Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode)

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Male

Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, full body image.

©Pest & Diseases Image Library (PaDIL) - CC BY 3.0 AU

Male

Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, spicule.

©Pest & Diseases Image Library (PaDIL) - CC BY 3.0 AU

Male

Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, perineal pattern.

©Pest & Diseases Image Library (PaDIL) - CC BY 3.0 AU

Male

Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, perineal pattern.

©Pest & Diseases Image Library (PaDIL) - CC BY 3.0 AU

Male

Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, perineal pattern.

©Pest & Diseases Image Library (PaDIL) - CC BY 3.0 AU

Female

Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); female. (Reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)

©CAB International

Cuticular patterns

Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); posterior cuticular patterns of females. (reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)

©CAB International

Cuticular patterns

Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); posterior cuticular patterns of females. (reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)

©CAB International

Cuticular patterns

Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); posterior cuticular patterns of females. (reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)

©CAB International

Cuticular patterns

Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); posterior cuticular patterns of females. (reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)

©CAB International

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid & White, 1919) Chitwood 1949

Preferred Common Name

root-knot nematode

Other Scientific Names

Meloidogyne acrita Chitwood, 1949
Meloidogyne incognita acrita Chitwood, 1949
Meloidogyne wartellei Golden & Birchfield, 1978
Oxyuris incognita Kofoid & White, 1919

International Common Names

English: root-knot eelworm; southern root-knot nematode
Spanish: anguillula de las raices; nemátodo agallador; nemátodo de la raiz; nemátodo de las agallas; nemátodo de los nódulos de las raíces; nemátodo nódulador; nemátodo sureno de quiste (Mexico)
French: anguillule a noeud de la patate; anguillule des racines; nématode à galles; nématode cécidogène; nématode des galles des racines; nématode des racines
Portuguese: nematóide das galhas

Local Common Names

Denmark: rodgalle-nematode
Germany: knoellchen-aelchen; knoellchen-nematode; suedliches wurzelgallen-aelchen
Italy: anguillula delle radici; anguillula gallicola delle radici
Japan: satumaimo-nekobu-sentyu
Turkey: kok ur nematodu

EPPO code

MELGIN (Meloidogyne incognita)

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Metazoa
Phylum: Nematoda
Family: Meloidogynidae
Genus: Meloidogyne
Species: Meloidogyne incognita

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Top of page Most Meloidogyne species are difficult to identify with certainty due to their inherent variability. Material of both the adult females and the infective juveniles should be examined before coming to a conclusion. Male characters can also be useful in some instances.

Description

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Description (after Orton Williams, 1973)

Female
Endoparasitic, body spherical with projecting neck. Head with 2 or occasionally 3 annules behind head-cap. Cuticle thickening abruptly at base of relaxed stylet. Stylet knobs rounded or drawn out laterally. Excretory pore at level of or posterior to stylet knobs, 10-20 annules behind head. Posterior cuticular pattern displays bewildering variation. Typical pattern 'incognita type'; with striae closely spaced, very wavy to zig-zag especially dorsally and laterally. Dorsal arch high, rounded. Lateral field not clear, sometimes marked by breaks in striae, broken ends often forked, pattern merging into body striae. 'Acrita type'; with striae smoother, more widely spaced (or with coarse widely spaced striae separated by fine closely spaced striae visible for short distances). Dorsal arch variable, may be flattened at top or trapezoid. Striae often forked along a 'lateral line'. Limits of pattern more or less well-defined. Aberrant patterns occur.

Male
Head not offset, a high truncate cone shape, clearly annulated. Head-cap with stepped outline in lateral view; annule number behind head-cap very variable, usually 1-3 on sublateral head sectors and 1-5 on lateral head sectors. Conus of stylet longer than shaft, stylet knobs prominent, usually of greater width than length, with flat, concave or 'toothed'; anterior margins. Excretory pore at level of posterior end of isthmus with hemizonid usually 0-5 annules anterior. Lateral field with 4 incisures, outer bands areolated, inner band rarely cross-striated except at posterior end. Testes 1 or 2. Tail bluntly rounded, terminus unstriated. Phasmids at cloaca level or just anterior. Spicules slightly curved, gubernaculum crescentic.

Juvenile
Head not offset, truncate cone shape in lateral view, sub-hemispherical in dorso-ventral view. Head-cap wide followed by 2 clear annules on sublateral head sectors (lateral view), 3 annules on lateral head sectors (dorsal or ventral view). Stylet knobs prominent, rounded. Hemizonid 3 annules long just anterior to excretory pore. Lateral field with 4 incisures, outer bands cross striated. Rectum inflated. Tail tapering to subacute terminus, striae coarsening posteriorly.

Measurements (After Whitehead, 1968)

20 females: L = 500-723 (609) µm; width = 331-520 (415) µm; stylet (10) = 13-16 (14) µm; width stylet base (10) = 3-5 (4) µm; dorsal oesophageal gland orifice (8) = 2-4 (3) µm behind stylet base; length median bulb (10) = 37-63 (46) µm; width median bulb (10) = 31-49 (39) µm; length median bulb valves (10) = 13-16 (14) µm; width median bulb valves (10) = 11-13 (12) µm.

