Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode)

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Title

Caption

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Male

Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, full body image.

©Pest & Diseases Image Library (PaDIL) - CC BY 3.0 AU

Male

Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, spicule.

©Pest & Diseases Image Library (PaDIL) - CC BY 3.0 AU

Male

Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, perineal pattern.

©Pest & Diseases Image Library (PaDIL) - CC BY 3.0 AU

Male

Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, perineal pattern.

©Pest & Diseases Image Library (PaDIL) - CC BY 3.0 AU

Male

Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, perineal pattern.

©Pest & Diseases Image Library (PaDIL) - CC BY 3.0 AU

Female

Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); female. (Reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)

©CAB International

Cuticular patterns

Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); posterior cuticular patterns of females. (reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)

©CAB International

Cuticular patterns

Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); posterior cuticular patterns of females. (reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)

©CAB International

Cuticular patterns

Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); posterior cuticular patterns of females. (reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)

©CAB International

Cuticular patterns

Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); posterior cuticular patterns of females. (reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)

©CAB International

Symptoms

Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); symptoms in potato (Solanum tuberosum).

©Elizabeth Bush, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University/via Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid & White, 1919) Chitwood 1949

Preferred Common Name

root-knot nematode

Other Scientific Names

Meloidogyne acrita (Chitwood, 1949) Esser, Perry and Taylor, 1976
Meloidogyne incognita acrita Chitwood, 1949
Meloidogyne wartellei Golden & Birchfield, 1978
Oxyuris incognita Kofoid & White, 1919

International Common Names

English: root-knot eelworm; southern root-knot nematode
Spanish: anguillula de las raices; nemátodo agallador; nemátodo de la raiz; nemátodo de las agallas; nemátodo de los nódulos de las raíces; nemátodo nódulador; nemátodo sureno de quiste (Mexico)
French: anguillule a noeud de la patate; anguillule des racines; nématode à galles; nématode cécidogène; nématode des galles des racines; nématode des racines
Portuguese: nematóide das galhas

Local Common Names

Denmark: rodgalle-nematode
Germany: knoellchen-aelchen; knoellchen-nematode; suedliches wurzelgallen-aelchen
Hungary: gyökércsomós fonálférgek
Italy: anguillula delle radici; anguillula gallicola delle radici
Japan: satumaimo-nekobu-sentyu
South Africa: Wortelknop aalwurm
Sudan: nematoda bengkak akar
Turkey: kok ur nematodu

EPPO code

MELGIN (Meloidogyne incognita)

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Metazoa
Phylum: Nematoda
Family: Meloidogynidae
Genus: Meloidogyne
Species: Meloidogyne incognita

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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Meloidogyne species may be difficult to identify with certainty due to their inherent variability. Adult females and infective juveniles should be examined before making an identification. Male characters are also useful if they are available for examination, because some populations may not produce males, but they may be stimulated to produce males by putting the host plant under stress (Snyder et al., 2006).

Description

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Female

Endoparasitic, body pear-shaped, pearly white. Stylet knobs usually rounded, sometimes drawn out laterally. Distance of the dorsal esophageal gland to the base of the stylet is short, 2-3 µm. Excretory pore at level of or posterior to stylet knobs, 10-20 annules posterior to the anterior end. Posterior perineal pattern variable. Typical pattern 'incognita type'; with striae closely spaced, very wavy to zig-zag especially dorsally and laterally. Dorsal arch high, squarish. Lateral field not clear, sometimes marked by breaks in striae, broken ends often forked, pattern merging into body striae. Alternate 'Acrita type'; with striae smoother, more widely spaced (or with coarse, widely spaced striae separated by fine, closely spaced striae visible for short distances). Dorsal arch variable, may be flattened at top with the overall appearance of a trapezoid. Striae often forked along a 'lateral line'. Limits of pattern more or less well-defined. Aberrant patterns occur.

Male

Vermiform, 1-2 mm in length. Head not offset, distinct head cap on top of a large head annule that may be further divided into 1-3 incomplete, smaller annules appearing stepped in outline in lateral view. Body clearly annulated. Conus of stylet longer than shaft, stylet knobs prominent, usually of greater width than length, with flat, concave anterior margins. Excretory pore at level of posterior end of isthmus with hemizonid usually 0-5 annules anterior. Lateral field with 4 incisures, outer bands areolated, inner band rarely cross-striated except at posterior end. Testes 1 or 2. Tail bluntly rounded, terminus unstriated. Phasmids at cloaca level or just posterior. Spicules slightly curved, gubernaculum crescentic.

Second-Stage Juvenile

Vermiform, less than 0.5 mm in length. Head not offset, truncate cone shape in lateral view, sub-hemispherical in dorso-ventral view. Head-cap wide containing 2-3 annules. Stylet knobs prominent, rounded. Hemizonid 3 annules long just anterior to excretory pore. Lateral field with 4 incisures, outer bands areolated. Rectum inflated. Tail tapering to subacute terminus, annulations coarsening posteriorly.

Measurements (after Whitehead, 1968)

20 females: L = 500-723 (609) µm; width = 331-520 (415) µm; stylet (10) = 13-16 (14) µm; width stylet base (10) = 3-5 (4) µm; dorsal oesophageal gland orifice (8) = 2-4 (3) µm behind stylet base; length median bulb (10) = 37-63 (46) µm; width median bulb (10) = 31-49 (39) µm; length median bulb valves (10) = 13-16 (14) µm; width median bulb valves (10) = 11-13 (12) µm.

14 males: L = 1108-1953 (1583) µm; a = 31.4-55.4 (46.3); length head (13) = 6.8-8.6 (7.9) µm; stylet (13) = 23.0-32.7 (25.0) µm; width stylet base (13) = 4.7-6.8 (5.8) µm; dorsal oesophageal gland orifice (4) = 1.4-2.5 (2.1) µm behind stylet base; b' (12) = 13.8-20.5 (17.4); c (13) = 97-255 (146); length median bulb (12) = 14.4-25.2 (20.0) µm; width median bulb (12) = 8.6-15.8 (11.2) µm; length median bulb valves (12) = 5.8-9.0 (7.2) µm; spicules (length of arc) (12) = 28.8-40.3 (35.2) µm; gubernaculum (7) = 9.4-13.7 (11.2) µm.

25 second-stage juveniles: L = 337-403 (371) µm; a = 24.9-31.5 (28.3); b (21) = 2.02-3.14 (2.36); b' (24) = 6.4-8.4 (7.1); length tail = 38-55 (46) µm; d = 4.0-5.6 (4.9); c = 6.9-10.6 (8.1); length body to middle of genital primordium = 212-247 (230) µm; stylet = 9.6-11.7 (10.5) µm; length median bulb (24) = 10.1-12.9 (11.3) µm; width median bulb (24) = 5.8-8.3 (7.3) µm; length median bulb valves (22) = 3.6-6.47 (5.2) µm.

Distribution

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M. incognita has also been recorded from the following areas of protected agriculture; for example, around temperate research stations and other areas of intensive horticulture. In some cases the nematodes have been able to overwinter due to mild winters and could be expanding their geographical range.

Armenia (Pogosyan and Karapetyan, 1976), Heilongjiang and Ningxia in China (Yang et al., 1991), Hokkaido in Japan (Yamada and Takakura, 1975), Belarus (Gladkaya, 1981), Estonia (Pallum, 1972), Latvia (Rasina, 1970), Lithuania (Rudzyavichene et al., 1975), Macedonia (Krnjaic, 1977), Moldavia (Batyr and Kozhokaru, 1985), Poland (Brzeski et al., 1978), Romania (Romascu et al., 1974), European part of Russia (Kozhokaru, 1972; Gushchin and Efremenko, 1975; Mar'enko, 1989), Siberia (Shiabova, 1977), Ukraine (Timchenko, 1981) and UK (IIP, 1991).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 17 Dec 2021

