Meloidogyne javanica (sugarcane eelworm)

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Juvenile

Meloidogyne javanica (sugarcane eelworm); anterior, juvenile. (see http://www.padil.gov.au/maf-border/pest/main/141264 for detailed descriptions)

©Zeng Zhao/Landcare Research/via PaDIL - CC BY 3.0 AU

Juvenile

Meloidogyne javanica (sugarcane eelworm); juvenile, posterior. (see http://www.padil.gov.au/maf-border/pest/main/141264 for detailed descriptions)

©Zeng Zhao/Landcare Research/via PaDIL - CC BY 3.0 AU

Perineal pattern

Meloidogyne javanica (sugarcane eelworm); male, perineal pattern. (see http://www.padil.gov.au/maf-border/pest/main/141264 for detailed descriptions)

©Zeng Zhao/Landcare Research/via PaDIL - CC BY 3.0 AU

Perineal pattern

Meloidogyne javanica (sugarcane eelworm); male, perineal pattern. (see http://www.padil.gov.au/maf-border/pest/main/141264 for detailed descriptions)

©Zeng Zhao/Landcare Research/via PaDIL - CC BY 3.0 AU

Perineal pattern

Meloidogyne javanica (sugarcane eelworm); male, perineal pattern. (see http://www.padil.gov.au/maf-border/pest/main/141264 for detailed descriptions)

©Zeng Zhao/Landcare Research/via PaDIL - CC BY 3.0 AU

Perineal pattern

Meloidogyne javanica (sugarcane eelworm); male, perineal pattern. (see http://www.padil.gov.au/maf-border/pest/main/141264 for detailed descriptions)

©Zeng Zhao/Landcare Research/via PaDIL - CC BY 3.0 AU

Line art

Reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1972. CIH Descriptions of Plant-parasitic Nematodes. Set 1, No. 3. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

©CAB International

Line art

Reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1972. CIH Descriptions of Plant-parasitic Nematodes. Set 1, No. 3. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

©CAB International

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Meloidogyne javanica (Treub, 1885) Chitwood, 1949

Preferred Common Name

sugarcane eelworm

Other Scientific Names

Anguillula javanica (Treub 1885) Lavergne 1901
Heterodera javanica Treub 1885
Meloidogyne javanica bauruensis Lordello 1956
Tylenchus (Heterodera) javanica (Treub 1885) Cobb 1890

International Common Names

English: Javanese root knot nematode; root-knot nematode
Spanish: nemátodo javanés de quiste; nemátodo nodulador javanés
French: anguillule javanaise a noeud des racines; nématode à galles; nématode cécidogène; nématode galligène javanais
Portuguese: nematóide das galhas

Local Common Names

Germany: Aelchen, Javanisches Wurzelgallen-
Japan: Zyawa-nekobu-sentyu
Turkey: kok ur nematodu

EPPO code

MELGJA (Meloidogyne javanica)

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Metazoa
Phylum: Nematoda
Family: Meloidogynidae
Genus: Meloidogyne
Species: Meloidogyne javanica

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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The systematics of the genus Meloidogyne is complex: reliable specific identification can be difficult even for the expert. (See Sasser and Carter, 1985.)

Description

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Description (after Orton Williams, 1972)

Female
Endoparasitic; body nearly spherical in adult with projecting neck tapering to head; posterior end rounded, or with slightly protruding perineal region. Head with one annule behind head cap, slightly wider than first body annule. Stylet slender, dorsally curved, knobs rounded. Excretory pore located about 3 stylet lengths posterior to head. Posterior cuticular pattern (= perineal pattern) round or oval to pear-shaped, dorsal arch varying from rounded, to moderate height, sometimes flattened dorsally. Striae smooth to wavy, tail tip often marked by an irregular whorl. Typically lateral fields well defined by a double incisure bordering a definite break in the striae clearly dividing pattern into dorsal and ventral sectors. Lateral fields may be visible for some distance from tail but do not extend into the neck region, or may be poorly marked. Phasmids usually distinct.

Male
Head not offset; outline in lateral view characteristic with first annule projecting antero-laterally, well separated by constriction from a wider basal annule which may be subdivided into two annules either completely or partially (giving the appearance of one annule on one side of the body and two on the other). In dorsal or ventral view head outline rounded, amphidial apertures distinct. Stylet knobs rounded, not prominent. Valves of oesophageal bulb large. Oesophageal gland overlaps intestine for some distance ventrally. Excretory pore distinct, duct visible for some way along body. Hemizonid 0-4 annules anterior to pore. One testis or two. Intersexes common, displaying female characters to varying degrees ranging from a slight swelling anterior to cloaca to possession of a well developed vulva. Lateral field usually with 4 incisures ending at terminus or just anterior. Bands between incisures plain or outer ones sometimes areolated to some degree. Torsion of the posterior region of the body occurs to some extent making true lateral views of the tail hard to obtain. Tail shape somewhat variable, digitate in lateral view, bluntly rounded in ventral. Terminus not clearly striated. Phasmids located in lateral field at cloacal level or slightly anterior. Spicules slightly curved, with ventral flange distally, tips pointed. Gubernaculum thin, crescentic.