14 males: L = 1108-1953 (1583) µm; a = 31.4-55.4 (46.3); length head (13) = 6.8-8.6 (7.9) µm; stylet (13) = 23.0-32.7 (25.0) µm; width stylet base (13) = 4.7-6.8 (5.8) µm; dorsal oesophageal gland orifice (4) = 1.4-2.5 (2.1) µm behind stylet base; b' (12) = 13.8-20.5 (17.4); c (13) = 97-255 (146); length median bulb (12) = 14.4-25.2 (20.0) µm; width median bulb (12) = 8.6-15.8 (11.2) µm; length median bulb valves (12) = 5.8-9.0 (7.2) µm; spicules (length of arc) (12) = 28.8-40.3 (35.2) µm; gubernaculum (7) = 9.4-13.7 (11.2) µm.

25 juveniles: L = 337-403 (371) µm; a = 24.9-31.5 (28.3); b (21) = 2.02-3.14 (2.36); b' (24) = 6.4-8.4 (7.1); length tail = 38-55 (46) µm; d = 4.0-5.6 (4.9); c = 6.9-10.6 (8.1); length body to middle of genital primordium = 212-247 (230) µm; stylet = 9.6-11.7 (10.5) µm; length median bulb (24) = 10.1-12.9 (11.3) µm; width median bulb (24) = 5.8-8.3 (7.3) µm; length median bulb valves (22) = 3.6-6.47 (5.2) µm.

Distribution

Top of page M. incognita has also been recorded from the following areas of protected agriculture; for example, around temperate research stations and other areas of intensive horticulture. In some cases the nematodes have been able to overwinter due to mild winters and could be expanding their geographical range.

