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Meligethes aeneus
(rape beetle)

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Datasheet

Meligethes aeneus (rape beetle)

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Summary

  • Last modified
  • 22 November 2019
  • Datasheet Type(s)
  • Invasive Species
  • Pest
  • Natural Enemy
  • Preferred Scientific Name
  • Meligethes aeneus
  • Preferred Common Name
  • rape beetle
  • Taxonomic Tree
  • Domain: Eukaryota
  •   Kingdom: Metazoa
  •     Phylum: Arthropoda
  •       Subphylum: Uniramia
  •         Class: Insecta

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Pictures

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PictureTitleCaptionCopyright
Larvae of M. aeneus on rape.
TitleLarvae
CaptionLarvae of M. aeneus on rape.
Copyright©AgrEvo
Larvae of M. aeneus on rape.
LarvaeLarvae of M. aeneus on rape.©AgrEvo
M. aeneus adult, revealing clubbed antenae.
TitleAdult
CaptionM. aeneus adult, revealing clubbed antenae.
Copyright©AgrEvo
M. aeneus adult, revealing clubbed antenae.
AdultM. aeneus adult, revealing clubbed antenae.©AgrEvo

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

  • Meligethes aeneus Fabricius, 1775

Preferred Common Name

  • rape beetle

Other Scientific Names

  • Dermestes psyllius Herbst, 1784
  • Meligethes aeneus var. californicus Reitter, 1871
  • Meligethes aeneus var. coeruleus Reitter, 1871
  • Meligethes aeneus var. rotundangulus Ganglbauer, 1899
  • Meligethes aeneus var. rubripennis Reitter, 1871
  • Meligethes aeneus var. semiaeneus Ganglbauer, 1899
  • Meligethes asperrimus Guillebeau, 1897
  • Meligethes australis Küster, 1848
  • Meligethes bonvouloiri C. Brisout de Barneville, 1872
  • Meligethes boops Easton, 1957
  • Meligethes brassicae Reitter, 1875
  • Meligethes cleominis Easton, 1959
  • Meligethes dauricus Motschulsky, 1849
  • Meligethes minor Rey, 1889
  • Meligethes moerens LeConte, 1857
  • Meligethes mutatus Harold, 1868
  • Meligethes nigricornis Stephens, 1830
  • Meligethes peristericus Roubal, 1943
  • Meligethes pubens Rey, 1889
  • Meligethes ruficornis LeConte, 1859
  • Meligethes rufimanus LeConte, 1857
  • Meligethes urticae Stephens, 1830
  • Meligethes viridipennis Motschulsky, 1860
  • Nitidula aenea Fabricius, 1775
  • Nitidula aeneus Fabricius
  • Nitidula alpestris Heer, 1841
  • Nitidula coerulea Marsham, 1802
  • Nitidula latipes Marsham, 1802
  • Nitidula nigrina Marsham, 1802
  • Nitidula pedicularia var. B Paykull, 1798
  • Nitidula subtilis Waltl, 1838
  • Scarabaeus florilegulus Fourcroy, 1785

International Common Names

  • English: beetle, rape; blossom beetle; pollen beetle; rape blossom beetle
  • Spanish: escarabajo o meliguete de la colza; escarabajuelo de los nabos
  • French: méligèthes des crucifères; méligèthes du colza

Local Common Names

  • Denmark: glimmerboesse; Glimmerbøsse
  • Estonia: naeri-hiilamardikas
  • Finland: rapsikuoriainen; rapsikuoriainen
  • Germany: Glanzkaefer, Raps-; Glimmerbossen; Rapsglanzkäfer
  • Italy: meligete della colza
  • Netherlands: Koolzaadglanskever
  • Norway: rapsglansbille
  • Sweden: rapsbaggar; rapsbagge

EPPO code

  • MELIAE (Meligethes aeneus)

Taxonomic Tree

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  • Domain: Eukaryota
  •     Kingdom: Metazoa
  •         Phylum: Arthropoda
  •             Subphylum: Uniramia
  •                 Class: Insecta
  •                     Order: Coleoptera
  •                         Family: Nitidulidae
  •                             Genus: Meligethes
  •                                 Species: Meligethes aeneus

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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This species has been known consistently as Meligethes aeneus in Europe since the nineteenth century and there has been little confusion over its identity this century. However, the separation of specimens from Asia and western North America is a matter of debate. Easton (1955) regarded the western North American specimens as belonging to a distinct species, M. rufimanus LeConte, with the Asian specimens as a subspecies, M. rufimanus dauricus Motschulsky. As Motschulsky's name is older, it has priority and Easton (1959) later corrected the western North American species to M. dauricus, with M. rufimanus as a synonym. Kirejtshuk (1992) treated dauricus as a subspecies of aeneus, with rufimanus in synonymy and Audisio (1993) listed all the names in synonymy with M. aeneus. Key works by which the species can be identified include Easton (1955), Kirk-Spriggs (1996), Spornraft (1967), Kirejtshuk (1992) and Audisio (1993). A simplified key to adults and larvae is included in Alford et al. (2003).

Description

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A very detailed description with figures of the immature stages of M. aeneus was given by Osborne (1965), from which the following is a brief summary.

Eggs

Length 0.81 mm, breadth 0.29 mm. Cylindrical, rounded at both ends, greyish-white but becoming milky as development occurs. Chorion smooth and shiny.

Larvae

The final instar larva is elongate, up to 4.4 mm long, somewhat depressed and with the body milky white, the head black and prognathous (pointing forwards). The pronotal shield is dark brown to black and irregularly sclerotized. The other segments have a pair of small, rounded, brownish-black dorsolateral plates and a pair of smaller dorsomedian plates, the latter being fused together and increasing in size from abdominal segment IV. Ninth abdominal segment with weak, broadly rounded urogomphi.