Juvenile
Head not offset, in lateral view truncate cone shape with 3 annules behind head cap; more rounded in dorsal and ventral view with one annule behind head cap. Stylet knobs rounded, not prominent. Hemizonid usually three annules long immediately anterior to excretory pore. Lateral field with four incisures, outer bands not clearly cross-striated. Rectum inflated; tail tapering to sub-acute or finely rounded terminus, annules coarsening posteriorly.

Measurements (from Orton Williams, 1972)

20 females: L = 541-804 µm (657); width = 311-581 µm (431); stylet = 14-18 (15) µm width stylet base (10) = 2-5 µm (4); dorsal oesophageal gland orifice = 2-5 µm (3) behind stylet base; length median bulb (10) = 38-46 µm (42); width median bulb (10) = 31-44 µm (35); length median bulb valves (10) = 14-19 µm (16); width median bulb valves (10) = 10-13 µm (11).

25 males: L = 757-1297 µm (1131); a = 17.5-42.9 (37.5); length head (24) = 5.8-7.6 µm (6.6); stylet = 20.0-23.0 µm (21.2); width stylet base (24) = 3.6-5.4 µm (4.3); dorsal oesophageal gland orifice (10) = 2.2-4.7 µm (2.9) behind stylet base; b1 = 13.0-18.4 (15.7); c (24) = 50-144 (91); length median bulb = 15.1-23.7 µm (19.7); width median bulb = 9.4-12.9 µm (10.9); spicules (length of arc) (30) = 20.9-31.7 µm (26.7); gubernaculum (14) = 7.2-9.4 µm (8.4).

25 juveniles: L = 387-459 µm (417); a = 27.1-35.9 (30.6); b (16) = 2.10-3.35 (2.42); b1 = 7.1-8.0 (7.5); length tail = 36-56 µm (49); d = 4.5-7.0 (5.5); c = 7.3-11.1 (8.5); length body to middle of genital primordium = 217-282 µm (255); stylet (24) = 9.4-11.4 µm (10.4); length median bulb = 10.8-13.7 µm (12.1); width median bulb = 5.4-7.6 µm (6.6); length median bulb valves (24) = 3.2-5.0 µm (4.3).

Distribution

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M. javanica is widely distributed in warm and tropical climates where it is often the dominant root-knot species. The geographic range includes Africa, Australia, South America, Asia, the USA and greenhouses in Europe. M. javanica is considered particularly common in Central Africa and the savannah regions of West Africa (Egunjobi, 1985; Saka, 1985) and it is considered to predominate in drier areas (less than 500 mm per year rainfall) (Sasser and Carter, 1985).

M. javanica has also been recorded from the following areas of protected agriculture; for example, in soils in and around many temperate research stations and other areas of intensive horticulture. In some cases the nematodes have been able to overwinter because of mild winters and could be expanding their geographic range:

Heilongjiang and Ningxia in China (Yang et al., 1991), Moldavia (Batyr and Kozhokaru, 1985), Poland (Brzeski et al., 1978), European part of Russia (Gushchin and Efremenko, 1975; Batyr and Kozhokaru, 1985; Mar'enko, 1989), Russian Far East (Kondratenko, 1985; Kondratenko and Metlitskii, 1989) and United Kingdom (IIP, 1992).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 25 Feb 2021