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Africa
Algeria	Present				Scotto La Massese (1961) CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Angola	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Benin	Present		2011		Affokpon et al. (2011)
Botswana	Present		2004		Kwerepe and Labuschagne (2004)
Burkina Faso	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
Cabo Verde	Present				Santos (1983) Flis et al. (2018)
Cameroon	Present				Price (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Central African Republic	Present		1964		Luc et al. (1964)
Congo, Democratic Republic of the	Present, Widespread				Taylor et al. (1982) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Côte d'Ivoire	Present				Fortuner (1981) CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Egypt	Present, Widespread				Ibrahim et al. (1972) CABI and EPPO (2002) Abo-Elyousr et al. (2010) Ibrahim et al. (2010) Youssef and Lashein (2013) Ibrahim and Handoo (2016) CABI (Undated)
Eritrea	Present		2013		Chaudhary et al. (2013)
Ethiopia	Present				Sharma and McDonald (1990) CABI and EPPO (2002) Gebrehiwot Nega and Seifu Fetena (2015)
Gambia	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Ghana	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002) Osei et al. (2012) CABI (Undated)
Guinea	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Kenya	Present				Kanyagia (1979) CABI and EPPO (2002) Karuri et al. (2017)
Liberia	Present, Widespread				Lamberti et al. (1988) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Libya	Present, Widespread				Khan and Dabaj (1980) Dabaj and Jenser (1987) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Madagascar	Present, Widespread				Keetch and Buckley (1984) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Malawi	Present, Widespread				Keetch and Buckley (1984) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Mali	Present		2019		Touré et al. (2019)
Mauritania	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
Mauritius	Present, Widespread				Lamberti et al. (1987) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Morocco	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002) Janati et al. (2018) CABI (Undated)
Mozambique	Present				Oever and Mangane (1992) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Niger	Present, Widespread				Sikora et al. (1988) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Nigeria	Present, Widespread				Adesiyan and Odihirin (1978) Babatola (1980) CABI and EPPO (2002) Daramola et al. (2013)
Réunion	Present, Widespread				Keetch and Buckley (1984) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Senegal	Present, Widespread				Taylor (1975) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Seychelles	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Sierra Leone	Present				Sierra Leone: Department of Agriculture. (1962)
Somalia	Present, Localized				Karshe (1993) CABI and EPPO (2002)
South Africa	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Sudan	Present, Localized				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Tanzania	Present, Widespread				Ahmed (1975) Taylor et al. (1982) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Togo	Present				Eloh et al. (2020)
Tunisia	Present, Localized				Moens (1985) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Uganda	Present, Widespread				Bridge et al. (1991) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Zambia	Present, Widespread				Keetch and Buckley (1984) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Zimbabwe	Present, Widespread				Martin and Armstrong (1975) CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Asia
Afghanistan	Present		2018		Jamily et al. (2018)
Armenia	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
Azerbaijan	Present		1982		Treskova and Sadykhov (1982)
Bangladesh	Present, Widespread				Shepherd and Barker (1990) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Brunei	Present				Reddy (1977) CABI and EPPO (2002)
China	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002) Zeng JianMin et al. (2018) Song et al. (2019) Song et al. (2019a) Song et al. (2019b)
-Anhui	Present				Yang et al. (1991) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Fujian	Present				Yang et al. (1991) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Guangdong	Present				Wu and Xue (1986) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Guangxi	Present				Wu and Xue (1986) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Guizhou	Present				Yang et al. (1991) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Hainan	Present				Yang et al. (1991) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Hebei	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Heilongjiang	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Henan	Present				Yang et al. (1991) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Hubei	Present				Yang et al. (1991) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Hunan	Present				Wu and Xue (1986) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Inner Mongolia	Present				Zhang XiaoQin et al. (1998) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Jiangsu	Present				Shen et al. (1990) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Jiangxi	Present				Yang et al. (1991) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Qinghai	Present				Yang et al. (1991) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Shaanxi	Present				Li et al. (1992) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Shandong	Present				Yang et al. (1991) CABI and EPPO (2002) Song et al. (2019) Song et al. (2019a) Song et al. (2019b)
-Sichuan	Present				Chen et al. (1991) Yang et al. (1991) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Yunnan	Present				Yang et al. (1991) CABI and EPPO (2002) Zeng JianMin et al. (2018)
-Zhejiang	Present				Wu and Xue (1986) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Georgia	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
India	Present, Localized				CABI and EPPO (2002) Ali and Sharma (2003) Khan et al. (2007) Mallikarjuna et al. (2010) Poornima et al. (2017)
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands	Present, Widespread				Salam (1991) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Andhra Pradesh	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
-Arunachal Pradesh	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Assam	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
-Bihar	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
-Chandigarh	Present, Widespread				Mathur and Khera (1991) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Chhattisgarh	Present				Sahu et al. (2011)
-Delhi	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Gujarat	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
-Haryana	Present				India, Haryana Agricultural University (1980) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Himachal Pradesh	Present, Localized				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
-Jammu and Kashmir	Present				Bhat and Kaul (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002) Singh and Gupta (2011)
-Karnataka	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002) Thankamony et al. (2002) Mallikarjuna et al. (2010) CABI (Undated)
-Kerala	Present, Widespread				Raveendran and Nadakal (1975) CABI and EPPO (2002) Thankamony et al. (2002)
-Madhya Pradesh	Present, Widespread				Tiwari and Dave (1985) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Maharashtra	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002) Thankamony et al. (2002) CABI (Undated)
-Manipur	Present				Mishra (1991) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Meghalaya	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
-Odisha	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
-Punjab	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002) Qaiser Shakeel et al. (2009) Anwar and McKenry (2010) Kamran et al. (2010) Harish Siag et al. (2015) Hussain et al. (2015) CABI (Undated)
-Rajasthan	Present				Mathur et al. (1970) CABI and EPPO (2002) Ali and Sharma (2003) Vyas et al. (2008)
-Sikkim	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Tamil Nadu	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002) Thankamony et al. (2002) CABI (Undated)
-Tripura	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Uttar Pradesh	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002) Srivastava et al. (2012) CABI (Undated)
-Uttarakhand	Present				Rathour et al. (2006)
-West Bengal	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002) Khan et al. (2007) CABI (Undated)
Indonesia	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Java	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
-Sumatra	Present, Widespread				Bridge (1978) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Iran	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002) Bahmani et al. (2013) CABI (Undated)
Iraq	Present				Katcho (1972) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Israel	Present, Widespread				Tarjan (1953) Orion et al. (1982) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Japan	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Hokkaido	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Honshu	Present, Widespread				Saigusa and Matsumoto (1961) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Kyushu	Present				Araki and Nakasono (1987) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Ryukyu Islands	Present				Fukudome (1978) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Shikoku	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
Jordan	Present				Hashim (1979) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Kazakhstan	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
Kyrgyzstan	Present				Treskova and Sadykhov (1982)
Lebanon	Present, Widespread				Saad and Tanveer (1972) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Malaysia	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002) Abdul Rahman et al. (2014)
-Peninsular Malaysia	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
-Sabah	Present				Liu (1977) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Sarawak	Present				Sarawak (1975) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Mongolia	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
Myanmar	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
Nepal	Present, Widespread				Bhardwaj and Högger (1984) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Oman	Present				Waller and Bridge (1978) CABI and EPPO (2002) Mani et al. (2005)
Pakistan	Present				Qureshi et al. (1984) CABI and EPPO (2002) Khanzada et al. (2007) Tariq et al. (2007) Qaiser Shakeel et al. (2009) Zarina and Shahina (2010) Zarina and Shaheen (2014) Hussain et al. (2015) CABI (Undated)
Philippines	Present				Timm (1965) Madamba (1981) CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Saudi Arabia	Present, Widespread				Eissa and Hyder (1981) Eissa (1982) CABI and EPPO (2002) El-Sherbiny (2011)
Singapore	Present				AVA (2001) CABI and EPPO (2002)
South Korea	Present				Shepherd and Barker (1990) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Sri Lanka	Present, Widespread				Sivapalan (1978) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Syria	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Taiwan	Present				Taylor et al. (1982) CABI and EPPO (2002) Tsai et al. (2020)
Tajikistan	Present				Dzhuraeva (1976) Teben'kova (1987) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Thailand	Present				Chunram (1972) Shepherd and Barker (1990) CABI and EPPO (2002) Ruanpanun and Khun-in (2015)
Turkey	Present				Bora (1970) CABI and EPPO (2002) Mennan and Handoo (2006) Erdogus et al. (2010) Kepenekcİ and Dura (2017) Aydınlı (2018)
Turkmenistan	Present, Widespread				Artyunov (1985) Shagalina and Shagalin (1987) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Uzbekistan	Present, Widespread				Mavlyanov (1972) CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Vietnam	Present, Widespread				Shepherd and Barker (1990) CABI and EPPO (2002) Phan Thi Thanh Huyen et al. (2018) CABI (Undated)
Yemen	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Europe
Albania	Present, Localized				Shepherd and Barker (1990)
Belarus	Present, Localized				CABI and EPPO (2002)
Belgium	Present				Huu Tien Nguyen et al. (2019) CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)	Botanical garden at Ghent University.
Bosnia and Herzegovina	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
Bulgaria	Present, Localized				Stoyanov (1980) Shepherd and Barker (1990) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Cyprus	Present, Localized				Philis (1983) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Czechia	Present				Tesařová et al. (2003)