Pupae

Average length 2.35 mm. Creamy-white, oval in outline, depressed in abdominal region. Head strongly deflexed ventrally, concealed from above by pronotum, setae around margins of pronotum and abdomen.

Adults

Length 1.9-2.7 mm, oval in shape, broadly rounded anteriorly and posteriorly, with head relatively broad. Head and body black with distinct metallic greenish, bluish or purplish sheen, legs slightly paler, especially anterior tibiae pitchy to dark yellowish. Antennae about as long as head width, with the apical three segments forming a distinct, oval, compact club. Anterior tibiae with outer edge finely toothed. Middle femora simple, without tooth on lower edge at apical third.

For critical identification of Meligethes species, it is necessary to examine the male genitalia and the female ovipositor. Recent key works (Audisio, 1993; Kirk-Spriggs, 1996) figure both male and female genitalia, while Spornraft (1967) figured the male genitalia.

Distribution

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M. aeneus is a common and widespread species throughout most of the Holarctic Region. Audisio (1993) gave its distribution as the whole of Europe, North Africa, eastwards through Central Asia to the Russian Far East and Mongolia, and in the western states of North America as far south as the north of Mexico. The Asian and North American populations have been regarded as separate subspecies or as valid species by some previous authors (see Notes on Taxonomy).

Countries indicated within the range of M. aeneus by Audisio (1993) but for which published records have not been located so far include several of the Caucasus and Central Asian countries (former states of the Soviet Union), some Middle Eastern countries, parts of North Africa (Egypt, Libya), and some of the smaller European and Mediterranean countries.

The distribution map includes records based on specimens of M. aeneus from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK): dates of collection are noted in the list of countries (NHM, various dates).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 10 Jan 2020
Continent/Country/Region Distribution Last Reported Origin First Reported Invasive Reference Notes

Africa

AlgeriaPresent
MoroccoPresent, Widespread
TunisiaPresent, Widespread

Asia

AfghanistanPresent, Localized
ChinaPresent, Widespread
-GansuPresent
JordanPresent, Widespread
KazakhstanPresent
MongoliaPresent
TurkeyPresent

Europe

AlbaniaPresent
AustriaPresent
BelarusPresent
BelgiumPresent
Bosnia and HerzegovinaPresent
BulgariaPresent
CroatiaPresent
CyprusPresent
CzechiaPresent, Widespread
CzechoslovakiaPresent, Widespread
Federal Republic of YugoslaviaPresent
DenmarkPresent, Widespread
EstoniaPresent, Widespread
FinlandPresent, Widespread
FrancePresent, Widespread
-CorsicaPresent
GermanyPresent, Widespread
GibraltarPresent
GreecePresent
HungaryPresent, Widespread
IrelandPresent, Widespread
ItalyPresent, Widespread
LatviaPresent
LithuaniaPresent
MoldovaPresent
NetherlandsPresent
North MacedoniaPresent
NorwayPresent
PolandPresent, Widespread
PortugalPresent
-AzoresPresent, Localized
RomaniaPresent
RussiaPresent
-Central RussiaPresent
-Russian Far EastPresent
-SiberiaPresent
-Western SiberiaPresent
SerbiaPresent
Serbia and MontenegroPresent
SlovakiaPresent, Widespread
SpainPresent, Widespread
-Balearic IslandsPresent
-Canary IslandsPresent
SwedenPresent, Widespread
SwitzerlandPresent
UkrainePresent
United KingdomPresent, Widespread
-Channel IslandsPresent

North America

CanadaPresent
-AlbertaPresent
-British ColumbiaPresent
-ManitobaPresent
-SaskatchewanPresent
MexicoPresent, Localized
United StatesPresent
-ArizonaPresent, Widespread
-CaliforniaPresent, Widespread
-ColoradoPresent, Widespread
-IdahoPresent
-KansasPresent
-MontanaPresent
-NebraskaPresent
-NevadaPresent
-New MexicoPresent
-OregonPresent
-UtahPresent, Widespread
-WashingtonPresent
-WyomingPresent

Risk of Introduction

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As larvae are short-lived, and pupate in the soil, phytosanitary risks for larvae are negligible. However, adults are long-lived and the only overwintering stage. They are readily attracted to a wide range of flowers and may be exported accidentally. Hoebeke and Wheeler (1996) noted that from 1967-77, specimens of M. aeneus had been intercepted at major ports in the USA on at least 11 occasions from produce from the UK (England), Germany, Denmark, Norway, France, the Netherlands and Poland.

Hosts/Species Affected

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The major hosts for M. aeneus in Europe are various Brassica and Sinapis species. It is as a pest of rape that the species is best known. Host plant quality affects egg size (Ekbom and Popov, 2004). However, at times of the year when its breeding hosts are not in flower, it will feed from the flowers of an enormous range of plant species, especially in early spring and late summer, and has been reported as a pest of strawberry (Cross and Easterbrook, 1998).

In North America, wild hosts include Cleome and Isomeris species.

Growth Stages

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Flowering stage

Symptoms

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The most obvious sign of attack is the presence of shiny black beetles crawling around the flowers of the host plant. Holes in the buds indicate where adults have fed on or laid their eggs in the buds. Severe damage to buds can cause the buds to drop leaving podless stalks (Williams and Free, 1978). Feeding in the flowers is restricted to the pollen-bearing stamens and few visible symptoms are apparent.