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Reference
Africa
Algeria	Present, Localized	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Angola	Present, Widespread	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Botswana	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Burundi	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Comoros	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Congo, Democratic Republic of the	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Côte d'Ivoire	Present, Widespread	Fortuner (1981) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Egypt	Present, Widespread	CABI and EPPO (2002) Ibrahim et al. (2010) Ibrahim and Handoo (2016) CABI (Undated)
Eritrea	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Ethiopia	Present	Awol Seid et al. (2019)
Gabon	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Gambia	Present, Widespread	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Ghana	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Kenya	Present, Widespread	Kanyagia (1979) Kanyagia (1988) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Liberia	Present, Widespread	Lamberti et al. (1988) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Libya	Present, Widespread	Dabaj and Jenser (1987) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Madagascar	Present, Widespread	Keetch and Buckley (1984) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Malawi	Present, Widespread	CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Mauritania	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Mauritius	Present, Widespread	Lamberti et al. (1987) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Morocco	Present, Widespread	CABI and EPPO (2002) Janati et al. (2018)
Mozambique	Present	Oever and Mangane (1992) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Nigeria	Present, Widespread	Adesiyan and Odihirin (1978) Babatola (1984) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Réunion	Present	Lamberti et al. (1986) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Rwanda	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Senegal	Present, Widespread	Taylor (1975) CABI and EPPO (2002)
South Africa	Present, Widespread	Loubser (1988) CABI and EPPO (2002) Malan et al. (2004) CABI (Undated)
Sudan	Present, Localized	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Tanzania	Present, Widespread	Ahmed (1975) Ebbels and Allen (1979) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Tunisia	Present, Localized	Waldmann (1971) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Uganda	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Zambia	Present, Widespread	CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Zimbabwe	Present, Widespread	Martin and Armstrong (1975) Way (1982) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Asia
Armenia	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Bangladesh	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Brunei	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
China	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002) Wang et al. (2014) Song et al. (2017) Zeng JianMin et al. (2018)
-Fujian	Present	Pan (1984) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Guangdong	Present	Yang et al. (1991) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Guangxi	Present	Yang et al. (1991) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Hainan	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Hebei	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Henan	Present, Widespread	Li and Yu (1991) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Inner Mongolia	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Jiangsu	Present, Localized	Shen et al. (1990) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Jiangxi	Present	Yang et al. (1991) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Shaanxi	Present	Mao Qi et al. (2007)
-Sichuan	Present, Localized	Chen et al. (1991) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Yunnan	Present, Localized	CABI and EPPO (2002) Wang et al. (2014) Song et al. (2017) Zeng JianMin et al. (2018) CABI (Undated)
-Zhejiang	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002) Zhao Lei et al. (2010)
India	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002) Ali and Sharma (2003) Khan et al. (2007) Singh and Gupta (2011) Srivastava et al. (2012)
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands	Present, Widespread	Salam (1991) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Andhra Pradesh	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Arunachal Pradesh	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Assam	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Bihar	Present, Localized	CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Chhattisgarh	Present	Sahu et al. (2011)
-Delhi	Present, Localized	CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Gujarat	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Haryana	Present	India, Haryana Agricultural University (1980) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Himachal Pradesh	Present, Widespread	CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
-Jammu and Kashmir	Present	Singh and Gupta (2011) Singh (2012)
-Karnataka	Present, Widespread	Narayanaswamy and Setty (1979) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Kerala	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Madhya Pradesh	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002) Shweta Sharma and Khan (2010)
-Maharashtra	Present, Localized	CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Odisha	Present	Mukhopadhyay and Roy (2006)
-Punjab	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002) Qaiser Shakeel et al. (2009) Anwar and McKenry (2010) Kamran et al. (2010)
-Rajasthan	Present	Mathur et al. (1970) CABI and EPPO (2002) Ali and Sharma (2003)
-Tamil Nadu	Present, Localized	CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Tripura	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Uttar Pradesh	Present, Widespread	CABI and EPPO (2002) Srivastava et al. (2012) CABI (Undated)
-Uttarakhand	Present	Rathour et al. (2006)
-West Bengal	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002) Khan et al. (2007) CABI (Undated)
Indonesia	Present, Widespread	Madamba (1981) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Java	Present, Widespread	CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Sulawesi	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Iran	Present, Widespread	Abivardi and Sharafeh (1973) CABI and EPPO (2002) Deimi and Mitkowski (2010) Behdani et al. (2017)
Iraq	Present	Stephan (1978) Stephan (1980) CABI and EPPO (2002) Ali et al. (2014)
Israel	Present, Widespread	Tarjan (1953) CABI and EPPO (2002) Klein et al. (2012)
Japan	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Hokkaido	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Honshu	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Kyushu	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Ryukyu Islands	Present	Fukudome (1978) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Jordan	Present, Widespread	Bridge (1978) Hashim (1979) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Kazakhstan	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Lebanon	Present, Widespread	Saad and Tanveer (1972) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Malaysia	Present, Widespread	Madamba (1981) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Peninsular Malaysia	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Sabah	Present	Liu (1977) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Sarawak	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Myanmar	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Nepal	Present, Widespread	Bhardwaj and Högger (1984) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Oman	Present, Localized	Waller and Bridge (1978) CABI and EPPO (2002) Mani et al. (2005)
Pakistan	Present, Widespread	Gul and Saeed (1987) CABI and EPPO (2002) Khan et al. (2005) Khan et al. (2007a) Shahid et al. (2007) Bhatti and Musarrat (2008) Khanzada and Khan (2008) Jiskani et al. (2009) Qaiser Shakeel et al. (2009) Anwar and McKenry (2010) Kamran et al. (2010) Zarina and Shahina (2010) Muhammad Ismail et al. (2012) Zia et al. (2014) Jabbar Khan et al. (2015) Yasir et al. (2018) CABI (Undated)
Philippines	Present, Widespread	Timm (1965) Madamba (1981) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Saudi Arabia	Present, Localized	Eissa (1982) CABI and EPPO (2002) El-Sherbiny (2011)
Singapore	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
South Korea	Present, Localized	Cho et al. (1987) CABI and EPPO (2002) Ma et al. (2007)