Estonia	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia	Present				Grujicic (1974)
France	Present, Widespread				Gautier (1975) Shepherd and Barker (1990) CABI and EPPO (2002) Quénéhervé et al. (2011)
Germany	Present, Localized				Shepherd and Barker (1990) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Greece	Present, Localized				Kyrou (1976) CABI and EPPO (2002) Tzortzakakis et al. (2011)
-Crete	Present				Tzortzakakis et al. (2016)
Hungary	Present, Localized				Shepherd and Barker (1990) Amin and Budai (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Iceland	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
Italy	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002) d'Errico et al. (2014) Seebens et al. (2017) CABI (Undated)
-Sicily	Present				Colombo et al. (2008)
Latvia	Present, Localized				CABI and EPPO (2002)
Lithuania	Present, Localized				CABI and EPPO (2002)
Malta	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Moldova	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
Montenegro	Present				Pajovic et al. (2007)
Netherlands	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
North Macedonia	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
Poland	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
Portugal	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002) Abrantes et al. (2008) CABI (Undated)
-Azores	Present				Vovlas et al. (2004)
Romania	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002) Seebens et al. (2017)
Russia	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Central Russia	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Northern Russia	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Russian Far East	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Southern Russia	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Western Siberia	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
Serbia	Present				Bačić et al. (2016)	Bac?ki Vinogradi, Vojvodina Province
Serbia and Montenegro	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
Slovakia	Present				Tesařová et al. (2003)
Slovenia	Present				Širca et al. (2003)
Spain	Present, Widespread				Shepherd and Barker (1990) CABI and EPPO (2002) Castillo and Jiménez-Díaz (2003) Cara et al. (2011) López-Robles et al. (2013) CABI (Undated)
-Canary Islands	Present, Localized				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Switzerland	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
Ukraine	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
United Kingdom	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002) Tesařová et al. (2003) Seebens et al. (2017)
-Scotland	Present				Tesařová et al. (2003)
North America
Antigua and Barbuda	Present				Walker et al. (1974) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Barbados	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002)
Belize	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
Bermuda	Present, Widespread				Wang and Hughes (1976) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Canada	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Ontario	Present				Johnson and Potter (1980) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Quebec	Absent, Unconfirmed presence record(s)				CABI and EPPO (2002)
Costa Rica	Present, Widespread				López (1985) Sosa Moss (1985) CABI and EPPO (2002) Villain et al. (2013)
Cuba	Present, Widespread				Cuadra et al. (1988) CABI and EPPO (2002) Rivas Bofill and Gandarilla Basterrechea (2012)
Dominica	Present				Hunt (1977) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Dominican Republic	Present, Widespread				Roman and Grullon (1975) CABI and EPPO (2002)
El Salvador	Present, Widespread				Sosa Moss (1985) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Guadeloupe	Present, Widespread				Kermarrec (1974) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Guatemala	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002) Villain et al. (2013)
Haiti	Present, Widespread				Crill et al. (1973) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Honduras	Present, Widespread				Pinochet (1977) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Jamaica	Present, Widespread				Sosa Moss (1985) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Martinique	Present				Sosa Moss (1985) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Mexico	Present, Widespread				Sosa Moss (1985) CABI and EPPO (2002) Martínez Gallardo et al. (2014) Martínez-Gallardo et al. (2019)
Montserrat	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002)
Nicaragua	Present, Widespread				Sosa Moss (1985) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Panama	Present, Widespread				Sosa Moss (1985) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Puerto Rico	Present, Widespread				Sosa Moss (1985) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Saint Lucia	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	Hunt (1977) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	Present, Widespread				Hunt (1977) Sosa Moss (1985) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Trinidad and Tobago	Present, Widespread				Bala (1984) CABI and EPPO (2002)
United States	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002) Johnson et al. (1996) Allen et al. (2005) Kaur et al. (2007) Hall et al. (2017) Moye et al. (2018)
-Alabama	Present, Widespread				Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002) Hall et al. (2017) Moye et al. (2018)
-Arizona	Present, Widespread				Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Arkansas	Present, Widespread				Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-California	Present, Widespread				Taylor et al. (1982) Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Connecticut	Present, Widespread				Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Florida	Present, Widespread				Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002) Kaur et al. (2007)
-Georgia	Present, Widespread				Walters and Barker (1994) Johnson et al. (1996) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Hawaii	Present, Widespread				Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Illinois	Present, Localized				Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002) Allen et al. (2005)
-Indiana	Present, Localized				Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002) Kruger et al. (2007)
-Kansas	Present, Widespread				Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Kentucky	Present, Widespread				Taylor et al. (1982) Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Louisiana	Present, Widespread				Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Maryland	Present, Widespread				Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Mississippi	Present, Widespread				Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Missouri	Present				Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-New Mexico	Present, Widespread				Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-New York	Present, Widespread				Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-North Carolina	Present, Widespread				Taylor et al. (1982) Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Oklahoma	Present, Widespread				Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Oregon	Present, Widespread				Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Pennsylvania	Present, Widespread				Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-South Carolina	Present, Widespread				Taylor et al. (1982) Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Tennessee	Present, Widespread				Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Texas	Present, Widespread				Taylor et al. (1982) Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Utah	Present				Campbell and Griffin (1975) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Virginia	Present, Widespread				Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Washington	Present, Widespread				Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-West Virginia	Present, Widespread				Walters and Barker (1994) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Oceania
American Samoa	Present				Brooks (2002) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Australia	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002) Singh et al. (2012) CABI (Undated)
-New South Wales	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
-Northern Territory	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002) Singh et al. (2012) CABI (Undated)
-Queensland	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
-South Australia	Present, Widespread				Stirling (1976) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Tasmania	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
-Victoria	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
-Western Australia	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Fiji	Present, Widespread				Bridge (1988) CABI and EPPO (2002) Singh et al. (2012a)
Kiribati	Present, Widespread				Bridge (1988) CABI and EPPO (2002)
New Caledonia	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
New Zealand	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
Niue	Present				Bridge (1988) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Norfolk Island	Present				Bridge (1988) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Papua New Guinea	Present, Widespread				Powell (1974) Bridge (1988) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Samoa	Present, Widespread				Bridge (1988) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Solomon Islands	Present, Widespread				Bridge (1988) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Tonga	Present, Widespread				Bridge (1988) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Tuvalu	Present, Widespread				Bridge (1988) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Vanuatu	Present, Widespread				Bridge (1988) CABI and EPPO (2002)
South America
Argentina	Present, Widespread				Doucet and Pinochet (1992) CABI and EPPO (2002) Cabrera et al. (2013)
Bolivia	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Brazil	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002) Lima et al. (2005) Moura et al. (2010) Lima et al. (2013) Mota et al. (2013) Galbieri et al. (2020) Souza Junior et al. (2020)
-Alagoas	Present				Lima et al. (2013)
-Bahia	Present, Widespread				Freire and Ponte (1976) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Ceara	Present, Widespread				Ponte (1968) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Espirito Santo	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Goias	Present, Widespread				Lordello et al. (1986) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Maranhao	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
-Mato Grosso do Sul	Present, Widespread				Lordello and Marini (1974) Tihohod and Ferraz (1986) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Minas Gerais	Present, Widespread				Freire and Ferraz (1977) CABI and EPPO (2002) Galbieri et al. (2020)
-Para	Present, Widespread				Freire (1976) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Paraiba	Present, Widespread				Lopes and Lordello (1980) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Parana	Present, Widespread				Lordello and Lordello (1972) Santos and Silva (1984) CABI and EPPO (2002) Mota et al. (2013)
-Pernambuco	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002) Souza Junior et al. (2020)
-Rio de Janeiro	Present, Widespread				Goes et al. (1982) CABI and EPPO (2002) Lima et al. (2005)
-Rio Grande do Norte	Present				Ponte et al. (1977) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Rio Grande do Sul	Present, Widespread				Lordello and Marini (1974) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Santa Catarina	Present, Widespread				Kalvelage and Brose (1990) CABI and EPPO (2002)
-Sao Paulo	Present, Widespread				Curi and Silveira (1978) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Chile	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Colombia	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
Ecuador	Present, Widespread				Velastegui and Fiallos (1987) CABI and EPPO (2002)
French Guiana	Present				CABI and EPPO (2002)
Guyana	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002)
Paraguay	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)
Peru	Present				Vargas and Pajuelo (1973) CABI and EPPO (2002) Murga-Gutierrez et al. (2012)
Suriname	Present, Widespread				Sosa Moss (1985) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Uruguay	Present				Alvarez Argudin (1970) CABI and EPPO (2002)
Venezuela	Present, Widespread				CABI and EPPO (2002) CABI (Undated)