List of Symptoms/Signs

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SignLife StagesType
Inflorescence / external feeding

Biology and Ecology

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The biology and ecology of M. aeneus is reviewed by Alford et al. (2003). The species is univoltine. Adults emerge in spring after overwintering in woodland and other sheltered uncultivated sites. They fly actively when temperatures exceed 12-15°C, often feeding on the pollen of any available flowers before locating their breeding hosts (mainly Brassica and Sinapis species in Europe) (Free and Williams, 1978; Williams and Free, 1978). Eggs are laid in buds at least 3 mm long. Oviposition rates and egg load dynamics have been studied by Ekbom and Ferdinand (2003). The larvae feed on pollen in flowers (Cook et al., 2002, 2004) taking 9-13 days to complete two larval instars (Osborne, 1965). The full-grown larva then drops to the ground, burying itself in the soil and forming an earthen cell in which to pupate. The new adults emerge later, and feed on pollen from any available flowers before once more seeking overwintering sites. The spatial distribution of M. aeneus on crops is usually complex and irregular (Free and Williams, 1979; Ferguson et al., 2003).

Natural enemies

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Natural enemyTypeLife stagesSpecificityReferencesBiological control inBiological control on
Aneuclis incidens Parasite Larvae
Anncaliia meligethii Pathogen Adults
Beauveria bassiana Pathogen
Brachyserphus parvulus Parasite Larvae
Cerchysiella planiscutellum Parasite Larvae
Diospilus capito Parasite Larvae
Diospilus oleraceus Parasite Larvae
Eubazus sigalphoides Parasite Larvae
Haplosporidium meligethi Pathogen Adults
Leiophron laeviventris Parasite Larvae
Metarhizium anisopliae Pathogen Adults/Larvae
Nosema meligethi Pathogen Adults
Paecilomyces fumosoroseus Pathogen
Phradis interstitialis Parasite Larvae
Phradis morionellus Parasite Larvae
Steinernema feltiae Pathogen Larvae
Tersilochus Parasite Eggs/Larvae
Tersilochus heterocerus Parasite Larvae

Notes on Natural Enemies

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Lists of natural enemies were given by Osborne (1960), Audisio (1993) and Kirk-Spriggs (1996).The role of natural enemies for control of M. aeneus in oilseed rape is reviewed in Alford (2003) with a chapter on parasitoids by Nilsson (2003), on predators by Büchs and Alford (2003), and on pathogens by Hokkanen et al. (2003).

The Hymenopteran endoparasitoids attacking M. aeneus belong to the families Ichneumonidae, Braconidae, Proctotrupidae and Encyrtidae; a key to those associated with oilseed rape pests including M. aeneus has been published by Vidal (2003). Parasitism rates are generally less than 30%. Parasitism rates and non-cropped area have been found to be positively correlated in different agricultural landscapes (Thies et al., 2003).

Osborne (1960) described the eggs, larvae and biology of some parasitoids found in the UK. He also noted unidentified Protozoa and Nematoda inside the body of adult M. aeneus, and Acari attached externally.

Predation of adult and pupal M. aeneus in Europe by ground beetles (Carabidae, Pterostichini), staphylinid beetles and spiders (Aranei) can be a significant mortality factor (Basedow, 1973; Büchs and Alford, 2003).

Protozoan parasites/pathogens in adult M. aeneus have been described by Lipa and Hokkanen (1991) and Issi et al. (1993).

All the natural enemies listed are indigenous and there do not appear to be any examples of exotic species being deliberately introduced for biological control. However, there is considerable current interest in conservation biological control by integrating naturally-occurring key natural enemies of M. aeneus into integrated pest management strategies for oilseed rape. The natural incidence of pathogens in rape fields is usually low; augmentation of pathogens, particularly of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae and the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema feltiae is being investigated (Williams, 2004) and the former has been successfully disseminated by the honey bee to the flowering canopy of oilseed rape to infect adult M. aeneus (Butt et al., 1998).

Plant Trade

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Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transportPest stagesBorne internallyBorne externallyVisibility of pest or symptoms
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx adults; eggs; larvae Yes Pest or symptoms usually visible to the naked eye

Impact Summary

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CategoryImpact
Animal/plant collections None
Animal/plant products None
Biodiversity (generally) None
Crop production Negative
Environment (generally) None
Fisheries / aquaculture None
Forestry production None
Human health None
Livestock production None
Native fauna None
Native flora None
Rare/protected species None
Tourism None
Trade/international relations None
Transport/travel None

Impact

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M. aeneus is widespread and abundant throughout Europe where it is a major pest of Brassica crops, particularly oilseed rape (Brassica napus) and turnip rape (Brassica rapa) (Alford et al., 2003). Although it feeds from the flowers of many different plant species, it breeds only on cruciferous species and spreads rapidly to new rape-growing areas. The feeding activities of large numbers of new generation M. aeneus emerging in mid-summer can be of nuisance value to gardeners and ornamental plant growers. They can reach pest status on some flowering crops such as strawberries (Cross and Easterbrook, 1998) and runner beans at this time.

Adult feeding damage to buds can cause them to abort, thus reducing yields of seeds (Williams and Free, 1978; Nilsson, 1987, 1988). However, because of plant compensation, yields are affected only above 60% pod loss (Williams and Free, 1979). Larvae also feed on pollen (Cook et al., 2004) and nectar. Winter rape is affected less than spring rape because it usually starts to flower before the beetles are active, but the latter is much more heavily attacked. In Denmark, Hansen (2004) has reported that 80% yield reduction can occur. He has calculated that the economic damage threshold of 5% of yield can be exceeded by 0.1-3 M. aeneus per plant, depending on rainfall.

Flower visiting insects, including M. aeneus, are probably important pollinating agents (Williams, 1985).