Sri Lanka	Present, Widespread	Sivapalan (1978) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Syria	Present, Widespread	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Taiwan	Present, Widespread	Madamba (1981) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Tajikistan	Present, Localized	Dzhuraeva (1976) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Thailand	Present	Kanjanasoon (1964) Chunram (1972) Madamba (1981) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Turkey	Present, Localized	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Turkmenistan	Present, Widespread	Artyunov (1985) Shagalina and Shagalin (1987) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Uzbekistan	Present, Localized	CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Vietnam	Present	Phong Vũ Nguyen et al. (2020) CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Yemen	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Europe
Bosnia and Herzegovina	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Bulgaria	Present, Localized	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Cyprus	Present	Philis (1983) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia	Present, Localized	Grujicic (1974)
France	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002) Quénéhervé et al. (2011)
Germany	Present, Localized	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Greece	Present, Widespread	Pyrowolakis (1975) CABI and EPPO (2002) Tzortzakakis et al. (2011)
-Crete	Present	Tzortzakakis (2009) Tzortzakakis et al. (2016)
Hungary	Present, Localized	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Iceland	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Italy	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Sicily	Present	Spatafora et al. (2004)
Malta	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Moldova	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Montenegro	Present	Pajovic et al. (2007)
North Macedonia	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Poland	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Portugal	Present, Localized	Santos et al. (1987) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Russia	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Central Russia	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Russian Far East	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Southern Russia	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Serbia and Montenegro	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Spain	Present, Widespread	CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Canary Islands	Present, Localized	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Ukraine	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
North America
Costa Rica	Present, Widespread	Sosa Moss (1985) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Cuba	Present, Widespread	CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
El Salvador	Present, Widespread	Sosa Moss (1985) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Guadeloupe	Present, Widespread	CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Guatemala	Present, Widespread	Sosa Moss (1985) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Honduras	Present, Widespread	Pinochet (1977) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Jamaica	Present, Widespread	Sosa Moss (1985) CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Martinique	Present, Widespread	CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Mexico	Present	Sosa Moss (1985) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Nicaragua	Present, Widespread	Sosa Moss (1985) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Panama	Present, Widespread	Sosa Moss (1985) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Puerto Rico	Present, Widespread	Sosa Moss (1985) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Trinidad and Tobago	Present, Widespread	Bala (1984) CABI and EPPO (2002)
United States	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002) Kaur et al. (2007) Hajihassani et al. (2019)
-Alabama	Present, Widespread	Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Arizona	Present	Taylor et al. (1982) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-California	Present, Widespread	Taylor et al. (1982) Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Florida	Present, Widespread	Taylor et al. (1982) Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002) Kaur et al. (2007)
-Georgia	Present, Widespread	Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002) Hajihassani et al. (2019)
-Hawaii	Present, Widespread	Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Louisiana	Present, Widespread	Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Mississippi	Present, Widespread	Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-New Mexico	Present, Widespread	Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-North Carolina	Present, Widespread	Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-South Carolina	Present, Widespread	Taylor et al. (1982) Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Tennessee	Present, Widespread	Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Texas	Present, Widespread	Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Virginia	Present, Widespread	Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Oceania
Australia	Present, Widespread	Khair (1986) CABI and EPPO (2002) Walker et al. (2002) Perera et al. (2008)
-New South Wales	Present, Widespread	Khair (1986) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Northern Territory	Present, Widespread	Khair (1986) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Queensland	Present, Widespread	Khair (1986) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-South Australia	Present, Widespread	Khair (1986) CABI and EPPO (2002) Walker et al. (2002)
-Victoria	Present, Widespread	Khair (1986) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Western Australia	Present, Widespread	Khair (1986) CABI and EPPO (2002) Perera et al. (2005) Perera et al. (2008)
Cook Islands	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Fiji	Present, Widespread	Bridge (1988) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Kiribati	Present, Widespread	Bridge (1988) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Niue	Present, Widespread	Bridge (1988) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Papua New Guinea	Present, Widespread	Bridge (1988) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Samoa	Present, Widespread	Bridge (1988) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Solomon Islands	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Tonga	Present, Widespread	Bridge (1988) CABI and EPPO (2002)
South America
Argentina	Present, Widespread	Costilla et al. (1976) Doucet and Pinochet (1992) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Bolivia	Present	Taylor et al. (1982) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Brazil	Present	Sharma (1980) CABI and EPPO (2002) Araújo Filho et al. (2012) Machado et al. (2013) Silva et al. (2014) Ito et al. (2015) Souza et al. (2015) Bellé et al. (2019)
-Acre	Present	Cavalcante et al. (2005)
-Alagoas	Present	Lima et al. (2013)
-Bahia	Present, Widespread	Freire and Ponte (1976) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Ceara	Present, Widespread	Ponte (1968) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Goias	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Maranhao	Present, Widespread	CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
-Mato Grosso	Present	Silva (1991)
-Mato Grosso do Sul	Present, Widespread	Lordello and Marini (1974) Tihohod and Ferraz (1986) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Minas Gerais	Present, Widespread	Freire and Ferraz (1977) Campos (1987) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Para	Present, Widespread	Freire (1976) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Paraiba	Present, Widespread	Lopes and Lordello (1980) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Parana	Present, Widespread	Santos and Silva (1984) CABI and EPPO (2002) Machado et al. (2013) Machado et al. (2014) Ito et al. (2015)
-Pernambuco	Present, Localized	Moura and Almeida (1982) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Rio de Janeiro	Present	Lima et al. (2005)
-Rio Grande do Norte	Present, Localized	Ponte et al. (1977) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Rio Grande do Sul	Present, Widespread	Lordello and Marini (1974) CABI and EPPO (2002) Bellé et al. (2019)
-Santa Catarina	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Sao Paulo	Present, Widespread	Curi and Silveira (1978) Lordello et al. (1984) CABI and EPPO (2002) Araújo Filho et al. (2012)
-Sergipe	Present, Widespread	Sharma and Loof (1982) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Chile	Present, Localized	CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Colombia	Present, Widespread	CABI and EPPO (2002) Agudelo et al. (2006) CABI (Undated)
Ecuador	Present, Widespread	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Paraguay	Present, Widespread	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Peru	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)
Suriname	Present, Widespread	Sosa Moss (1985) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Uruguay	Present	Taylor et al. (1982) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Venezuela	Present	CABI and EPPO (2002)