Armenia (Pogosyan and Karapetyan, 1976), Heilongjiang and Ningxia in China (Yang et al., 1991), Hokkaido in Japan (Yamada and Takakura, 1975), Belarus (Gladkaya, 1981), Estonia (Pallum, 1972), Latvia (Rasina, 1970), Lithuania (Rudzyavichene et al., 1975), Macedonia (Krnjaic, 1977), Moldavia (Batyr and Kozhokaru, 1985), Poland (Brzeski et al., 1978), Romania (Romascu et al., 1974), European part of Russia (Kozhokaru, 1972; Gushchin and Efremenko, 1975; Mar'enko, 1989), Siberia (Shiabova, 1977), Ukraine (Timchenko, 1981) and United Kingdom (IIP, 1991).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Asia
Armenia	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Bangladesh	Widespread			Shepherd and Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Brunei Darussalam	Present			Reddy, 1977; CABI/EPPO, 2002
China	Widespread			CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Anhui	Present			Yang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Fujian	Present			Yang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Guangdong	Present			Wu and Xue, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Guangxi	Present			Wu and Xue, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Guizhou	Present			Yang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Hainan	Present			Yang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Hebei	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Heilongjiang	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Henan	Present			Yang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Hubei	Present			Yang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Hunan	Present			Wu and Xue, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Jiangsu	Present			Shen et al., 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Jiangxi	Present			Yang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Nei Menggu	Present			Zhang et al., 1998; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Qinghai	Present			Yang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Shaanxi	Present			Li et al., 1992; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Shandong	Present			Yang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Sichuan	Present			Chen et al., 1991; Yang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Yunnan	Present			Yang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Zhejiang	Present			Wu and Xue, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Georgia (Republic of)	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
India	Restricted distribution			CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands	Widespread			Salam, 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Andhra Pradesh	Present			Prasad and, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Arunachal Pradesh	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Assam	Present			Prasad and, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Bihar	Present			Prasad and, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Chandigarh	Widespread			Mathur and Khera, 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Chhattisgarh	Present			Sahu et al., 2011
-Delhi	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Gujarat	Present			Prasad and, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Haryana	Present			Haryana, 1980; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Himachal Pradesh	Restricted distribution			Prasad and, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Indian Punjab	Present			Prasad and, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Harish et al., 2015
-Jammu and Kashmir	Present			Bhat and Kaul, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Singh and Gupta, 2011
-Karnataka	Present			Prasad and, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Kerala	Widespread			Raveendran and Nadakal, 1975; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Madhya Pradesh	Widespread			Tiwari and Dave, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Maharashtra	Present			Prasad and, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Manipur	Present			Mishra, 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Meghalaya	Present			Prasad and, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Odisha	Present			Prasad and, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Rajasthan	Present			Mathur et al., 1970; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Sikkim	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Tamil Nadu	Present			Prasad and, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Tripura	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Uttar Pradesh	Present			Prasad and, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Anamika, and Sobita, 2010
-Uttarakhand	Present			Rathour et al., 2006
-West Bengal	Widespread			Sen & Das Gupta, 1976; Prasad and, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Indonesia	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Java	Widespread			CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Sumatra	Widespread			Bridge, 1978; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Iran	Present			Abivardi & Sharafeh, 1973; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Bahmani et al., 2013
Iraq	Present			Katcho, 1972; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Israel	Widespread			Tarjan, 1953; Orion et al., 1982; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Japan	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Hokkaido	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Honshu	Widespread			Saigusa and Matsumoto, 1961; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Kyushu	Present			Araki and Nakasono, 1987; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Ryukyu Archipelago	Present			Fukudome, 1978; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Shikoku	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Jordan	Present			Hashim, 1979; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Kazakhstan	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Korea, Republic of	Present			Shepherd and Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Lebanon	Widespread			Saad and Tanveer, 1972; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Malaysia	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Peninsular Malaysia	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Sabah	Present			Liu, 1977; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Sarawak	Present			Sarawak, 1975; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Mongolia	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Myanmar	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Nepal	Widespread			Bhardwaj and Hogger, 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Oman	Present			Waller and Bridge, 1978; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Pakistan	Present			Maqbool, 1986; Qureshi et al., 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Hussain et al., 2015
Philippines	Present			Timm, 1965; Madamba, 1981; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Saudi Arabia	Widespread			Eissa and Hyder, 1981; Eissa, 1982; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Singapore	Present			AVA, 2001; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Sri Lanka	Widespread			Sivapalan, 1978; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Syria	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Taiwan	Present			Taylor et al., 1982; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Tajikistan	Present			Dzhuraeva, 1976; Teben'kova, 1987; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Thailand	Present			Chunram, 1972; Shepherd and Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Ruanpanun and Khun-in, 2015
Turkey	Present			Bora, 1970; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Turkmenistan	Widespread			Artyunov, 1985; Shagalina and Shagalin, 1987; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Uzbekistan	Widespread			Mavlyanov, 1972; Khurramov, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Vietnam	Widespread			Fam Tkhan' Bin', 1990; Shepherd and Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Yemen	Widespread			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Africa
Algeria	Present			Scotto, 1961; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Angola	Widespread			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Burkina Faso	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Cameroon	Present			Price, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Congo Democratic Republic	Widespread			Taylor et al., 1982; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Côte d'Ivoire	Present			Luc & Guiran, 1960; Fortuner, 1981; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Egypt	Widespread			Ibrahim et al., 1972; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Ibrahim and Handoo, 2016
Ethiopia	Present			Sharma and McDonald, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Gambia	Widespread			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Ghana	Widespread			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Guinea	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Kenya	Present			Kanyagia, 1979; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Karuri et al., 2017
Liberia	Widespread			Lamberti et al., 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Libya	Widespread			Khan and Dabaj, 1980; Dabaj and Jenser, 1987; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Madagascar	Widespread			Keetch and Buckley, 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Malawi	Widespread			Keetch and Buckley, 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Mauritania	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Mauritius	Widespread			Lamberti et al., 1987; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Morocco	Widespread			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Mozambique	Present			Oever and Mangane, 1992; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Niger	Widespread			Sikora et al., 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Nigeria	Widespread			Adesiyan and Odihirin, 1978; Babatola, 1980; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Réunion	Widespread			Keetch and Buckley, 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Senegal	Widespread			Taylor, 1975; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Seychelles	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Somalia	Restricted distribution			Karshe, 1993; CABI/EPPO, 2002
South Africa	Widespread			Van der Linde 1956; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Spain
-Canary Islands	Restricted distribution			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Sudan	Restricted distribution			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Tanzania	Widespread			Ahmed, 1975; Taylor et al., 1982; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Tunisia	Restricted distribution			Moens, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Uganda	Widespread			Bridge et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Zambia	Widespread			Keetch and Buckley, 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Zimbabwe	Widespread			Martin and Armstrong, 1975; CABI/EPPO, 2002
North America
Bermuda	Widespread			Wang and Hughes, 1976; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Canada	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Ontario	Present			Johnson and Potter, 1980; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Quebec	Absent, unreliable record			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Mexico	Widespread			Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Martínez et al., 2014