Detection and Inspection

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Methods of sampling, trapping and rearing M. aeneus are reviewed by Williams et al. (2003). The presence of M. aeneus on a crop can most readily be determined by inspecting the flowers or by tapping inflorescences over a tray or sheet. Yellow water traps (some baited with plant volatiles) and sweep-netting are also often used for monitoring.

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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In the western Palaearctic, Meligethes viridescens is a very similar, metallic species, which can be easily separated from M. aeneus by having a small projecting tooth on the lower edge of the middle femur. It also has a brighter colour, paler legs on average and finer dorsal punctures. Other similar species occur in the eastern Palaearctic (Kirejtshuk, 1992) and in North America (Easton, 1955).

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Cultural Control

Hokkanen et al. (1986) described the use of trap crops to help protect cauliflowers and spring rape in southern Finland. Some trials showed that almost complete protection was possible, but this depended on being able to produce a trap crop in flower before the main crop, which could be difficult to time accurately. For cauliflower protection, the most attractive trap crops were Chinese cabbage, broccoli and rape. The trap crops were sprayed with insecticide, usually deltamethrin, when the pollen beetle numbers reached such a level that emigration onto the main crop was likely. During peak activity, spraying about twice a week was necessary. Crop losses were reduced from the 20-40% observed without a trap to 3-15% with the traps. For spring sown rape, earlier flowering varieties or winter rape was used as a trap in experimental plots. If the trap flowered at the right time before the main crop, savings of 50-95% in pesticide use were possible. There is currently renewed interest in the potential for exploiting pest preferences for host plant and growth stage to develop trap crop strategies which concentrate the pest onto early flowering rape and away from the damage-susceptible growth stage of oilseed rape (e.g. Nerad and Vasak, 2000; Frearson et al., 2005; Cook et al., 2006).

Research aimed at breeding cultivars of oilseed rape resistant to M. aeneus, by investigating pest responses to the glucosinolate content of different cultivars or other host plants have so far not shown a clear relationship between pest incidence and glucosinolate profile (e.g. Milford et al., 1989; Hopkins et al., 1998).

Chemical Control

The OEPP (2005) describe the conduct of trials for the efficacy evaluation of insecticides against M. aeneus on rape. Pyrethroid insecticides have been preferred for control of M. aeneus in recent years to reduce the effect on nontarget organisms. However, the recent and widespread development of resistance to pyrethroids in M. aeneus in mainland Europe (e.g. Hansen, 2003) has made more urgent the need for control strategies that minimise insecticide use on oilseed rape and optimise biological control (Williams, 2004; Frearson et al., 2005; Cook et al., 2006). Phenological studies show that pyrethroid applications during flowering threaten parasitoid populations that are important to biological control (Ferguson et al., 2003).

A PC-based decision support system (ProPlant) has been developed in Germany for the crop covering six pests, including M. aeneus (Johnen and Meier, 2000). It takes into account pest numbers on the crop as well as weather-based forecasts of flight conditions, egg-laying periods and larval development to determine the need and timing of insecticide applications.

Integrated Pest Management

There is considerable current interest in conservation biological control by integrating key natural enemies of M. aeneus into integrated pest management strategies for oilseed rape (Williams, 2004). Ploughing is known to kill overwintering parasitoids of M. aeneus (Nilsson, 1985); minimal tillage techniques that improve their survival are being reinvestigated (Wahmhoff et al., 1999; Williams, 2004). Phenological models for parasitoids are being developed for integration into the PC-based decision support system (ProPlant) developed in Germany for pests of oilseed rape including M. aeneus (Johnen and Meier, 2000). The natural incidence of pathogens in rape fields is usually low; augmentation of pathogens, particularly of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae and the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema feltiae is being investigated (Williams, 2004), and the former has been successfully disseminated by the honey bee to the flowering canopy of oilseed rape to infect adult M. aeneus (Butt et al., 1998). There are also reports that the biopesticide Bacillus thuringiensis has been used with some success against M. aeneus (Prishchepa and Mikulskaya, 1998; Hokkanen et al., 2003).

References

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Alford D Nilsson C; Ulber B, 2003. Insect pests of oilseed rape crops. Chapter 2 In: Alford DV, ed. Biocontrol of Oilseed Rape Pests. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing, 9-41.

Alford DV, 2003. Biocontrol of Oilseed Rape Pests. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing.

Alford DV; Nilsson C; Ulber B, 2003. Insect pests of oilseed rape crops. In: Alford DV, ed. Biocontrol of oilseed rape pests. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing, 355 pp.

Audisio P, 1980. Fénybogarak - Nitidulidae. Fauna Hungariae 140, VIII Kötet, Coleoptera III. Budapest, Hungary: Akadémiai Kiado.

Audisio P, 1993. Coleoptera Nitidulidae-Kateretidae Fauna d'Italia Vol. XXXII. Bologna, Italy: Edizioni Calderini.

Basedow T, 1973. The influence of predatory arthropods of the soil surface on the abundance of phytophagous insects in agriculture. Pedobiologia, 13:410-422

Berger HK, 1991. Oilseed rape in Austria - pest problems. Bulletin SROP, 14(6):14-20

Bousquet Y (ed.), 1991. Checklist of beetles of Canada and Alaska. Publication - Agriculture Canada (English ed.), No. 1861/E:vi + 430 pp.

Buchi R, 1989. Models for the distribution of the rape blossom beetle, Meligethes pneus F., on rape and turnip rape plants. Journal of Applied Entomology, 108(4):363-371

Burdajewicz S; Nowacka W, 1994. Chrzaszcze (Coleoptera) odlowione w uprawach nasiennych roslin ogrodniczuch. Roczniki Akademii Rolniczej w Poznaniu, Ogrodnictwo, 22:11-17.