Risk of Introduction

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M. javanica is found worldwide and no specific quarantine measures against it are known to be in force.

Habitat

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Meloidogyne is one of the most widely distributed and economically important genera of plant-parasitic nematodes. M. javanica is considered second only to M. incognita in importance, being found widely in sub-tropical and tropical regions (see Sasser and Carter, 1985). Damage and yield losses caused are generally more severe on coarse-textured sandy soils (Van Gundy, 1985). Meloidogyne species are generally intolerant of flooded soil conditions. They are considered more prevalant on upland rice (Plowright and Hunt, 1994) and are not usually a problem on paddy rice (Fortuner and Merny, 1979).

Hosts/Species Affected

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Goodey et al. (1965) list a total of 770 host species or varieties, including many weeds as well as crop plants. In addition to those crops in the list of hosts, there are many others of economic importance, including tea, grapevine, many vegetables, fruit trees, cereals and ornamentals.

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context	References
Abelmoschus esculentus (okra)	Malvaceae	Other	Tariq-Khan et al. (2020)
Agathosma betulina	Rutaceae	Other
Ageratum conyzoides (billy goat weed)	Asteraceae	Wild host
Amaranthus (amaranth)	Amaranthaceae	Other
Anagallis arvensis (scarlet pimpernel)	Primulaceae	Other
Ananas comosus (pineapple)	Bromeliaceae	Other
Anthemis (chamomile)	Asteraceae	Other
Antirrhinum majus (snapdragon)	Scrophulariaceae	Unknown	Klein et al. (2012)
Apium graveolens (celery)	Apiaceae	Other
Arctium lappa (burdock)	Asteraceae	Other
Artemisia absinthium (Wormwood)	Asteraceae	Other
Basella alba (malabar spinach)	Basellaceae	Habitat/association
Bauhinia purpurea (purple bauhinia)	Fabaceae	Other
Berberis vulgaris (European barberry)	Berberidaceae	Other	Behdani et al. (2017)
Beta vulgaris var. saccharifera (sugarbeet)	Chenopodiaceae	Other
Borago officinalis (Borage)	Boraginaceae	Other
Brassicaceae (cruciferous crops)	Brassicaceae	Other
Calendula officinalis (Pot marigold)	Asteraceae	Other
Camellia sinensis (tea)	Theaceae	Main
Canna	Cannaceae	Other
Canna indica (canna lilly)	Cannaceae	Habitat/association
Cannabis sativa (hemp)	Cannabaceae	Other	Song et al. (2017)
Capsicum annuum (bell pepper)	Solanaceae	Main
Carissa macrocarpa (Natal plum)	Apocynaceae	Unknown
Catharanthus roseus (Madagascar periwinkle)	Apocynaceae	Other
Chamaerops humilis (dwarf fan palm)	Arecaceae	Unknown
Chenopodium album (fat hen)	Chenopodiaceae	Wild host
Chrysanthemum (daisy)	Asteraceae	Other
Cichorium (chicory)	Asteraceae	Other
Citrullus lanatus (watermelon)	Cucurbitaceae	Other
Clitoria ternatea (butterfly-pea)	Fabaceae	Other
Coleus forskohlii	Lamiaceae	Other
Colocasia	Araceae	Other
Convolvulus arvensis (bindweed)	Convolvulaceae	Wild host
Conyza bonariensis (hairy fleabane)	Asteraceae	Wild host
Corchorus olitorius (jute)	Tiliaceae	Habitat/association
Cordyline fruticosa (ti plant)	Agavaceae	Other
Cucumis melo (melon)	Cucurbitaceae	Habitat/association
Cucumis sativus (cucumber)	Cucurbitaceae	Unknown	Tariq-Khan et al. (2020); Wu et al. (2011)
Cucurbitaceae (cucurbits)	Cucurbitaceae	Main
Cullen corylifolium (black-dot)	Fabaceae	Other
Cyperus (flatsedge)	Cyperaceae	Other
Daucus carota (carrot)	Apiaceae	Other	Ali et al. (2014)
Dioscorea (yam)	Dioscoreaceae	Other
Duboisia	Solanaceae	Other
Echinochloa crus-galli (barnyard grass)	Poaceae	Wild host
Euphorbia prostrata	Euphorbiaceae	Other
Euphorbia tirucalli (Indian-tree spurge)	Euphorbiaceae	Other