USA	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Alabama	Widespread			Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Moye et al., 2018
-Arizona	Widespread			Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Arkansas	Widespread			Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-California	Widespread			Taylor et al., 1982; Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Connecticut	Widespread			Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Florida	Widespread			Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Georgia	Widespread			Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Hawaii	Widespread			Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Illinois	Restricted distribution			Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Indiana	Restricted distribution			Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Kansas	Widespread			Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Kentucky	Widespread			Taylor et al., 1982; Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Louisiana	Widespread			Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Maryland	Widespread			Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Mississippi	Widespread			Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Missouri	Present			Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-New Mexico	Widespread			Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-New York	Widespread			Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-North Carolina	Widespread			Taylor et al., 1982; Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Oklahoma	Widespread			Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Oregon	Widespread			Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Pennsylvania	Widespread			Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-South Carolina	Widespread			Taylor et al., 1982; Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Tennessee	Widespread			Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Texas	Widespread			Taylor et al., 1982; Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Utah	Present			Campbell and Griffin, 1975; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Virginia	Widespread			Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Washington	Widespread			Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-West Virginia	Widespread			Walters and Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Central America and Caribbean
Antigua and Barbuda	Present			Walker et al., 1974; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Barbados	Widespread			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Belize	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Costa Rica	Widespread			Lopez, 1985; Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Cuba	Widespread			Cuadra et al., 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Rivas and Gandarilla, 2012
Dominica	Present			Hunt, 1977; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Dominican Republic	Widespread			Roman and Grullon, 1975; CABI/EPPO, 2002
El Salvador	Widespread			Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Guadeloupe	Widespread			Kermarrec, 1974; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Guatemala	Widespread			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Haiti	Widespread			Crill et al., 1973; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Honduras	Widespread			Pinochet, 1977; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Jamaica	Widespread			Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Martinique	Present			Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Montserrat	Widespread			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Nicaragua	Widespread			Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Panama	Widespread			Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Puerto Rico	Widespread			Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Saint Lucia	Widespread	Introduced	Invasive	Hunt, 1977; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	Widespread			Hunt, 1977; Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Trinidad and Tobago	Widespread			Bala, 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002
South America
Argentina	Widespread			Doucet and Pinochet, 1992; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Bolivia	Widespread			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Brazil	Widespread			CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Bahia	Widespread			Freire and Ponte, 1976; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Ceara	Widespread			Ponte, 1968; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Espirito Santo	Widespread			CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Goias	Widespread			Lordello et al., 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Maranhao	Widespread			Silva, 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Mato Grosso do Sul	Widespread			Lordello and Marini, 1974; Tihohod and Ferraz, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Minas Gerais	Widespread			Freire and Ferraz, 1977; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Para	Widespread			Freire, 1976; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Paraiba	Widespread			Lopes and Lordello, 1980; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Parana	Widespread			Lordello and Lordello, 1972; Santos and Silva, 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Pernambuco	Widespread			CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Rio de Janeiro	Widespread			Goes et al., 1982; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Rio Grande do Norte	Present			Ponte et al., 1977; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Rio Grande do Sul	Widespread			Lordello and Marini, 1974; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Santa Catarina	Widespread			Kalvelage and Brose, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Sao Paulo	Widespread			Curi and Silveira, 1978; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Chile	Widespread			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Colombia	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Ecuador	Widespread			Velastegui and Fiallos, 1987; CABI/EPPO, 2002
French Guiana	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Guyana	Widespread			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Paraguay	Widespread			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Peru	Present			Vargas and Pajuelo, 1973; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Murga-Gutierrez et al., 2012
Suriname	Widespread			Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Uruguay	Present			Alvarez, 1970; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Venezuela	Widespread			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Europe
Albania	Restricted distribution			Shepherd and Barker, 1990
Belarus	Restricted distribution			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Belgium	Restricted distribution			Belgium Government ARC, 1974; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Bosnia-Hercegovina	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Bulgaria	Restricted distribution			Stoyanov, 1980; Shepherd and Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Cyprus	Restricted distribution			Philis, 1983; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Czech Republic	Present			Tesarová et al., 2003
Estonia	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
France	Widespread			Gautier, 1975; Shepherd and Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Germany	Restricted distribution			Shepherd and Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Greece	Restricted distribution			Kyrou, 1976; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Tzortzakakis et al., 2011
-Crete	Present			Tzortzakakis et al., 2016
Hungary	Restricted distribution			Shepherd and Barker, 1990; Amin and Budai, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Iceland	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Italy	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002; d'Errico et al., 2014
-Sicily	Present			Colombo et al., 2008
Latvia	Restricted distribution			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Lithuania	Restricted distribution			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Macedonia	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Malta	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Moldova	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Montenegro	Present			Pajovic et al., 2007
Netherlands	Present			Netherlands Plantenziektenkundige Dienst, 1974; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Poland	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Portugal	Widespread			CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Azores	Present			Vovlas et al., 2004
Romania	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Russian Federation	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Central Russia	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Northern Russia	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Russian Far East	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Southern Russia	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Western Siberia	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Serbia	Present			Bacic et al., 2016	Bac?ki Vinogradi, Vojvodina Province
Slovakia	Present			Tesarová et al., 2003
Slovenia	Present			Sirca et al., 2003
Spain	Widespread			Tobar-Jiminez, 1984; Shepherd and Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002; López-Robles et al., 2013
Switzerland	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
UK	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Scotland	Present			Tesarová et al., 2003
Ukraine	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Yugoslavia (former)	Present			Grujicic, 1974
Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Oceania
American Samoa	Present			Brooks, 2002; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Australia	Widespread			Khair, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Australian Northern Territory	Widespread			Khair, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Singh et al., 2012
-New South Wales	Widespread			Khair, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Queensland	Widespread			Khair, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-South Australia	Widespread			Stirling, 1976; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Tasmania	Widespread			Khair, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Victoria	Widespread			Khair, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Western Australia	Widespread			Khair, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Fiji	Widespread			Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Kiribati	Widespread			Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002
New Caledonia	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
New Zealand	Present			CABI/EPPO, 2002
Niue	Present			Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Norfolk Island	Present			Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Papua New Guinea	Widespread			Powell, 1974; Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Samoa	Widespread			Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Solomon Islands	Widespread			Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Tonga	Widespread			Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Tuvalu	Widespread			Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Vanuatu	Widespread			Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002