Butt TM; Carreck NL; Ibrahim L; Williams IH, 1998. Honey-bee-mediated infection of pollen beetle (Meligethes aeneus Fab.) by the insect-pathogenic fungus, Metarhizium anisopliae. Biocontrol Science and Technology, 8(4):533-538; 22 ref.

Büchs W; Alford D, 2003. Predators of oilseed rape pests. Chapter 12 , In: Alford D V, ed, Biocontrol of Oilseed Rape Insect Pests. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing, 181-200.

CABI/EPPO, 2001. Meligethes aeneus. Distribution Maps of Plant Pests, Map No. 619. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Ciglar I; Schmidt L, 1983. Insect fauna of the apple orchard 'Borinci' - Vinkovci, Croatia, Yugoslavia. Acta Entomologica Jugoslavica, 19(1/2):83-90

Connell WA, 1970. Comments about Easton's revision of the Nearctic Meligethes (Nitidulidae). Coleopterists' Bulletin, 24:33-34.

Cook S; Bartlet E; Murray DA; Williams IH, 2002. The role of pollen odour in the attraction of pollen beetles to oilseed rape flowers. Entomologia experimentalis et applicata, 104: 43-50.

Cook SM; Murray DA; Williams IH, 2004. Do pollen beetles (Meligethes aeneus) need pollen? The effect of pollen on oviposition, survival and development of a flower-feeding herbivore. Ecological Entomology, 29(2): 164-173.

Cook SM; Smart LE; Martin JL; Murray DA; Watts NP; Williams IH, 2006. Exploitation of host plant preferences in crop protection strategies for oilseed rape (Brassica napus) Entomologia experimentalis et applicata, in press.

Cross JV; Easterbrook MA, 1998. Integrated management of flower pests of strawberry. Bulletin OILB/SROP, 21(10):81-87; 18 ref.

Easton AM, 1955. A revision of the Nearctic species of the beetle genus Meligethes (Nitidulidae). Proceedings of the United States National Museum, 104:87-103.

Easton AM, 1956. The Meligethes of North Africa (Coleoptera, Nitidulidae). Mémoires de la Société des Sciences Naturelles et Physiques du Maroc, Nouvelle série, Zoologie, 2:1-71.

Easton AM, 1957. The Meligethes (Col., Nitidulidae) of Afghanistan. Entomologist's Monthly Magazine, 92:385-401.

Easton AM, 1959. A note on the nomenclature of Meligethes rufimanus LeConte (Col., Nitidulidae). Entomologist's Monthly Magazine, 95:34.

Ekbom B; Ferdinand V, 2003. Field oviposition rates and egg load dynamics of pollen beetles (Meligethes aeneus Fab.) (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae). Agricultural and Forest Entomology, 5(3) 247-252.

Ekbom B; Popov SYA, 2004. Host plant affects pollen beetle (Meligethes aeneus) egg size. Physiological Entomology, 29: 118-122.

Ferguson AW; Campbell JM; Warner DJ; Watts NP; Schmidt JEU; Williams IH, 2003. Spatio-temporal distributions of Meligethes aeneus and its parasitoids in an oilseed rape crop and their significance for crop protection. Proceedings of the 11th International Rapeseed Congress, 6-10 July 2003, Copenhagen, Denmark, 1057-1059.

Ferguson AW; Klukowski Z; Walczak B; Clark SJ; Mugglestone MA; Perry JN; Williams IH, 2003. Spatial distribution of pest insects in oilseed rape: implications for integrated pest management. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 95(1/3):509-521; many ref.

Fowler WW, 1889. The Coleoptera of the British Isles Vol. III. London, UK: L. Reeve and Co.

Frearson DJT; Ferguson AW; Campbell JM; Williams IH, 2005. The spatial dynamics of pollen beetles in relation to inflorescence growth stage of oilseed rape: implications for trap crop strategies. Entomologia experimentalis et applicata, 116: 21-29.

Free JB; Williams IH, 1978. The responses of the pollen beetle, Meligethes aeneus and the seed weevil Ceuthorhynchus assimilis to oil-seed rape Brassica napus, and other plants. Journal of applied Ecology 15, 761-774.

Free JB; Williams IH, 1979. The distribution of insect pests on crops of oil-seed rape (Brassica napus L.) and the damage they cause. Journal of Agricultural Science, 92(1):139-149

Fuente JM de la, 1927. Catálogo sistemático-geográfico de los Coleópteros de la Penfnsula Ibérica y Baleares. Boletfn de la Sociedad Entomológica de Espa±a, 10:89.

Georghiou GP, 1977. The insects and mites of Cyprus. With emphasis on species of economic importance to agriculture, forestry, man and domestic animals. Benaki Phytopathological Institute. Athens, Greece: Kiphissia, 347 pp.

Graham CW, 1982. Insect pests of oilseed rape. Leaflet, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, No. 780. London, UK: MAFF, 10 pp.

Hansen LM, 2003. Insecticide-resistant pollen beetles (Meligethes aeneus F) found in Danish oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) fields. Pest Management Science, 59(9):1057-1059.

Hansen LM, 2004. Economic damage threshold model for pollen beetles (Meligethes aeneus F.) in spring oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) crops. Crop Protection, 23(1): 43-46.

He-ChunGui, 2001. Occurrence and chemical control of Meligethes aeneus. Plant Protection, 27(1):15-17.

Hoebeke ER; Wheeler AGJr, 1996. Meligethes viridescens (F.) (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) in Maine, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island: diagnosis, distribution, and bionomics of a Palearctic species new to North America. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington, 98(2):221-227; 36 ref.