Risk of Introduction

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M. incognita is widely endemic in subtropical and tropical regions, thus quarantine regulations would be superfluous and none are known to be in place.

Habitat

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M. incognita is found worldwide in tropical and subtropical regions, in particular in the warmer areas. For example, in California (USA), M. incognita is found more commonly in the hot valleys of the interior (Ferris and Van Gundy, 1979) and in East Africa it is restricted to altitudes below 2000 m above sea level (Whitehead, 1969). M. incognita is found on many soil types. Damage and yield losses caused are generally more severe on coarse-textured sandy soils (Van Gundy, 1985). Meloidogyne spp. are generally intolerant of flooded soil conditions.

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Protected agriculture (e.g. glasshouse production)	Principal habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed grasslands (grazing systems)	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural forests	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural grasslands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)

Hosts/Species Affected

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M. incognita is probably the most widely distributed and economically important species of plant parasitic nematode in tropical and subtropical regions. Two-thirds of the root-knot nematode samples obtained from a number of tropical countries were of M. incognita (Sasser, 1979). In India alone, 232 plant genera have been reported as hosts to M. incognita (Krishnappa, 1985) and worldwide the species is a parasite of a wide range of crop plants.

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context	References
Abelmoschus esculentus (okra)	Malvaceae	Main	Singh et al. (2012); Tariq-Khan et al. (2020); Hussain et al. (2015); Shahid et al. (2007); Quénéhervé et al. (2011); Srivastava et al. (2012)
Abelmoschus manihot (bele)	Malvaceae	Unknown	Singh et al. (2012)
Acacia confusa	Fabaceae	Main
Achillea millefolium (yarrow)	Asteraceae	Other
Actinidia deliciosa (kiwifruit)	Actinidiaceae	Other
Agave	Agavaceae	Other
Ageratum conyzoides (billy goat weed)	Asteraceae	Unknown	Quénéhervé et al. (2011)
Albizia lebbeck (Indian siris)	Fabaceae	Other	El-Sherbiny (2011)
Alcea rosea (Hollyhock)	Malvaceae	Other
Allium cepa (onion)	Liliaceae	Unknown	Khan et al. (2007); Vyas et al. (2008)
Allium fistulosum (Welsh onion)	Liliaceae	Unknown	Quénéhervé et al. (2011)
Aloe vera (true aloe)	Aloaceae	Other	Tariq et al. (2007)
Amaranthus (amaranth)	Amaranthaceae	Other
Amaranthus blitoides (spreading amaranth)	Amaranthaceae	Other
Amaranthus blitum (livid amaranth)	Amaranthaceae	Other
Amaranthus deflexus (Perennial Pigweed)	Amaranthaceae	Wild host
Amaranthus hybridus (smooth pigweed)	Amaranthaceae	Wild host
Amaranthus spinosus (spiny amaranth)	Amaranthaceae	Wild host
Amaranthus viridis (slender amaranth)	Amaranthaceae	Wild host	Singh et al. (2012)
Anacardium occidentale (cashew nut)	Anacardiaceae	Habitat/association
Ananas comosus (pineapple)	Bromeliaceae	Other	Daramola et al. (2013); Daramola and Afolami (2014)
Anchusa azurea (Italian alkanet)	Boraginaceae	Wild host
Anethum graveolens (dill)	Apiaceae	Other	KepenekcI and Dura (2017)
Apium graveolens (celery)	Apiaceae	Unknown	Quénéhervé et al. (2011)
Aptenia cordifolia	Aizoaceae	Habitat/association
Arabidopsis thaliana	Brassicaceae	Other
Araujia sericifera (Arejishi)	Asclepiadaceae	Wild host	d'Errico et al. (2014)
Areca catechu (betelnut palm)	Arecaceae	Habitat/association
Asparagus officinalis (asparagus)	Liliaceae	Other	Murga-Gutierrez et al. (2012)
Basella alba (malabar spinach)	Basellaceae	Habitat/association
Bassia scoparia	Chenopodiaceae	Other
Bertholletia excelsa (Brazil nut)	Lecythidaceae	Unknown
Beta vulgaris (beetroot)	Chenopodiaceae	Other	Ibrahim et al. (2010)
Beta vulgaris var. saccharifera (sugarbeet)	Chenopodiaceae	Unknown	Ibrahim and Handoo (2016)
Bidens pilosa (blackjack)	Asteraceae	Wild host
Brassica oleracea (cabbages, cauliflowers)	Brassicaceae	Unknown	Singh et al. (2012); Mennan and Handoo (2006); Anwar and McKenry (2010); Quénéhervé et al. (2011)
Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes (kohlrabi)	Brassicaceae	Main
Brassica rapa (field mustard)	Brassicaceae	Unknown	Vyas et al. (2008); Anwar and McKenry (2010)
Brassicaceae (cruciferous crops)	Brassicaceae	Other
Calendula officinalis (Pot marigold)	Asteraceae	Other
Canavalia ensiformis (jack bean)	Fabaceae	Other
Canna	Cannaceae	Other
Canna indica (canna lilly)	Cannaceae	Habitat/association
Cannabis sativa (hemp)	Cannabaceae	Other
Capsicum (peppers)	Solanaceae	Unknown	Aydınlı (2018)
Capsicum annuum (bell pepper)	Solanaceae	Main	Singh et al. (2012); Sirca et al. (2003); Pajovic et al. (2007); Quénéhervé et al. (2011)
Capsicum chinense (habanero pepper)	Solanaceae	Unknown	Quénéhervé et al. (2011)
Cardiospermum halicacabum (balloon vine)	Sapindaceae	Wild host
Carica papaya (pawpaw)	Caricaceae	Main	Singh et al. (2012); Martínez et al. (2014); Quénéhervé et al. (2011)
Chamaesyce prostrata	Euphorbiaceae	Unknown	Quénéhervé et al. (2011)
Chenopodium album (fat hen)	Chenopodiaceae	Wild host
Chenopodium murale (nettleleaf goosefoot)	Chenopodiaceae	Wild host
Chrysanthemum (daisy)	Asteraceae	Other
Cicer arietinum (chickpea)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Ali and Sharma (2003)
Cichorium (chicory)	Asteraceae	Other
Citrullus lanatus (watermelon)	Cucurbitaceae	Unknown	Singh et al. (2012); Anwar and McKenry (2010)
Cleome viscosa (Asian spiderflower)	Capparaceae	Wild host	Quénéhervé et al. (2011)
Clitoria ternatea (butterfly-pea)	Fabaceae	Other	Zarina and Shahina (2010)
Cocos nucifera (coconut)	Arecaceae	Habitat/association
Coffea (coffee)	Rubiaceae	Main	Phan et al. (2018)
Coffea arabica (arabica coffee)	Rubiaceae	Main	Villain et al. (2013)
Coffea canephora (robusta coffee)	Rubiaceae	Other
Colocasia	Araceae	Other
Colocasia esculenta (taro)	Araceae	Unknown	Singh et al. (2012)
Commelina benghalensis (wandering jew)	Commelinaceae	Wild host
Convolvulus arvensis (bindweed)	Convolvulaceae	Wild host
Cordia myxa (sebesten)	Boraginaceae	Other	El-Sherbiny (2011)
Cordyline fruticosa (ti plant)	Agavaceae	Other
Cordyline fruticosa (ti plant)	Agavaceae	Other
Coriandrum sativum (coriander)	Apiaceae	Other	Singh et al. (2012); Anwar and McKenry (2010); Singh and Gupta (2011)
Cucumis anguria (West Indian gherkin)	Cucurbitaceae	Other
Cucumis melo (melon)	Cucurbitaceae	Other
Cucumis sativus (cucumber)	Cucurbitaceae	Other	Singh et al. (2012); Tariq-Khan et al. (2020); Yan et al. (2011); Pajovic et al. (2007); Anwar and McKenry (2010); Shahid et al. (2007); Muhammad et al. (2012); Quénéhervé et al. (2011)
Cucurbita (pumpkin)	Cucurbitaceae	Unknown	Shahid et al. (2007)
Cucurbita argyrosperma (silver-seed gourd)	Cucurbitaceae	Main	Anwar and McKenry (2010)
Cucurbita maxima (giant pumpkin)	Cucurbitaceae	Main	Singh et al. (2012); Quénéhervé et al. (2011)
Cucurbita moschata (pumpkin)	Cucurbitaceae	Main
Cucurbita pepo (marrow)	Cucurbitaceae	Main
Cucurbitaceae (cucurbits)	Cucurbitaceae	Main
Cullen corylifolium (black-dot)	Fabaceae	Other
Curcuma alismatifolia	Zingiberaceae	Other
Curcuma longa (turmeric)	Zingiberaceae	Other	Hall et al. (2017); Zarina and Shaheen (2014)
Cyperus (flatsedge)	Cyperaceae	Other
Cyperus haspan	Cyperaceae	Other
Cyperus rotundus (purple nutsedge)	Cyperaceae	Wild host
Dahlia coccinea	Asteraceae	Other	Khanzada et al. (2007)
Datura metel (Hindu datura)	Solanaceae	Other
Datura stramonium (jimsonweed)	Solanaceae	Wild host
Daucus carota (carrot)	Apiaceae	Other	Anwar and McKenry (2010)
Digitaria horizontalis	Poaceae	Wild host
Digitaria insularis (sourgrass)	Poaceae	Wild host
Digitaria sanguinalis (large crabgrass)	Poaceae	Unknown	Song et al. (2019)
Dioscorea (yam)	Dioscoreaceae	Other
Dioscorea alata (white yam)	Dioscoreaceae	Other	Moura et al. (2010)
Dioscorea batatas (Chinese yam)	Dioscoreaceae	Other
Dioscorea cayenensis (Guinea yam)	Dioscoreaceae	Habitat/association
Dioscorea esculenta (Asiatic yam)	Dioscoreaceae	Unknown	Singh et al. (2012)
Dioscorea rotundata	Dioscoreaceae	Other
Duranta erecta (golden dewdrop)	Verbenaceae	Other
Echinochloa crus-galli (barnyard grass)	Poaceae	Wild host
Eleusine indica (goose grass)	Poaceae	Unknown	Song et al. (2019)
Emilia sonchifolia (red tasselflower)	Asteraceae	Wild host
Eragrostis ciliaris (gophertail lovegrass)	Poaceae	Other
Eryngium foetidum	Apiaceae	Other
Euphorbia heterophylla (wild poinsettia)	Euphorbiaceae	Wild host
Euphorbia prostrata	Euphorbiaceae	Other
Euphorbia tirucalli (Indian-tree spurge)	Euphorbiaceae	Other
Fabaceae (leguminous plants)	Fabaceae	Main
Ficus	Moraceae	Other
Ficus benjamina (weeping fig)	Moraceae	Other
Ficus carica (common fig)	Moraceae	Unknown	Abrantes et al. (2008)
Ficus elastica (rubber plant)	Moraceae	Other
Ficus religiosa (sacred fig tree)	Moraceae	Other	El-Sherbiny (2011)
