributions from the Gray Herbarium of Harvard University. 49-55. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41764220

Schmitt JA, 1955. The host specialization of Erysiphe cichoracearum from Zinnia, Phlox, and cucurbits. Mycologia, 47(5):688-701 pp.

Scoogan HJ, 1979. The flora of Canada. Ottawa, Canada: Canada Science & Technology Museum, 3799 pp.

Shaffer GP; Sasser CE; Gosselink JG; Rejmánek M, 1992. Vegetation dynamics in the emerging Atchafalaya Delta, Louisiana, USA. Journal of Ecology (Oxford), 80(4):677-687.

Singh U; Wadhwani AM; Johri BM, 1990. Dictionary of Economic Plants in India. New Delhi, India: Indian Council of Agricultural Research, 288 pp.

Smith SM; McCormick PV; Leeds JA; Garrett PB, 2002. Constraints of seed bank species composition and water depth for restoring vegetation in the Florida Everglades, U.S.A. Restoration Ecology, 10(1):138-145.

Stone BC, 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica, 6:659 pp.

Tangjang SNamsa ND; Aran C; Litin A, 2011. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in the Eastern Himalayan zone of Arunachal Pradesh, India. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 134(1):18-25.

Tripathi RS; Khan ML; Yadav AS, 2012. Biology of Mikania micrantha H.: a review. In: Invasive alien plants: an ecological appraisal for the Indian subcontinent [ed. by Bhatt, J. R.\Singh, J. S.\Singh, S. P.\Tripathi, R. S.\Kohli, R. K.]. Wallingford, UK: CABI, 99-107.

Tzeng GY, 2003. Population genetic variation of Mikania species in Taiwan Masters Thesis, Taiwan: National Sun Yet-sen Univeristy, 70 pp. http://etd.lib.nsysu.edu.tw/ETD-db/ETD-search/view_etd?URN=etd-0804103-154817

Uddin MB; Steinbauer MJ; Jentsch A; Mukul SA; Beierkuhnlein C, 2013. Do environmental attributes, disturbances and protection regimes determine the distribution of exotic plant species in Bangladesh forest ecosystem? Forest Ecology and Management, 303:72-80.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2007. Recovery Plan for Two Plants from Rota (Nesogenes rotensis and Osmoxylon mariannense). Recovery Plan for Two Plants from Rota (Nesogenes rotensis and Osmoxylon mariannense). Portland, Oregon, USA: US Fish and Wildlife Service, 86 pp.

USDA-ARS, 2013. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx

USDA-NRCS, 2013. The PLANTS Database. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov/

Vaithiyanathan P; Richardson CJ, 1999. Macrophyte species changes in the Everglades: examination along a eutrophic gradient. Journal of Environmental Quality, 28:1347-1358.

Valk AG van der; Rosburg TR, 1997. Seed bank composition along a phosphorus gradient in the northern Florida Everglades. Wetlands, 17(2):228-236.

Waterhouse DF, 1994. Biological Control of Weeds: Southeast Asian Prospects. Canberra, Australia: ACIAR Monograph No 26.

Waterhouse DF; Norris KR, 1987. Biological control: Pacific prospects. viii + 454pp

Weaver R, 2009. The mile-a-minute (Mikania micrantha). Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services Division of Plant Industry, 2 pp. http://www.freshfromflorida.com/content/download/9959/136022/weaver-mikania-micrantha-report-121109.pdf

Whistler WA, 1996. Botanical survey of Diego Garcia, Chagos Archipelago, British Indian Ocean Territory. Isle Botanica. http://www.zianet.com/tedmorris/dg/2005nrmp-appendixe-botanicalsurvey.pdf

White DA, 1983. Plant communities of the Lower Pearl River Basin, Louisiana. American Midland Naturalist, 110(2):381-396.

Whittle AM, 1996. Mikania scandens - a new record? Quarterly Newsletter - Tea Research Foundation of Central Africa, No. 122:20-22.

Zhang LY; Ye WH; Cao HL; Feng HL, 2004. Mikania micrantha H. in China - an overview. Weed Research, 44:42-49.

Distribution References

Brouillet L, Coursol F, Favreau M, 2006. Bunias orientalis. In: VASCAN. The database of Canadian vascular plants, Herbier Marie-Victorin, Montréal, Canada: Institut de recherche en biologie végétale, Université de Montréal. unpaginated.

CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI

Fosberg F R, Sachet M H, Oliver R, 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica. 1-295.

Ghani A, 2003. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh., 2 Dhaka, Bangladesh: 603 pp.

MacKee H S, 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Paris, France: Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle. unpaginated.

Matsubayashi H, Lagan P, Majalap N, Tangah J, Abd Sukor J R, Kitayama K, 2007. Importance of natural licks for the mammals in Bornean inland tropical rain forests. Ecological Research. 22 (5), 742-748. http://www.springerlink.com/link.asp?id=112404 DOI:10.1007/s11284-006-0313-4

Novy J W, 1997. Medicinal plants of the eastern region of Madagascar. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 55 (2), 119-126. DOI:10.1016/S0378-8741(96)01489-4

Peekel PG, 1984. Flora of the Bismarck Archipelago for naturalists., [ed. by Henty EE]. Lae, Papua New Guinea: Office of Forests, Division of Botany. 638 pp.

Piyasena K G N P, Dharmaratne H R W, 2013. Allelopathic activity studies of Mikania scandens. Natural Product Research. 27 (1), 76-79. http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gnpl20 DOI:10.1080/14786419.2012.656110

Pratiwi, Nazif M, 1989. Identification of important weeds in some industrial forest plantations at Benakat, South Sumatra. (Pengenalan jenis gulma penting pada hutan tanaman industri (HTI) di Benakat, Sumatera Selatan.). Buletin Penelitian Hutan. 55-67.

Raulerson L, 2006. Checklist of Plants of the Mariana Islands. In: University of Guam Herbarium Contribution, 37 1-69.

Singh U, Wadhwani AM, Johri BM, 1990. Dictionary of Economic Plants in India., New Delhi, India: Indian Council of Agricultural Research. 288 pp.

Stone B C, 1970. The flora of Guam. A manual for the identification of the vascular plants of the island. Guam: University of Guam. vi + 659 pp.

Uddin M B, Steinbauer M J, Jentsch A, Mukul S A, Beierkuhnlein C, 2013. Do environmental attributes, disturbances and protection regimes determine the distribution of exotic plant species in Bangladesh forest ecosystem? Forest Ecology and Management. 72-80. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112713002077 DOI:10.1016/j.foreco.2013.03.052

USDA-ARS, 2013. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx

USDA-NRCS, 2013. The PLANTS Database. Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: National Plant Data Team. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov

Whistler WA, 1996. Botanical survey of Diego Garcia, Chagos Archipelago, British Indian Ocean Territory. In: Isle Botanica, 49 pp. http://www.zianet.com/tedmorris/dg/2005NRMP-Appendixe-botanicalsurvey.pdf

Whittle A M, 1996. Mikania scandens - a new record? Quarterly Newsletter - Tea Research Foundation of Central Africa. 20-22.

Contributors

21/12/2013 Original text by:

David R. Clements, Trinity Western University, Canada

Distribution Maps