Hokkanen H; Granlund H; Husberg GB; Markkula M, 1986. Trap crops used successfully to control Meligethes pneus (Col., Nitidulidae), the rape blossom beetle. Annales Entomologici Fennici, 52(4):115-120

Hokkanen H; Husberg GB; Soderblom M, 1988. Natural enemy conservation for the integrated control of the rape blossom beetle Meligethes pneus F. Annales Agriculturae Fenniae, 27(4):281-194

Hokkanen HMT; Menzler-Hokkanen I; Butt TM, 2003. Pathogens of oilseed rape pests. Chapter 17. In: Alford DV, ed. Biocontrol of Oilseed Rape Pests. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing, 299-322.

Hopkins RJ; Ekbom B; Henkow L, 1998. Glucosinolate content and susceptibility for insect attack of three populations of Sinapis alba. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 24(7):1203-1216; 30 ref.

Israelson G, 1984. Coleoptera from the Azores. Boletim do Museu Municipal do Funchal, 36(161):142-161

Israelson G; Machado A; Oromi P; Palm T, 1982. Novedades para la fauna coleopterologica de Las Islas Canarias. Vieraea, 11:109-134.

Issi IV; Krylova SV; Nikolaeva VM, 1993. Structure of the microsporidian Nosema meligethi and erection of a new genus Anncaliia. Parazitologiya, 27(2):127-133

Jelfnek J, 1965. Ergebnisse der Albanien-Expedition 1961 des Deutschen Entomologischen Institutes. BeitrSge zur Entomologie, 15:673-688.

Jelfnek J, 1965. Nitidulidae der Ausbeute Klapperichs aus Libanon und Jordanien (Coleoptera). Acta Faunistica Entomologica Musei Nationalis Pragae, 11:327-330.

Jelfnek J, 1967. 30th result of the zoological expedition of the National Museum in Prague to Turkey Coleoptera - Nitidulidae. Acta Entomologica Musei Nationalis Pragae, 37:23-30.

Jelinek J, 1993. Check-list of Czechoslovak Insects IV (Coleoptera). In: Picka J, ed. Occasional Papers on Systematic Entomology. Prague, Czech Republic: Folia Heyrovskyana, Supplementum 1.

Johnen A; Meier H, 2000. A weather-based decision support system for managing oilseed rape pests. The BCPC Conference: Pests and diseases, Volume 2. Proceedings of an international conference held at the Brighton Hilton Metropole Hotel, Brighton, UK, 13-16 November 2000, 793-800; 6 ref.

Kapustyan V; Moiseenko A, 1974. Rape and turnip rape need protection. Zemledelie, 5:47-48.

Kevvai R; Veromann E; Luik A, 2005. Pollen beetles (Meligethes aeneus F.) and their hymenopterous parasitoids in the spring oilseed rape. Transactions of the Estonian Agricultural University, Agronomy, 220: 207-209.

Kirejtshuk AG, 1992. Nitidulidae. In: Ler PA, ed. Keys to the Identification of Insects of the Soviet Far East Vol. 3 Coleoptera or beetles Part 2. S.-Peterburgskoe Otdelenie, Russia: Sankt-Peterburg Nauka, 114-209.

Kirk-Spriggs AH, 1996. Pollen beetles: Coleoptera: Kateretidae and Nitidulidae: Meligethinae. Pollen beetles: Coleoptera: Kateretidae and Nitidulidae: Meligethinae., 157 pp.; [Handbooks for the Identication of British Insects Volume 5 Part 6a]; 26 ref.

Kismir A, 1992. Studies on determination of harmful and beneficial fauna associated with rape (Brassica napus var. oleifera D.G.) fields in the Mediterranean region. Proceedings of the Second Turkish National Congress of Entomology. Izmir, Turkey: Ege Universitesi, 693-704.

Laska P, 1992. Zkouseni nekterych insekticidu proti blyskacku repkovemu (Meligethes aeneus) na semennych porostech redkvicky. Zahradnictvi, 19:13-18.

Lipa JJ; Hokkanen MT, 1991. A haplosporidian Haplosporidium meligethi sp. n., and a microsporidian Nosema meligethi I. et R., two protozoan parasites from Meligethes aeneus F. (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae). Acta Protozoologica, 30(3/4):217-222

Lucht WH, 1987. The Middle European Beetles. Katalog. Krefeld, Germany: Goecke and Evers.

Maceljski M; Balarin I; Danon V, 1980. Results of long-term investigations on the occurrence and harmfulness of insects on oilseed rape. Zastita Bilja, 31(4):317-324.

Milford GFJ; Porter AJR; Fieldsen JK; Miller CA; Leach JE; Williams IH, 1989. Glucosinolates in oilseed rape (Brassica napus) and the incidence of pollen beetles (Meligethes pneus) Annals of Applied Biology, 115(2):375-380.

Nerad D; Vasßk J, 2000. Role of attractive plants in oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) protection. Ros^acute~liny Oleiste, 21(3):785-790; 11 ref.

Nilsson C, 1985. Impact of ploughing on emergence of pollen beetle parasitoids after hibernation. Zeitschrift fur Angewandte Entomologie, 100(3):302-308

Nilsson C, 1987. Yield losses in summer rape caused by pollen beetles (Meligethes spp.). Swedish Journal of Agricultural Research, 17:105-111.

Nilsson C, 1988. Pollen beetles (Meligethes pneus F.) and flowering in rape. Swedish Journal of Agricultural Research, 18(3):113-118

Nilsson C, 2003. Parasitoids of pollen beetles. In: Alford DV, ed. Biocontrol of Oilseed Rape Pests. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Science, 73-85.

OEPP, 2005. Guideline for the efficacy evaluation of insecticides PP 1/178 (3) Meligethes on rape. 35(1):183-185.

Osborne P, 1960. Observations on the natural enemies of Meligethes aeneus (F.) and M. viridescens (F.) [Coleoptera: Nitidulidae]. Parasitology, 50:91-110.