Galinsoga parviflora (gallant soldier)	Asteraceae	Wild host	Echeverrigaray et al. (2010)
Gazania (treasure-flower)	Asteraceae	Other
Gerbera jamesonii (African daisy)	Asteraceae	Unknown	Ramyabharathi et al. (2014)
Gloxinia		Habitat/association
Glycine max (soyabean)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Kruger et al. (2007)
Gomphrena globosa (globe amaranth)	Amaranthaceae	Other
Gossypium (cotton)	Malvaceae	Other
Gossypium hirsutum (Bourbon cotton)	Malvaceae	Unknown	Galbieri et al. (2020)
Helianthus annuus (sunflower)	Asteraceae	Other
Hemerocallis (daylilies)	Liliaceae	Other
Hevea brasiliensis (rubber)	Euphorbiaceae	Habitat/association
Hibiscus cannabinus (kenaf)	Malvaceae	Main
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (China-rose)	Malvaceae	Unknown	Radoi et al. (2019)
Hibiscus syriacus (shrubby althaea)	Malvaceae	Other
Hibiscus trionum (Venice mallow)	Malvaceae	Wild host
Impatiens (balsam)	Balsaminaceae	Unknown	Radoi et al. (2019)
Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato)	Convolvulaceae	Other	Singh et al. (2012)
Ipomoea nil (white edge morning-glory)	Convolvulaceae	Wild host
Ipomoea purpurea (tall morning glory)	Convolvulaceae	Wild host	Cabrera et al. (2013)
Jacquemontia pentantha	Convolvulaceae	Other
Jasminum multiflorum (star jasmine)	Oleaceae	Habitat/association
Jasminum sambac (Arabian jasmine)	Oleaceae	Other	Zarina and Shahina (2010)
Juglans (walnuts)	Juglandaceae	Habitat/association
Juglans regia (walnut)	Juglandaceae	Unknown	Bahmani et al. (2013)
Kalanchoe fedtschenkoi	Crassulaceae	Other
Lactuca (lettuce)	Asteraceae	Other
Lactuca sativa (lettuce)	Asteraceae	Main	Singh et al. (2012); Pajovic et al. (2007); Anwar and McKenry (2010); Quénéhervé et al. (2011)
Lactuca serriola (prickly lettuce)	Asteraceae	Wild host
Lagenaria siceraria (bottle gourd)	Cucurbitaceae	Main	Singh et al. (2012)
Lantana camara (lantana)	Verbenaceae	Other	Ibrahim and Handoo (2016)
Lavandula angustifolia (lavender)	Lamiaceae	Other
Lens culinaris subsp. culinaris (lentil)	Fabaceae	Other
Leonotis nepetifolia (Christmas candlestick)	Lamiaceae	Unknown	Quénéhervé et al. (2011)
Lotus corniculatus (bird's-foot trefoil)	Fabaceae	Other	Moye et al. (2018)
Luffa acutangula (angled luffa)	Cucurbitaceae	Main	Shahid et al. (2007)
Luffa aegyptiaca (loofah)	Cucurbitaceae	Main	Anwar and McKenry (2010)
Luffa aegyptiaca (loofah)	Cucurbitaceae	Main
Malachra alceifolia		Unknown	Quénéhervé et al. (2011)
Malpighia emarginata	Malpighiaceae	Other
Malpighia glabra (acerola)	Malpighiaceae	Other
Malva pusilla (round-leaved mallow)	Malvaceae	Wild host
Mangifera indica (mango)	Anacardiaceae	Main	Poornima et al. (2017)
Manihot esculenta (cassava)	Euphorbiaceae	Other	Singh et al. (2012)
Medicago sativa (lucerne)	Fabaceae	Main
Melilotus indica (Indian sweetclover)	Fabaceae	Wild host
Mentha piperita (Peppermint)	Lamiaceae	Unknown	Ibrahim and Handoo (2016)
Mentha spicata (Spear mint)	Lamiaceae	Other
Miconia cinnamomifolia	Melastomataceae	Unknown	Lima et al. (2005)
Momordica charantia (bitter gourd)	Cucurbitaceae	Other	Anwar and McKenry (2010); Shahid et al. (2007); Singh et al. (2012); Souza et al. (2020)
Morinda citrifolia (Indian mulberry)	Rubiaceae	Other
Morus		Other
Morus alba (mora)	Moraceae	Unknown	Mallikarjuna et al. (2010)
Morus nigra (black mulberry)	Moraceae	Other
Murraya paniculata (orange jessamine)	Rutaceae	Other
Musa (banana)	Musaceae	Other	Lima et al. (2013); Villain et al. (2013); Abdul et al. (2014); Jabbar et al. (2015); Gebrehiwot and Seifu (2015)
Musa acuminata (wild banana)	Musaceae	Unknown	Singh et al. (2012)
Musa x paradisiaca (plantain)	Musaceae	Other
Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco)	Solanaceae	Unknown	Singh et al. (2012); Zeng et al. (2018)
Ocimum basilicum (basil)	Lamiaceae	Unknown	Quénéhervé et al. (2011)
Oenanthe javanica	Apiaceae	Other
Olea europaea	Oleaceae	Unknown	Ibrahim and Handoo (2016)
Olea europaea subsp. europaea (European olive)	Oleaceae	Habitat/association
Ophiopogon japonicus	Liliaceae	Other
Oryza sativa (rice)	Poaceae	Main	Ruanpanun and Khun-in (2015); Ibrahim et al. (2010)
Parthenium hysterophorus (parthenium weed)	Asteraceae	Habitat/association
Passiflora edulis (passionfruit)	Passifloraceae	Other
Paulownia elongata (elongate paulownia)	Scrophulariaceae	Other	Kaur et al. (2007)
Persicaria posumbu	Polygonaceae	Other
Petroselinum crispum (parsley)	Apiaceae	Unknown	Quénéhervé et al. (2011)
Phaseolus (beans)	Fabaceae	Main
Phaseolus vulgaris (common bean)	Fabaceae	Main	Singh et al. (2012)
Phoenix dactylifera (date-palm)	Arecaceae	Other	Gill and Firoza (2014); Yasir et al. (2018); Mani et al. (2005); Ibrahim et al. (2010)
Phyla nodiflora	Verbenaceae	Other
Piper methysticum (kava)	Piperaceae	Unknown	Singh et al. (2012)
Piper nigrum (black pepper)	Piperaceae	Other	Zarina and Shaheen (2014); Thuy et al. (2012)
Pisum sativum (pea)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Anwar and McKenry (2010)
Pithecellobium dulce (Manila tamarind)	Fabaceae	Other	El-Sherbiny (2011)
Pittosporum tobira (Japanese pittosporum)	Pittosporaceae	Other
Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain)	Plantaginaceae	Wild host
Polianthes tuberosa (tuberose)	Agavaceae	Other
Polygonum aviculare (prostrate knotweed)	Polygonaceae	Wild host
Pongamia pinnata (Indian beech)	Fabaceae	Other	El-Sherbiny (2011)
Portulaca oleracea (purslane)	Portulacaceae	Wild host
Portulaca quadrifida (chickenweed)	Portulacaceae	Other
Prosopis juliflora (mesquite)	Fabaceae	Other	El-Sherbiny (2011)
Prunus (stone fruit)	Rosaceae	Other
Prunus domestica (plum)	Rosaceae	Other
Prunus persica (peach)	Rosaceae	Other
Prunus salicina (Japanese plum)	Rosaceae	Main
Psidium guajava (guava)	Myrtaceae	Unknown	Ibrahim and Handoo (2016); Khan et al. (2007); Ibrahim et al. (2010); Quénéhervé et al. (2011)
Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (winged bean)	Fabaceae	Other
Ptychosperma elegans (solitaire palm)	Arecaceae	Habitat/association
Punica granatum (pomegranate)	Punicaceae	Other	Nasira et al. (2011); Khan et al. (2005)
Radermachera sinica	Bignoniaceae	Other	Zeng et al. (2014)
Raphanus sativus (radish)	Brassicaceae	Unknown	Anwar and McKenry (2010)
Rhaponticum repens (Russian knapweed)	Asteraceae	Wild host
Ricinus communis (castor bean)	Euphorbiaceae	Unknown	Vyas et al. (2008)
Rollinia mucosa	Annonaceae	Wild host
Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary)	Lamiaceae	Main
Rumex acetosa (sour dock)	Polygonaceae	Wild host
Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane)	Poaceae	Other	Singh et al. (2012); Quénéhervé et al. (2011); Qaiser et al. (2009)
Salvia miltiorrhiza	Lamiaceae	Unknown	Tsai et al. (2020)
Samanea saman (rain tree)	Fabaceae	Main
Sansevieria trifasciata (mother-in-law’s tongue)	Agavaceae	Other
Schinus terebinthifolius (Brazilian pepper tree)	Anacardiaceae	Wild host
Sesamum indicum (sesame)	Pedaliaceae	Other
Setaria viridis (green foxtail)	Poaceae	Wild host	Song et al. (2019)
Sida rhombifolia	Malvaceae	Wild host
Sinapis alba (white mustard)	Brassicaceae	Wild host	Anwar and McKenry (2010)
Solanaceae	Solanaceae	Main
Solanum americanum	Solanaceae	Wild host
Solanum lycopersicum (tomato)	Solanaceae	Main	Singh et al. (2012); Tariq-Khan et al. (2020); Zia et al. (2014); Jabbar et al. (2015); Flis et al. (2018); Martínez-Gallardo et al. (2019); Janati et al. (2018)
Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiforme		Unknown	Cara et al. (2011)
Solanum melongena (aubergine)	Solanaceae	Main	Singh et al. (2012); Tariq-Khan et al. (2020); Vyas et al. (2008); Shahid et al. (2007); Quénéhervé et al. (2011)
Solanum nigrum (black nightshade)	Solanaceae	Wild host
Solanum sisymbriifolium (sticky nightshade)	Solanaceae	Wild host
Solanum tuberosum (potato)	Solanaceae	Other	Johnson et al. (1996); Nirula et al. (1969); Bacic et al. (2016); Erdogus et al. (2010)
Spinacia oleracea (spinach)	Chenopodiaceae	Other	Castillo and Jiménez-Díaz (2003)
Tabebuia serratifolia	Bignoniaceae	Wild host
Tagetes erecta (Mexican marigold)	Asteraceae	Other
Tephrosia vogelii (Vogel's tephrosia)	Fabaceae	Other
Trachyspermum ammi	Apiaceae	Other
Triticum aestivum (wheat)	Poaceae	Unknown	Vyas et al. (2008); Ibrahim et al. (2010)
Veitchia merrillii (Christmas palm)	Arecaceae	Habitat/association
Vernonia cinerea	Asteraceae	Wild host	Quénéhervé et al. (2011)
Vigna angularis (adzuki bean)	Fabaceae	Other
Vigna mungo (black gram)	Fabaceae	Other
Vigna radiata (mung bean)	Fabaceae	Other
Vigna unguiculata (cowpea)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Singh et al. (2012)
Viola pilosa	Violaceae	Other
Vitex agnus-castus (chaste tree)	Lamiaceae	Other	El-Sherbiny (2011)
Vitex trifolia	Lamiaceae	Other
Vitis vinifera (grapevine)	Vitaceae	Unknown
Washingtonia robusta (mexican washington-palm)	Arecaceae	Other	El-Sherbiny (2011)
Xanthosoma (cocoyam)	Araceae	Other
Zea mays (maize)	Poaceae	Other	Singh et al. (2012); López-Robles et al. (2013); Jabbar et al. (2015); Ibrahim et al. (2010)
Zingiber officinale (ginger)	Zingiberaceae	Unknown	Singh et al. (2012)