Risk of Introduction

Top of page M. incognita is widely endemic in subtropical and tropical regions, thus quarantine regulations would be superfluous and none are known to be in place.

Habitat

Top of page M. incognita is found worldwide in tropical and subtropical regions, in particular in the warmer areas. For example, in California (USA), M. incognita is found more commonly in the hot valleys of the interior (Ferris and Van Gundy, 1979) and in East Africa it is restricted to altitudes below 2000 m above sea level (Whitehead, 1969). M. incognita is found on many soil types. Damage and yield losses caused are generally more severe on coarse-textured sandy soils (Van Gundy, 1985). Meloidogyne spp. are generally intolerant of flooded soil conditions.

Hosts/Species Affected

Top of page M. incognita is probably the most widely distributed and economically important species of plant parasitic nematode in tropical and subtropical regions. Two-thirds of the root-knot nematode samples obtained from a number of tropical countries were of M. incognita (Sasser, 1979). In India alone, 232 plant genera have been reported as hosts to M. incognita (Krishnappa, 1985) and worldwide the species is a parasite of a wide range of crop plants.

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

Top of page

Plant name	Family	Context
Abelmoschus esculentus (okra)	Malvaceae	Main
Acacia confusa	Fabaceae	Main
Achillea (milfoil)	Asteraceae	Other
Actinidia deliciosa (kiwifruit)	Actinidiaceae	Other
Agave	Agavaceae	Other
Albizia lebbeck (Indian siris)	Fabaceae	Other
Aloe vera (true aloe)	Aloaceae	Other
Amaranthus (amaranth)	Amaranthaceae	Other
Amaranthus blitum (livid amaranth)	Amaranthaceae	Other
Anacardium occidentale (cashew nut)	Anacardiaceae	Habitat/association
Ananas comosus (pineapple)	Bromeliaceae	Other
Anethum graveolens (dill)	Apiaceae	Other
Aptenia cordifolia	Aizoaceae	Habitat/association
Araujia sericifera (Arejishi)	Asclepiadaceae	Wild host
Areca catechu (betelnut palm)	Arecaceae	Habitat/association
Asparagus officinalis (asparagus)	Liliaceae	Other
Basella alba (Malabar spinach)	Basellaceae	Habitat/association
Bassia scoparia	Chenopodiaceae	Other
Bertholletia excelsa (Brazil nut)	Lecythidaceae	Unknown
Beta vulgaris (beetroot)	Chenopodiaceae	Other
Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes (kohlrabi)	Brassicaceae	Main
Brassicaceae (cruciferous crops)	Brassicaceae	Other
Calendula officinalis (Pot marigold)	Asteraceae	Other
Canavalia ensiformis (gotani bean)	Fabaceae	Other
Canna	Cannaceae	Other
Canna indica (canna lilly)	Cannaceae	Habitat/association
Cannabis sativa (hemp)	Cannabaceae	Other
Capsicum annuum (bell pepper)	Solanaceae	Main
Carica papaya (pawpaw)	Caricaceae	Main
Chenopodium album (fat hen)	Chenopodiaceae	Wild host
Chenopodium murale (nettleleaf goosefoot)	Chenopodiaceae	Wild host
Chrysanthemum (daisy)	Asteraceae	Other
Cichorium (chicory)	Asteraceae	Other
Clitoria ternatea (butterfly-pea)	Fabaceae	Other
Cocos nucifera (coconut)	Arecaceae	Habitat/association
Coffea (coffee)	Rubiaceae	Main
Coffea arabica (arabica coffee)	Rubiaceae	Main
Coffea canephora (robusta coffee)	Rubiaceae	Other
Colocasia	Araceae	Other
Convolvulus arvensis (bindweed)	Convolvulaceae	Wild host
Cordia myxa (sebesten)	Boraginaceae	Other
Cordyline fruticosa (ti plant)	Agavaceae	Other
Cordyline fruticosa (ti plant)	Agavaceae	Other
Coriandrum sativum (coriander)	Apiaceae	Other
Cucumis anguria (gerkin)	Cucurbitaceae	Other
Cucumis melo (melon)	Cucurbitaceae	Other
Cucumis sativus (cucumber)	Cucurbitaceae	Other
Cucurbitaceae (cucurbits)	Cucurbitaceae	Main
Cullen corylifolium (black-dot)	Fabaceae	Other
Curcuma alismatifolia	Zingiberaceae	Other
Curcuma longa (turmeric)	Zingiberaceae	Other
Cyperus (flatsedge)	Cyperaceae	Other
Cyperus haspan	Cyperaceae	Other
Cyperus rotundus (purple nutsedge)	Cyperaceae	Wild host
Dahlia coccinea	Asteraceae	Other
Datura metel (Hindu datura)	Solanaceae	Other
Datura stramonium (jimsonweed)	Solanaceae	Wild host
Daucus carota (carrot)	Apiaceae	Other
Dioscorea (yam)	Dioscoreaceae	Other
Dioscorea alata (white yam)	Dioscoreaceae	Other
Dioscorea batatas (Chinese yam)	Dioscoreaceae	Other
Dioscorea cayenensis	Dioscoreaceae	Habitat/association