Osborne P, 1965. Morphology of the immature stages of Meligethes aeneus (F.) and M. viridescens (F.) (Coleoptera, Nitidulidae). Bulletin of Entomological Research, 55:747-759.

Perju T; Moldovan I; Teodor L; Oltean I; Bodis I, 1995. Specii de insecte care se dezvolta pe linarita (Linaria vulgaris Mill.), agenti potentiali de combatere pe cale biologica a acesteia. Buletinul Universitatii de Stiinte Cluj Napoca. Seria Agricultura si Horticultura, 48:115-121.

Popov P, 1972. Insect pests of medicinal crops in Bulgaria. III. Coleoptera. Rasteniev"dni Nauki, 9(5):167-175

Prishchepa LI; Mikul'skaya NI, 1998. Biopreparations on rape and clover. Zashchita i Karantin Rastenii, No. 6:30.

Silfverberg H, 1992. Enumeratio Coleopterorum Fennoscandiae, Daniae et Baltiae. Helsinki, Finland: Helsingin Hyönteisvaihtoyhdistys.

Spornraft K, 1967. Familie: Nitidulidae. In: Freude H, Harde KW, Lohse GA, eds. Die KSfer Mitteleuropas Band 7, Clavicornia. Krefeld, Germany: Goecke & Evers, 20-77.

Thies C; Steffan-Dewenter I; Tscharntke T, 2003. Effects of landscape context on herbivory and parasitism at different spatial scales. Oikos, 101(1):18-25; many ref.

Timus A; Croitoru N, 2008. Results of Valsaciper preparation 250 EC to combat the complex of pesting rapeseed insects (Brassica napus oleifera) in Republic of Moldova conditions. Bulletin of University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca. Agriculture, 65(1):301-304. http://sestras.ro/journals

Vidal S, 2003. Identification of Hymenopterous parasitoids associated with oilseed rape pests. Chapter 11 In: Alford DV, ed. Biocontrol of Oilseed Rape Pests. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing, 161-179.

Vukovic S; InÐic D; Turinski I, 2007. Efficacy of insecticides in the control of the pollen beetle (Meligethes aeneus F.). (Efikasnost insekticida u suzbijanju repicinog sjajnika (Meligethes aeneus F.).) Biljni Lekar (Plant Doctor), 35(5):516-523.

Wahmhoff W; Hedke K; Tiedemann AV; Nitzsche O; Ulber B, 1999. Impact of crop rotation and soil cultivation on the development of pests and diseases of rapeseed. Zeitschrift fu^umlaut~r Pflanzenkrankheiten und Pflanzenschutz, 106(1):57-73; 46 ref.

Williams IH, 2004. Advances in Insect Pest Management of Oilseed Rape in Europe. In: Horowitz AR, Ishaaya I, eds. Insect Pest Management - Field and Protected Crops. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag, 181-208.

Williams IH, 2004. The pollination of swede rape (Brassica napus L.). Bee World, 66(1): 16-22.

Williams IH; Buechi R; Ulber B, 2003. Sampling, trapping and rearing oilseed rape pests and their parasitoids. Chapter 10. In: Alford DV, ed. Biocontrol of Oilseed Rape Pests. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing, 145-160.

Williams IH; Free JB, 1978. The feeding and mating behaviour of pollen beetles (Meligethes aeneus Fab.) and seed weevils (Ceuthorhynchus assimilis Payk.) on oil-seed rape (Brassica napus L.). Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge, 91:453-459.

Williams IH; Free JB, 1979. Compensation of oil-seed rape (Brassica napus L.) plants after damage to their buds and pods. Journal of Agricultural Science, 92:53-59.

Distribution References

Audisio P, 1980. (Fénybogarak - Nitidulidae. Fauna Hungariae 140, VIII Kötet, Coleoptera III)., Budapest, Hungary: Akadémiai Kiado.

Audisio P, 1993. Coleoptera Nitidulidae-Kateretidae Fauna d'Italia., XXXII Bologna, Italy: Edizioni Calderini.

Berger H K, 1991. Oilseed rape in Austria - pest problems. In: Bulletin SROP, 14 (6) 14-20.

Büchi R, 1989. Models for the distribution of the rape blossom beetle, Meligethes aeneus F., on rape and turnip rape plants. (Modelle für die Verteilung des Rapsglanzkäfers, Meligethes aeneus F., aus Raps- und Rübsenpflanzen.). Journal of Applied Entomology. 108 (4), 363-371. DOI:10.1111/j.1439-0418.1989.tb00469.x

Burdajewicz S, Nowacka W, 1994. Beetles (Coleoptera) collected from seed plantations of horticultural crops. (Chrząszcze (Coleoptera) odłowione w uprawach nasiennych roślin ogrodniczuch.). Roczniki Akademii Rolniczej w Poznaniu, Ogrodnictwo. 11-17.

CABI, EPPO, 2001. Meligethes aeneus. [Distribution map]. In: Distribution Maps of Plant Pests, Wallingford, UK: CAB International. Map 619. DOI:10.1079/DMPP/20066600619

CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI

Ciglar I, Schmidt L, 1983. Insect fauna of the apple orchard 'Borinci' - Vinkovci, Croatia, Yugoslavia. (Fauna kukaca y jabučnjaku 'Borinci' - Vinkovci, Hrvatska, Jugoslavija.). Acta Entomologica Jugoslavica. 19 (1/2), 83-90.

Connell WA, 1970. Comments about Easton's revision of the Nearctic Meligethes (Nitidulidae). In: Coleopterists' Bulletin, 24 33-34.