Eustoma grandiflorum (Lisianthus (cut flower crop))	Gentianaceae	Habitat/association
Exacum affine	Gentianaceae	Habitat/association
Fabaceae (leguminous plants)	Fabaceae	Main
Fragaria ananassa (strawberry)	Rosaceae	Other
Gomphrena globosa (globe amaranth)	Amaranthaceae	Other
Gossypium (cotton)	Malvaceae	Other
Graptophyllum pictum	Acanthaceae	Habitat/association
Helianthus tuberosus (Jerusalem artichoke)	Asteraceae	Other
Heliconia rostrata	Heliconiaceae	Habitat/association
Hibiscus (rosemallows)	Malvaceae	Habitat/association
Hibiscus tiliaceus (coast cottonwood)	Malvaceae	Unknown
Holmskioldia sanguinea (Chinese hat plant)	Lamiaceae	Habitat/association
Humulus lupulus (hop)	Cannabaceae	Other
Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato)	Convolvulaceae	Other
Jasminum multiflorum (star jasmine)	Oleaceae	Habitat/association
Jasminum sambac (Arabian jasmine)	Oleaceae	Other
Lavandula (lavender)	Lamiaceae	Other
Manihot esculenta (cassava)	Euphorbiaceae	Other
Melia azedarach (Chinaberry)	Meliaceae	Unknown
Melissa officinalis (Lemon balm)	Lamiaceae	Other
Morinda citrifolia (Indian mulberry)	Rubiaceae	Other
Musa x paradisiaca (plantain)	Musaceae	Other
Nicotiana plumbaginifolia (Tex-Mex tobacco)	Solanaceae	Wild host
Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco)	Solanaceae	Main
Olea europaea subsp. europaea (European olive)	Oleaceae	Habitat/association
Oryza sativa (rice)	Poaceae	Other
Oxalis corniculata (creeping woodsorrel)	Oxalidaceae	Wild host
Parthenium hysterophorus (parthenium weed)	Asteraceae	Habitat/association
Passiflora edulis (passionfruit)	Passifloraceae	Other
Paulownia elongata (elongate paulownia)	Scrophulariaceae	Other
Pelargonium (pelargoniums)	Geraniaceae	Other
Phaseolus vulgaris (common bean)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Tariq-Khan et al. (2020)
Phoenix canariensis (Canary Island date palm)	Arecaceae	Unknown
Phoenix dactylifera (date-palm)	Arecaceae	Other
Piper nigrum (black pepper)	Piperaceae
Pisum sativum (pea)	Fabaceae	Habitat/association
Plukenetia volubilis	Euphorbiaceae	Other	Wang et al. (2014)
Prunus (stone fruit)	Rosaceae	Other
Prunus domestica (plum)	Rosaceae	Other
Prunus salicina (Japanese plum)	Rosaceae	Main
Psidium guajava (guava)	Myrtaceae	Other
Raphanus (radish)	Brassicaceae	Other
Ricinus communis (castor bean)	Euphorbiaceae	Other
Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary)	Lamiaceae	Other
Rubia tinctorum (Rose madder)	Rubiaceae	Other
Ruta graveolens (common rue)	Rutaceae	Other
Sabal palmetto (Cabbage palmetto)	Arecaceae	Unknown
Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane)	Poaceae	Other
Salvia officinalis (common sage)	Lamiaceae	Other
Samanea saman (rain tree)	Fabaceae	Other
Sesamum indicum (sesame)	Pedaliaceae	Other
Sesbania cannabina (corkwood tree)	Fabaceae	Habitat/association
Sinningia speciosa (gloxinia)	Gesneriaceae	Habitat/association
Solanaceae	Solanaceae	Main
Solanum lycopersicum (tomato)	Solanaceae	Main	Tariq-Khan et al. (2020)
Solanum melongena (aubergine)	Solanaceae	Main	Tariq-Khan et al. (2020)
Solanum nigrum (black nightshade)	Solanaceae	Wild host
Solanum tuberosum (potato)	Solanaceae	Main	Oka (2012)
Tectona grandis (teak)	Lamiaceae	Other
Terminalia catappa (Singapore almond)	Combretaceae	Other
Thymus (thyme)	Lamiaceae	Other
Trichosanthes dioica (pointed gourd)	Cucurbitaceae	Habitat/association
Vigna unguiculata (cowpea)	Fabaceae	Habitat/association
Vitis vinifera (grapevine)	Vitaceae	Habitat/association
Xanthosoma (cocoyam)	Araceae	Other
Zantedeschia aethiopica (calla lily)	Araceae	Other
Zingiber officinale (ginger)	Zingiberaceae	Other
Zinnia elegans (zinnia)	Asteraceae	Other
Ziziphus spina-christi (Christ's thorn jujube)	Rhamnaceae	Unknown
Zygophyllum		Other