Dioscorea rotundata	Dioscoreaceae	Other
Duranta erecta (Pigeonberry)	Verbenaceae	Other
Emilia sonchifolia (red tasselflower)	Asteraceae	Wild host
Eragrostis ciliaris	Poaceae	Other
Eryngium foetidum	Apiaceae	Other
Euphorbia prostrata	Euphorbiaceae	Other
Euphorbia tirucalli (Indian-tree spurge)	Euphorbiaceae	Other
Fabaceae (leguminous plants)	Fabaceae	Main
Ficus	Moraceae	Other
Ficus religiosa (sacred fig tree)	Moraceae	Other
Galinsoga parviflora (gallant soldier)	Asteraceae	Wild host
Gazania (treasure-flower)	Asteraceae	Other
Gloxinia		Habitat/association
Gomphrena globosa (Globe amaranth)	Amaranthaceae	Other
Gossypium (cotton)	Malvaceae	Other
Helianthus annuus (sunflower)	Asteraceae	Other
Hemerocallis (daylilies)	Liliaceae	Other
Hevea brasiliensis (rubber)	Euphorbiaceae	Habitat/association
Hibiscus cannabinus (kenaf)	Malvaceae	Main
Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato)	Convolvulaceae	Other
Jacquemontia pentantha	Convolvulaceae	Other
Jasminum multiflorum (star jasmine)	Oleaceae	Habitat/association
Jasminum sambac (arabian jasmine)	Oleaceae	Other
Juglans (walnuts)	Juglandaceae	Habitat/association
Kalanchoe fedtschenkoi	Crassulaceae	Other
Lactuca (lettuce)	Asteraceae	Other
Lactuca sativa (lettuce)	Asteraceae	Main
Lantana camara (lantana)	Verbenaceae	Other
Lavandula angustifolia (lavender)	Lamiaceae	Other
Lotus corniculatus (bird's-foot trefoil)	Fabaceae	Other
Luffa aegyptiaca (loofah)	Cucurbitaceae	Main
Malpighia glabra (acerola)	Malpighiaceae	Other
Mangifera indica (mango)	Anacardiaceae	Main
Manihot esculenta (cassava)	Euphorbiaceae	Other
Medicago sativa (lucerne)	Fabaceae	Main
Melilotus indica (Indian sweetclover)	Fabaceae	Wild host
Mentha spicata (Spear mint)	Lamiaceae	Other
Momordica charantia (bitter gourd)	Cucurbitaceae	Other
Morus (mulberrytree)	Moraceae	Other
Morus nigra (black mulberry)	Moraceae	Other
Musa (banana)	Musaceae	Other
Musa x paradisiaca (plantain)	Musaceae	Other
Oenanthe javanica	Apiaceae	Other
Olea europaea subsp. europaea (European olive)	Oleaceae	Habitat/association
Oryza sativa (rice)	Poaceae	Main
Parthenium hysterophorus (parthenium weed)	Asteraceae	Habitat/association
Passiflora edulis (passionfruit)	Passifloraceae	Other
Paulownia elongata (elongate paulownia)	Scrophulariaceae	Other
Persicaria posumbu	Polygonaceae	Other
Phaseolus (beans)	Fabaceae	Main
Phaseolus vulgaris (common bean)	Fabaceae	Main
Phoenix dactylifera (date-palm)	Arecaceae	Other
Phyla nodiflora	Verbenaceae	Other
Piper nigrum (black pepper)	Piperaceae	Other
Pithecellobium dulce (Manila tamarind)	Fabaceae	Other
Polianthes tuberosa (tuberose)	Agavaceae	Unknown
Pongamia pinnata (Indian beech)	Fabaceae	Other
Portulaca quadrifida (chickenweed)	Portulacaceae	Other
Prosopis juliflora (mesquite)	Fabaceae	Other
Prunus (stone fruit)	Rosaceae	Other
Prunus domestica (plum)	Rosaceae	Other
Prunus persica (peach)	Rosaceae	Other
Prunus salicina (Japanese plum)	Rosaceae	Main
Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (winged bean)	Fabaceae	Other
Ptychosperma elegans	Arecaceae	Habitat/association
Punica granatum (pomegranate)	Punicaceae	Other
Radermachera sinica	Bignoniaceae	Other
Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary)	Lamiaceae	Main
Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane)	Poaceae	Other
Samanea saman (rain tree)	Fabaceae	Main
Sansevieria trifasciata (mother-in-law’s tongue)	Agavaceae	Other
Solanaceae	Solanaceae	Main
Solanum lycopersicum (tomato)	Solanaceae	Main
Solanum melongena (aubergine)	Solanaceae	Main
Solanum nigrum (black nightshade)	Solanaceae	Wild host
Solanum tuberosum (potato)	Solanaceae	Other
Spinacia oleracea (spinach)	Chenopodiaceae	Other
Tagetes erecta (African marigold)	Asteraceae	Other
Tephrosia vogelii (Vogel's tephrosia)	Fabaceae	Other
Veitchia merrillii (christmas palm)	Arecaceae	Habitat/association
Vigna mungo (black gram)	Fabaceae	Other
Vigna radiata (mung bean)	Fabaceae	Other
Viola pilosa	Violaceae	Other
Vitex agnus-castus (lilac chastetree)	Lamiaceae	Other
Vitex trifolia	Lamiaceae	Other
Vitis vinifera (grapevine)	Vitaceae	Unknown
Washingtonia robusta (mexican washington-palm)	Arecaceae	Other
Xanthosoma (cocoyam)	Araceae	Other
Zea mays (maize)	Poaceae	Other