Growth Stages

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Flowering stage, Fruiting stage, Seedling stage, Vegetative growing stage

Symptoms

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Field symptoms are typically of stunted, poorly growing plants with yellowing leaves. Infected root systems show characteristic knots or galls, the severity of which varies with the degree of nematode infection and species and variety of plant parasitized (see Dropkin, 1989).

List of Symptoms/Signs

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Sign	Life Stages	Type
Leaves / abnormal colours
Leaves / wilting
Roots / galls along length
Roots / reduced root system
Roots / swollen roots
Whole plant / dwarfing
Whole plant / early senescence

Biology and Ecology

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The life cycles of Meloidogyne spp. are well studied and in their essentials differ little between the major species (De Guiran and Ritter, 1979). At 21°C M. incognita took 37 days to complete its life cycle on Antirrhinum majus, a similar time to that reported on soyabeans (temperatures not published) (Ibrahim and El-Saedy, 1987). Juveniles penetrate root tips, occasionally invading roots in the zone of root elongation. Invaded nematodes initiate the development of giant cells in the meristematic, cortical and xylem tissues of the root and galling of roots occurs. Third- and fourth-stage juveniles and young females occur after about 6-8 and 15 days, respectively. Adult females were observed after 20 days and egg laying commenced after 25 days (Ibrahim and El-Saedy, 1987).

Climate

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Climate	Status	Description
A - Tropical/Megathermal climate	Preferred	Average temp. of coolest month > 18°C, > 1500mm precipitation annually
Af - Tropical rainforest climate	Preferred	> 60mm precipitation per month
Am - Tropical monsoon climate	Preferred	Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25]))
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer	Preferred	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate	Preferred	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
B - Dry (arid and semi-arid)	Preferred	< 860mm precipitation annually
BS - Steppe climate	Preferred	> 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation
BW - Desert climate	Tolerated	< 430mm annual precipitation
C - Temperate/Mesothermal climate	Preferred	Average temp. of coldest month > 0°C and < 18°C, mean warmest month > 10°C
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer	Preferred	Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter	Preferred	Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters)
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year	Preferred	Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year