Growth Stages

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Flowering stage, Fruiting stage, Seedling stage, Vegetative growing stage

Symptoms

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Symptoms of damage by M. javanica are similar to those caused by other Meloidogyne species and include poor growth with stunting and chlorosis of the aerial parts and a reduced and galled root system (see Dropkin, 1989).

List of Symptoms/Signs

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Sign	Life Stages	Type
Leaves / abnormal colours
Leaves / abnormal forms
Leaves / wilting
Roots / galls along length
Roots / reduced root system
Roots / swollen roots
Whole plant / dwarfing
Whole plant / early senescence

Biology and Ecology

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In most essentials the life cycle of M. javanica is very similar to those of other species of Meloidogyne. Mature females in roots produce eggs into a gelatinous egg sac, which may or may not protrude from the root and which completely envelops the eggs and acts as a barrier to water loss. Reproduction is probably always parthenogenetic. Under stress conditions such as overcrowding, food shortage, high temperature, or unsuitable host plant, a high percentage of males and intersexes is produced (Triantaphyllou, 1973). On hatching, infective second-stage juveniles move towards roots and accumulate at root tips, minor wounds or regions of previous penetration. Within a day of penetration of the host there is a rapid loss of mobility and infectivity.

Growth of M. javanica larvae in tomatoes (Bird, 1959) was slow at first, but after about 14 days (the time of the second moult), juveniles had thickened and possessed the spiked tail characteristic of Meloidogyne. The third and fourth moults followed rapidly within the moulted cuticle of the second-stage juvenile. Under Bird's optimum conditions, by the 19th day all specimens were in the final moult or were adults. Egg sac formation began between the 20th and 27th days, followed 2 days later by egg laying. Egg sac growth and rate of egg laying increased rapidly from the 30th to 40th day: the egg sac usually became bigger than the female which produced it. (See also Bird, 1971.)

M. javanica and one or even two other Meloidogyne spp. may sometimes be found in the same host. In mixed inoculations of M. javanica and M. hapla on tomatoes, Kinloch and Allen (1971) found that M. javanica predominated. M. javanica has been shown to interact with other pathogens, causing a disease complex where symptoms are worse than those produced by either pathogen alone. It interacts with the wilt-causing fungus Fusarium oxysporum and its various forms on: cowpeas (Thomason et al., 1959), tobacco (Porter and Powell, 1967) and tomatoes (Oteifa and Ragab, 1958). It also interacts with Thanatephorus cucumeris on soyabeans (Taylor and Wyllie, 1959).

See Bird (1971) for a review of work with special reference to M. javanica. See Taylor (1979) for work on interactions between Meloidogyne and diseases.