Growth Stages

Top of page Flowering stage, Fruiting stage, Seedling stage, Vegetative growing stage

Symptoms

Top of page Field symptoms are typically of stunted, poorly growing plants with yellowing leaves. Infected root systems show characteristic knots or galls, the severity of which varies with the degree of nematode infection and species and variety of plant parasitized (see Dropkin, 1989).

List of Symptoms/Signs

Top of page

Sign	Life Stages	Type
Leaves / abnormal colours
Leaves / wilting
Roots / galls along length
Roots / reduced root system
Roots / swollen roots
Whole plant / dwarfing
Whole plant / early senescence

Biology and Ecology

Top of page The life cycles of Meloidogyne spp. are well studied and in their essentials differ little between the major species (De Guiran and Ritter, 1979). At 21°C M. incognita took 37 days to complete its life cycle on Antirrhinum majus, a similar time to that reported on soyabeans (temperatures not published) (Ibrahim and El-Saedy, 1987). Juveniles penetrate root tips, occasionally invading roots in the zone of root elongation. Invaded nematodes initiate the development of giant cells in the meristematic, cortical and xylem tissues of the root and galling of roots occurs. Third- and fourth-stage juveniles and young females occur after about 6-8 and 15 days, respectively. Adult females were observed after 20 days and egg laying commenced after 25 days (Ibrahim and El-Saedy, 1987).

Natural enemies

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Natural enemy	Type	Life stages	Biological control in	Biological control on
Alternaria humicola	Pathogen
Arachnula impatiens	Pathogen
Arthrobotrys amerospora	Predator
Arthrobotrys cladodes	Predator
Arthrobotrys conoides	Predator
Arthrobotrys dactyloides	Predator
Arthrobotrys fusiformis	Predator
Arthrobotrys irregularis	Predator
Arthrobotrys lacdodes	Predator
Arthrobotrys musiformis	Predator
Arthrobotrys oligospora	Predator			cucumbers
Arthrobotrys vermicola	Predator
Aspergillus niger	Antagonist
Athelia rolfsii	Pathogen	Larvae
Aureobasidium pullulans	Antagonist
Azotobacter chroococcum	Pathogen		India
Bacillus cereus	Pathogen
Bacillus subtilis	Pathogen
Beauveria bassiana	Pathogen
Catenaria anguillulae	Pathogen			tomatoes
Cochliobolus lunatus	Pathogen
Cylindrocarpon olidum	Pathogen
Dactylaria brochophaga	Predator
Dactylella lysipaga	Predator
Fusarium oxysporum	Pathogen
Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceris	Pathogen
Haematonectria haematococca	Pathogen
Harposporium anguillulae	Parasite
Harposporium oxysporium	Parasite
Hirsutella rhossiliensis	Pathogen
Hypocrea rufa	Mycoparasite
Micrococcus luteus	Pathogen
Monacrosporium cionopagum	Predator
Monacrosporium ellipsosporum	Predator
Monacrosporium endermata	Predator
Monacrosporium fusiformis	Predator
Monacrosporium lysifaga	Predator
Monacrosporium megalalosporum	Predator
Mononchoides fortidens	Predator
Mononchoides longicaudatus	Predator
Mononchus aquaticus	Parasite
Myrothecium verrucaria	Pathogen
Paecilomyces lilacinus	Parasite	Eggs	India; Puerto Rico
Pasteuria penetrans	Pathogen		Ecuador
Serratia marcescens	Pathogen
Streptomyces saraceticus	Pathogen
Thanatephorus cucumeris	Pathogen
Vampyrella vorax	Pathogen
Verticillium chlamydosporium	Parasite	Eggs	UK