Air Temperature

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC)	-1

Natural enemies

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Natural enemy	Type	Life stages	Biological control in	Biological control on
Alternaria humicola	Pathogen
Arachnula impatiens	Pathogen
Arthrobotrys amerospora	Predator
Arthrobotrys cladodes	Predator
Arthrobotrys conoides	Predator
Arthrobotrys dactyloides	Predator
Arthrobotrys fusiformis	Predator
Arthrobotrys irregularis	Predator
Arthrobotrys lacdodes	Predator
Arthrobotrys musiformis	Predator
Arthrobotrys oligospora	Predator			cucumbers
Arthrobotrys vermicola	Predator
Aspergillus niger	Antagonist
Athelia rolfsii	Pathogen	Arthropods\|Larvae
Aureobasidium pullulans	Antagonist
Azotobacter chroococcum	Pathogen		India
Bacillus cereus	Pathogen
Bacillus subtilis	Pathogen
Beauveria bassiana	Pathogen
Catenaria anguillulae	Pathogen			tomatoes
Cochliobolus lunatus	Pathogen
Cylindrocarpon olidum	Pathogen
Dactylaria brochophaga	Predator
Dactylella lysipaga	Predator
Fusarium oxysporum	Pathogen
Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceris	Pathogen
Haematonectria haematococca	Pathogen
Harposporium anguillulae	Parasite
Harposporium oxysporium	Parasite
Hirsutella rhossiliensis	Pathogen
Hypocrea rufa	Mycoparasite
Micrococcus luteus	Pathogen
Monacrosporium cionopagum	Predator
Monacrosporium ellipsosporum	Predator
Monacrosporium endermata	Predator
Monacrosporium fusiformis	Predator
Monacrosporium lysifaga	Predator
Monacrosporium megalalosporum	Predator
Mononchoides fortidens	Predator
Mononchoides longicaudatus	Predator
Mononchus aquaticus	Parasite
Myrothecium verrucaria	Pathogen
Paecilomyces lilacinus	Parasite	Eggs	India; Puerto Rico
Pasteuria penetrans	Pathogen		Ecuador
Serratia marcescens	Pathogen
Streptomyces saraceticus	Pathogen
Thanatephorus cucumeris	Pathogen
Vampyrella vorax	Pathogen
Verticillium chlamydosporium	Parasite	Eggs	UK

Notes on Natural Enemies

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A considerable amount of work has been devoted to the biological control of root-knot nematodes in general and M. incognita in particular (Kerry, 1987). Most research has concentrated on the endoparasitic microorganism Pasteuria penetrans and the egg-parasitic fungus Purpureocillium lilacinum (syn. Paecilomyces lilanicus). Experimental work has been encouraging, for example, P. penetrans in the control of M. incognita on tomatoes (Sayre, 1980) and P. lilanicinum in the control of M. incognita on potatoes (Jatala, 1985). The development of P. lilanicinum has reached the stage of multi-local field trials (Jatala, 1985). However, there are considerable problems in the preparation and incorporation of inocula of putative biocontrol agents and the practical application of such technology remains to be developed (Kerry, 1987).

Pathway Causes

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Cause	Notes	Long Distance	Local
Botanical gardens and zoos	Infrequent	Yes
Breeding and propagation	Possible on vegetatively propagated material.	Yes	Yes
Crop production	Movement of soil on machinery. Movement of infected plant material.	Yes	Yes
Digestion and excretion	Eggs can pass through the intestine.		Yes
Flooding and other natural disasters	Flood washes infected soil downstream.	Yes	Yes
Food	Root crops commonly found in the market.	Yes	Yes
Garden waste disposal	Root and root crops infected.		Yes
Military movements	Movement of soil on equipment.	Yes	Yes
Nursery trade	Movement of infected plants.	Yes	Yes
People sharing resources	Sharing plants that are infected. Sharing soil that are infested	Yes	Yes

Pathway Vectors

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Vector	Notes	Long Distance	Local
Clothing, footwear and possessions	Eggs and galls in soil. Infested soil on footwear.	Yes	Yes
Containers and packaging - wood		Yes
Land vehicles	Eggs and galls in soil.	Yes
Mail	Eggs and galls in soil.	Yes
Soil, sand and gravel	Eggs and galls in soil. Movement of infested soil.	Yes	Yes
Debris and waste associated with human activities	Movement of infested soil.		Yes
Machinery and equipment	Movement of infested soil	Yes	Yes
Mulch, straw, baskets and sod	Movement of infested sod.		Yes
Plants or parts of plants	Movement of infected plants.	Yes	Yes

Plant Trade

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Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport	Pest stages	Borne internally	Borne externally	Visibility of pest or symptoms
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes	nematodes/adults; nematodes/eggs; nematodes/juveniles	Yes	Yes	Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope
Growing medium accompanying plants	nematodes/eggs; nematodes/juveniles		Yes	Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope
Roots	nematodes/adults; nematodes/eggs; nematodes/juveniles	Yes	Yes	Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants	nematodes/adults; nematodes/eggs; nematodes/juveniles	Yes	Yes	Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope

Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Bark
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx
Fruits (inc. pods)
Leaves
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches
True seeds (inc. grain)
Wood

Wood Packaging

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Wood Packaging not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Loose wood packing material
Processed or treated wood
Solid wood packing material with bark
Solid wood packing material without bark

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Economic/livelihood
Environment (generally)

Impact

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Introduction

The root knot nematode species, M. incognita, is the most widespread and probably the most serious plant parasitic nematode pest of tropical and subtropical regions throughout the world (Sasser, 1979). It occurs as a pest on a very wide range of crops. Most estimates of yield loss come from the use of nematicides and it should be noted that these can possibly cause other beneficial growth effects.

Cotton

The most accurate and detailed estimates of cotton yield losses due to nematodes have been undertaken in states of the USA where nematicides are regularly used. In Arkansas, where M. incognita is by far the most important nematode of cotton, yield losses after the application of nematicides are estimated at 1.5% annually; in South Carolina, M. incognita with other nematodes account for an estimated 5% loss annually (Kirkpatrick, 1988, 1989). In Texas over a 16-year period of field experiments, the average cotton yield increase was 26% when fields infested with M. incognita were fumigated with nematicides. In six Texan counties, where over 47% of field soils were infested with M. incognita, it was calculated that the total annual yield loss was 10.2% or 85,600 cotton bales (Orr and Robinson, 1984). Disease complexes involving M. incognita and vascular Fusarium wilt on cotton are well recognized. Where the two organisms occur together, increasing the nematode population has a greater effect on wilt incidence and cotton yield loss than an increase in the Fusarium population (Starr et al., 1989; Hillocks and Bridge, 1992; Hillocks, 1997).

Tobacco

Root knot nematodes, mainly M. incognita and M. javanica, are always pests of economic importance in tobacco culture, wherever the climate favours them (Barker et al., 1981; Shepherd and Barker, 1990). In North America, losses to tobacco from root knot nematodes, mainly M. incognita, have been estimated to range from 1 to 14% annually in areas where control measures are the norm (Shepherd and Barker, 1990). Root knot nematodes, probably M. incognita, have been estimated to cause 50 to 60% yield losses in parts of Turkey and losses of 25% from field infestation and 50% if the infestation started in the seedbed in India (Shepherd and Barker, 1990). The percentage loss in tobacco yield is estimated to be 8 to 9% for each ten-fold increase in the initial population of M. incognita (Barker et al., 1981). In Cuba, in the region where the highest quality tobacco for cigars is produced, the losses due to M. incognita are estimated at 27.5% of the crop potential of flue-cured tobacco (Garcia and Perez, 1987; Fernandez and Ortega, 1998).

Food Legumes

M. incognita is a major economic pest of food legumes in the tropics and subtropics (Sikora and Greco, 1990). Moderate soil populations of 1000 nematodes per plant in pathogenicity pot experiments can reduce pod yields of chickpea (Cicer arietinum) by 27% and very high soil populations of 10,000 per plant reduce pod yields by 87%. In M. incognita-infested field plots treated with nematicides, yield of chickpea can increase by 15 to 33% (Reddy, 1976). Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is very badly damaged by Meloidogyne species in the tropics. Significant bean yield increases of 45 to 60% have been achieved in Kenya by reducing mixed soil populations of M. incognita and M. javanica with the application of nematicides (Ngundo and Taylor, 1974). Similarly in Peru and Colombia, in fields infested with mixed populations of Meloidogyne species, mainly M. incognita, common bean seed yield can be reduced by 26 to 63% depending on the bean cultivar grown and other factors (Mullin et al., 1991). M. incognita is a serious pest of Phaseolus vulgaris in the USA where there is a reduction of 66% in crop value in fields where the nematodes are not controlled. The reduced crop value is a result of a combination of reduced plant stands and a 27% lower average pod production by surviving plants (Smittle and Johnson, 1982). Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) is another very susceptible host crop of M. incognita. In Nigerian soils where M. incognita is the predominant nematode parasite, application of nematicides can increase cowpea yields by 95 to 222% (Babatola and Omotade, 1991). Soyabean (Glycine max) is another legume severely damaged by root knot nematodes and in Brazil yield can be reduced by over 55% in the presence of M. incognita (Antonio, 1988). In India, nematicide application to farmers' fields infested with a mixture of M. incognita and Rotylenchulus reniformis increased yield of soyabean by 19% (Prasad, 1999).