Easton A M, 1955. A revision of the Nearctic species of the beetle genus Meligethes (Nitidulidae). Proceedings of the United States National Museum. 87-103.

Easton AM, 1956. The Meligethes of North Africa (Coleoptera, Nitidulidae). In: Mémoires de la Société des Sciences Naturelles et Physiques du Maroc, Nouvelle série, Zoologie, 2 1-71.

Easton AM, 1957. The Meligethes (Col., Nitidulidae) of Afghanistan. In: Entomologist's Monthly Magazine, 92 385-401.

Fowler W W, 1889. The Coleoptera of the British Isles. Vol. III. London, UK: L. Reeve and Co.

Georghiou G P, 1977. The insects and mites of Cyprus. With emphasis on species of economic importance to agriculture, forestry, man and domestic animals. In: The insects and mites of Cyprus. With emphasis on species of economic importance to agriculture, forestry, man and domestic animals. Kiphissia, Athens, Greece: Benaki Phytopathological Institute. 347 pp.

He ChunGui, 2001. Occurrence and chemical control of Meligthes aeneus. Plant Protection. 27 (1), 15-17.

Israelson G, 1984. Coleoptera from the Azores. Boletim do Museu Municipal do Funchal. 36 (161), 142-161.

Israelson G, Machado A, Oromi P, Palm T, 1982. (Novedades para la fauna coleopterologica de Las Islas Canarias). In: Vieraea, 11 109-134.

Issi I V, Krylova S V, Nikolaeva V M, 1993. Structure of the microsporidian Nosema meligethi and erection of a new genus Anncaliia. Parazitologiya. 27 (2), 127-133.

Kapustyan V, Moiseenko A, 1974. Rape and turnip rape need protection. Zemledelie. 47-48.

Kevväi R, Veromann E, Luik A, 2005. Pollen beetles (Meligethes aeneus F.) and their hymenopterous parasitoids in the spring oilseed rape. (Naeri-hiilamardikas (Meligethes aeneus F.) ja tema parasitoidid suvirapsil.). Transactions of the Estonian Agricultural University, Agronomy. 207-209.

Kișmir A, 1992. Studies on determination of harmful and beneficial fauna associated with rape (Brassica napus var. oleifera D.G.) fields in the Mediterranean region. (Akdeniz bölgesi kanola (Brassica napus var. oleifera D.G.) alanlarında zararlı ve faydalı fauna üzerinde çalıșmalar.). In: Proceedings of the Second Turkish National Congress of Entomology [Proceedings of the Second Turkish National Congress of Entomology], Izmir, Turkey: Ege Universitesi. 693-704.

Kirejtshuk AG, 1992. Nitidulidae. In: Keys to the Identification of Insects of the Soviet Far East Vol. 3 Coleoptera or beetles Part 2, [ed. by Ler PA]. Peterburgskoe Otdelenie, Russia: Sankt-Peterburg Nauka. 114-209.

Kirk-Spriggs A H, 1996. Pollen beetles: Coleoptera: Kateretidae and Nitidulidae: Meligethinae. London, UK: Royal Entomological Society. 157 pp.

Láska P, 1992. Testing of come insecticides against the rape blossom beetle (Meligethes aeneus) in seed stands of radishes. (Zkoušení některých insekticidů proti blýskáčku řepkovému (Meligethes aeneus) na semenných porostech ředkvičky.). Zahradnictví. 19 (1), 13-18.

Lipa J J, Hokkanen M T, 1991. A haplosporidian Haplosporidium meligethi sp. n., and a microsporidian Nosema meligethi I. et R., two protozoan parasites from Meligethes aeneus F. (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae). Acta Protozoologica. 30 (3/4), 217-222.

Lucht WH, 1987. The Middle European Beetles. In: Katalog, Krefeld, Germany: Goecke and Evers.

Maceljski M, Balarin I, Danon V, 1980. Results of long-term investigations on the occurrence and harmfulness of insects on oilseed rape. (Rezultati visegodisnjih proucavanja pojave i stetnosti insekata na uljanoj repici.). Zastita Bilja. 31 (4), 317-324.

Nilsson C, 1987. Yield losses in summer rape caused by pollen beetles (Meligethes spp.). In: Swedish Journal of Agricultural Research, 17 105-111.

Nilsson C, 1988. Pollen beetles (Meligethes aeneus F.) and flowering in rape. Swedish Journal of Agricultural Research. 18 (3), 113-118.

Perju T, Moldovan I, Teodor L, Oltean I, Bodis I, 1995. (Specii de insecte care se dezvolta pe linarita (Linaria vulgaris Mill.), agenti potentiali de combatere pe cale biologica a acesteia). In: Buletinul Universitatii de Stiinte Cluj Napoca. Seria Agricultura si Horticultura, 48 115-121.

Popov P, 1972. Insect pests of medicinal crops in Bulgaria. III. Coleoptera. Rasteniev"dni Nauki. 9 (5), 167-175.

Silfverberg H, 1992. (Enumeratio Coleopterorum Fennoscandiae, Daniae et Baltiae)., Helsinki, Finland: Helsingin Hyönteisvaihtoyhdistys.

Timuș A, Croitoru N, 2008. Results of Valsaciper preparation 250 EC to combat the complex of pesting rapeseed insects (Brassica napus oleifera) in Republic of Moldova conditions. Bulletin of University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca. Agriculture. 65 (1), 301-304. http://sestras.ro/journals

Vuković S, Inđić D, Turinski I, 2007. Efficacy of insecticides in the control of the pollen beetle (Meligethes aeneus F.). (Efikasnost insekticida u suzbijanju repičinog sjajnika (Meligethes aeneus F.).). Biljni Lekar (Plant Doctor). 35 (5), 516-523.

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