Natural enemies

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Natural enemy	Type	Life stages	Biological control in
Bacillus subtilis	Pathogen
Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki	Pathogen
Catenaria anguillulae	Pathogen
Hirsutella rhossiliensis	Pathogen
Iotonchus monhystera	Parasite
Monacrosporium cionopagum	Predator
Monacrosporium ellipsosporum	Predator
Myrothecium verrucaria	Pathogen
Paecilomyces lilacinus	Parasite		Pakistan
Pasteuria penetrans	Pathogen		Pakistan
Pseudomonas chitinolytica	Pathogen
Steinernema glaseri	Parasite
Trichoderma harzianum	Antagonist
Verticillium chlamydosporium	Parasite	Eggs

Notes on Natural Enemies

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A considerable amount of work has been devoted to biological control of root-knot nematodes in general (see Kerry, 1987). This includes much work on the use of natural enemies in the biological control of M. javanica.

Use of the microorganism Pasteuria penetrans against M. javanica has been investigated on several crops, including pigeonpeas (Sharma and Sharma, 1989), mung beans (Shazad et al., 1990), aubergines (Zaki and Maqbool, 1990), tomatoes (Maheswari and Mani, 1988; Daudi and Gowen, 1992) and tobacco (Chen et al., 1994).

The nematode-pathogenic fungus Paecilomyces lilacinus has also been assessed for the control of M. javanica on aubergines and mung beans (Zaki and Maqbool, 1990) and tomatoes (Maheswari and Mani, 1988).

Pathway Vectors

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Vector	Notes	Long Distance
Clothing, footwear and possessions	Eggs and galls in soil.	Yes
Containers and packaging - wood	Eggs and galls in soil.	Yes
Land vehicles	Eggs and galls in soil.	Yes
Mail	Eggs and galls in soil.	Yes
Soil, sand and gravel	Eggs and galls in soil.	Yes

Plant Trade

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Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport	Pest stages	Borne internally	Borne externally	Visibility of pest or symptoms
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes	adults; eggs; juveniles	Yes	Yes	Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope
Growing medium accompanying plants	adults; eggs; juveniles		Yes	Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope
Roots	adults; eggs; juveniles	Yes	Yes	Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants	adults; eggs; juveniles	Yes	Yes	Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope

Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Bark
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx
Fruits (inc. pods)
Leaves
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches
True seeds (inc. grain)
Wood

Impact

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Difficulties of identification within the genus Meloidogyne (see Hartman and Sasser, 1985) and the frequent occurrence of mixed species populations require that, scientifically, reports of the distribution, biology and pest impact of Meloidogyne at the species level often need to be treated with caution. However, as most crops susceptible to one Meloidogyne species will probably be suceptible to others (eg. to both M. incognita and M. javanica), these difficulties may not be important at the practical level (Netscher and Sikora, 1990).

Meloidogyne spp. can cause yield losses of over 30% in various vegetable crops (Netscher and Sikora, 1990). M. javanica is common on cowpeas in California and Australia, pigeonpeas in Puerto Rico and Brazil (Sikora and Greco, 1990) and is a serious problem on tobacco in South Africa and Zimbabwe (Shepherd and Barker, 1990). M. javanica is a major pest of pineapples in many parts of the world (Caswell, et al., 1990)

Detection and Inspection

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Above-ground symptoms are non-specific: examination of roots can reveal the presence of swollen roots and galls typical of root-knot nematodes in general (see Dropkin, 1989).

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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Similarities to other Meloidogyne species may lead to difficulties in identification. For authoritative species-level identifications, consult a specialist taxonomist.

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Introduction

Methods for the control of Meloidogyne spp. depend largely on crop plant, climate and economic considerations.

Cultural Methods

Fallows have been evaluated (Martin, 1967). Hot-water treatment of potatoes has been used (Martin, 1972).

Crop rotations with various non-host grasses are used to control M. javanica in tobacco (Shepherd and Barker, 1990). Various potential rotation crops, including Tagetes spp., guinea grass and maize have been assessed for the control of M. javanica on mung beans (Vigna radiata) (Toida, et al., 1991). In pot tests, Crotolaria ochroleuca, C. juncea (legumes) Tagetes erecta (African marigold), sesame and groundnuts were identifed as poor hosts for M. javanica (Madulu et al., 1994).

Organic amendments have been assessed to control M. javanica on tomatoes and okra in India (Singh and Sitaramaiah, 1966; 1967) and tested against M. javanica on mung beans (Toida et al., 1994).

Host-Plant Resistance

Root-knot resistance in tomatoes was evaluated against M. javanica in India (Sikora et al., 1973). Various vegetable varieties with resistance to M. javanica, including cowpeas, sweet peppers and tomatoes, have been developed in the USA (Lehman and Cochran, 1991).

Chemical Control

Where cost justifies their use, nematicides can be applied. Nematicides have been used to control M. javanica in tobacco and pineapple (Shepherd and Barker, 1990; Caswell et al., 1990).

References

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