Vegetables

M. incognita is a major pest of vegetables throughout the tropics and subtropics. Many crops grown as vegetables are susceptible to the nematode particularly tomato, aubergine, okra, cucumber, melon, carrot, gourds, lettuce and peppers. Estimates of vegetable crop losses due Meloidogyne species, mainly M. incognita and M. javanica, have ranged from 17 to 20% for aubergine (Solanum melongena), 18 to 33% for melon and 24 to 38% for tomato (Sasser, 1979). In India, yield losses of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), tomato and aubergine field crops are estimated at 91%, 42 to 54% and 18%, respectively (Bhatti and Jain, 1977; Subramaniyan et al., 1990). Other trials in India using nematicides showed that in fields naturally infested with mixed populations of M. incognita and M. javanica the avoidable yield losses in peas, okra, tomato and bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) crops is 46% to 56% (Sharma and Baheti, 1992).

Yams

The primary damage to yams (Dioscorea species) by M. incognita is in the reduction in quality and marketability of the tubers due to the extensive surface galling caused by the root knot nematodes (Jatala and Bridge, 1990). It is estimated that there is a reduction of 39 to 52% in the price of galled tubers compared with healthy ones (Nwauzor and Fawole, 1982). However, there are instances were the nematode is known to actually reduce yields, for example in Nigeria significant yield reduction can occur in D. alata due to M. incognita (Adesiyan and Odihirin, 1978). In Martinique, M. incognita is reported to have completely destroyed a crop of the yam D. trifida (Kermarrec, 1974). In India, pot experiments have demonstrated that even low nematode populations of 100 M. incognita juveniles per plant can cause a highly significant reduction in yam (D. rotundata) tuber weights of 27% and larger nematode populations over 55% yield loss (Mohandas and Ramakrishnan, 1997).

Potatoes

Losses of potatoes due to Meloidogyne species, mainly M. incognita and M. chitwoodi, are estimated at 25% or more (Mai et al., 1981).

Spices

M. incognita is an important pest of black pepper (Piper nigrum) in many countries particularly in Brazil and India where infestation levels of over 90% have been reported (Koshy and Bridge, 1990). As few as 10 juveniles per plant can reduce black pepper growth by 16% under potted conditions (Koshy et al., 1979). Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) suffers yield losses of 32 to 47% in the presence of M. incognita in India (Ali, 1986). In Australia, M. incognita and M. javanica are pests of ginger and severe infestation of rhizomes can reduce yields by 57% (Pegg et al., 1974). In pot experiments, a reduction of 74% in ginger rhizome weight has been recorded with initial M. incognita soil populations of 10,000 nematodes (Sukumaran and Sundararaju, 1986).

Coffee

M. incognita is found in many coffee-growing areas in the world but it is in Brazil where its effects have been the most catastrophic. In Brazil, the nematode has caused the complete destruction of coffee plantations and resulted in major agricultural changes as farmers were forced to adopt alternative crops (Campos et al., 1990).

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Is a habitat generalist
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Tolerant of shade
Capable of securing and ingesting a wide range of food
Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
Fast growing
Has high reproductive potential
Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
Reproduces asexually
Has high genetic variability

Impact outcomes

Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Host damage
Increases vulnerability to invasions
Modification of nutrient regime
Monoculture formation
Negatively impacts agriculture
Negatively impacts cultural/traditional practices
Negatively impacts forestry
Negatively impacts livelihoods
Negatively impacts animal/plant collections
Damages animal/plant products
Negatively impacts trade/international relations

Impact mechanisms

Allelopathic
Antagonistic (micro-organisms)
Competition - monopolizing resources
Induces hypersensitivity
Interaction with other invasive species
Parasitism (incl. parasitoid)
Pathogenic
Rooting

Likelihood of entry/control

Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
Difficult to identify/detect in the field
Difficult/costly to control

Uses List

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General

Research model

Diagnosis

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General identification of root-knot nematode infestation can be conducted by competent nematologists with basic equipment. Identification of species within the genus Meloidogyne requires the services of specialized taxonomists. In addition to classical taxonomic techniques, biochemical methods have been developed (Esbenshade and Triantaphyllou, 1985), and molecular techniques are standard by sequencing the ribosomal DNA 18S-ITS-5.8S, 28S D2/D3 and a mitochondrial DNA fragment flanking cytochrome oxidase gene subunit II (Ye et al., 2019).

The situation regarding M. incognita is complicated by the existence of morphologically indistinguishable races differentiated by their ability to reproduce on resistant tobacco and cotton (Hartman and Sasser, 1985).

Detection and Inspection

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Above-ground symptoms are non-specific (see Symptoms): examination of roots can reveal the presence of swollen roots and galls. However, some hosts such as maize do not form galls. Closer examination, for example with a hand lens, can show the presence of egg masses on the root surface.

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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The morphology of M. incognita is similar to other species of Meloidogyne and often confused with other species such as M. enterolobii, M. floridensis, M. hispanica, etc. Confusion within this group is common as the characters used tend to be variable; however molecular techniques have made species identification very reliable (Ye et al., 2019).

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Methods for the control of M. incognita vary with the production system used and the value of the crop. Chemical control may be used on high-value crops, and a wide range of chemicals are available (Johnson, 1985a; Hague and Gowen, 1987). More recently, seed treatments have become widely utilized to minimize the amount on active ingredient applied or for the application of biological control agents. Often these tactics are reserved for the most important row crops like soyabean, maize and cotton (Monfort et al., 2006). Strategies of cultural control are less well developed and crop rotations are difficult to design because of the wide host range of M. incognita. Groundnuts or maize, which are both poor or non-hosts to M. incognita, have been evaluated for use in cropping systems designed to manage this nematode (Raymundo, 1985). Systems of integrating cropping sequences and chemical control have been evaluated in the USA (Johnson, 1985b). Resistance to M. incognita exists in a number of commercial crop varieties, principally vegetables (Lehman and Cochran, 1991). These have generally been developed in the USA, but have been evaluated in other parts of the world (for example, see Krishnappa, 1985).

References

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Abdul Rahman, S. A. S., Mohd Zain, S. N., Bilal Mat, M. Z., Sidam, A. K., Othman, R. Y., Mohamed, Z., 2014. Population distribution of plant-parasitic nematodes of bananas in Peninsular Malaysia. Sains Malaysiana, 43(2), 175-183. http://www.ukm.my/jsm/pdf_files/SM-PDF-43-2-2014/03%20S.A.%20Sayed%20Abdul%20Rahman.pdf

Abrantes, I. M. de O., Santos, M. C. V. dos, Conceição, I. L. P. M. da, Santos, M. S. N. de A., Vovlas, N., 2008. Root-knot and other plant-parasitic nematodes associated with fig trees in Portugal. Nematologia Mediterranea, 36(2), 131-136. http://www.edizioniets.com

Adesiyan SO, Odihirin RA, 1978. Root knot nematodes as pests of yams (Dioscorea spp.) in southern Nigeria. Nematologica, 24(1):132-134

Affokpon, A., Coyne, D. L., Cho Cho Htay, Agbèdè, R. D., Lawouin, L., Coosemans, J., 2011. Biocontrol potential of native Trichoderma isolates against root-knot nematodes in West African vegetable production systems. Soil Biology & Biochemistry, 43(3), 600-608. doi: 10.1016/j.soilbio.2010.11.029

Ahmed, N., Omara, A. E., 2018. Efficiency of Trichoderma harzianum as a biocontrol agent in combination with humate and chitosan against Meloidogyne incognita on tomato. Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection, 51(11/12), 673-683. doi: 10.1080/03235408.2018.1514162

Ali SS, 1986. Root-knot nematode problem in cardamom and its management. Proceedings of the Second Group Discussions on the Nematological Problems of Plantation Crops, April 24-25, 1986. Central Coffee Research Station, Balehonnur, Karnataka, India, pp. 10-12

Ali, S. S., Sharma, S. B., 2003. Nematode survey of chickpea production areas in Rajasthan, India. Nematologia Mediterranea, 31(2), 147-149.

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Links to Websites

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Website	URL	Comment
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS)	http://griis.org/	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.
Nemaplex	http://nemaplex.ucdavis.edu
Plant and Insect Parasitic Nematode, Nebraska	https://nematode.unl.edu/index.html

Organizations

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Tropical America: Organization of Tropical American Nematologists (OTAN), https://ontaweb.com

World: International Federation of Nematological Societies (IFNS), https://www.ifns.org

Europe: European Society of Nematologists (ESN), INRA, Rennes, https://www.esn-online.org/about-esn/

USA: Society of Nematologists (SON), Box 190, Mesilla Park, New Mexico 88047 , https://nematologists.org

Contributors

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08/05/20 Review by:

Jonathan D. EIsenback, 103 Price Hall, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA.

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Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode)

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