Notes on Natural Enemies

Top of page A considerable amount of work has been devoted to the biological control of root-knot nematodes in general and M. incognita in particular (Kerry, 1987). Most research has concentrated on the endoparasitic microorganism Pasteuria penetrans and the egg-parasitic fungus Paecilomyces lilanicus. Experimental work has been encouraging, for example P. penetrans in the control of M. incognita on tomatoes (Sayre, 1980) and P. lilanicus in the control of M. incognita on potatoes (Jatala, 1985). The development of P. lilanicus has reached the stage of multi-local field trials (Jatala, 1985). However, there are considerable problems in the preparation and incorporation of inocula of putative biocontrol agents and the practical application of such technology remains to be developed (Kerry, 1987).

Pathway Vectors

Top of page

Vector	Notes	Long Distance
Clothing, footwear and possessions	Eggs and galls in soil.	Yes
Containers and packaging - wood		Yes
Land vehicles	Eggs and galls in soil.	Yes
Mail	Eggs and galls in soil.	Yes
Soil, sand and gravel	Eggs and galls in soil.	Yes

Plant Trade

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Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport	Pest stages	Borne internally	Borne externally	Visibility of pest or symptoms
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes	adults; eggs; juveniles	Yes	Yes	Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope
Growing medium accompanying plants	adults; eggs; juveniles	Yes	Yes	Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope
Roots	adults; eggs; juveniles	Yes	Yes	Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants	adults; eggs; juveniles	Yes	Yes	Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope

Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Bark
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx
Fruits (inc. pods)
Leaves
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches
True seeds (inc. grain)
Wood

Impact

Top of page Introduction

The root knot nematode species, M. incognita, is the most widespread and probably the most serious plant parasitic nematode pest of tropical and subtropical regions throughout the world (Sasser, 1979). It occurs as a pest on a very wide range of crops. Most estimates of yield loss come from the use of nematicides and it should be noted that these can possibly cause other beneficial growth effects.

Cotton

The most accurate and detailed estimates of cotton yield losses due to nematodes have been undertaken in states of the USA where nematicides are regularly used. In Arkansas, where M. incognita is by far the most important nematode of cotton, yield losses after the application of nematicides are estimated at 1.5% annually; in South Carolina, M. incognita with other nematodes account for an estimated 5% loss annually (Kirkpatrick, 1988, 1989). In Texas over a 16-year period of field experiments, the average cotton yield increase was 26% when fields infested with M. incognita were fumigated with nematicides. In six Texan counties, where over 47% of field soils were infested with M. incognita, it was calculated that the total annual yield loss was 10.2% or 85,600 cotton bales (Orr and Robinson, 1984). Disease complexes involving M. incognita and vascular Fusarium wilt on cotton are well recognized. Where the two organisms occur together, increasing the nematode population has a greater effect on wilt incidence and cotton yield loss than an increase in the Fusarium population (Starr et al., 1989; Hillocks and Bridge, 1992; Hillocks, 1997).

Tobacco

Root knot nematodes, mainly M. incognita and M. javanica, are always pests of economic importance in tobacco culture, wherever the climate favours them (Barker et al., 1981; Shepherd and Barker, 1990). In North America, losses to tobacco from root knot nematodes, mainly M. incognita, have been estimated to range from 1% to 14% annually in areas where control measures are the norm (Shepherd and Barker, 1990). Root knot nematodes, probably M. incognita, have been estimated to cause 50 to 60% yield losses in parts of Turkey and losses of 25% from field infestation and 50% if the infestation started in the seedbed in India (Shepherd and Barker, 1990). The percentage loss in tobacco yield is estimated to be 8 to 9% for each ten-fold increase in the initial population of M. incognita (Barker et al., 1981). In Cuba, in the region where the highest quality tobacco for cigars is produced, the losses due to M. incognita are estimated at 27.5% of the crop potential of flue-cured tobacco (Garcia and Perez, 1987; Fernandez and Ortega, 1998).

Food Legumes

M. incognita is a major economic pest of food legumes in the tropics and subtropics (Sikora and Greco, 1990). Moderate soil populations of 1000 nematodes per plant in pathogenicity pot experiments can reduce pod yields of chickpea (Cicer arietinum) by 27% and very high soil populations of 10,000 per plant reduce pod yields by 87%. In M. incognita-infested field plots treated with nematicides, yield of chickpea can increase by 15 to 33% (Reddy, 1976). Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is very badly damaged by Meloidogyne species in the tropics. Significant bean yield increases of 45 to 60% have been achieved in Kenya by reducing mixed soil populations of M. incognita and M. javanica with the application of nematicides (Ngundo and Taylor, 1974). Similarly in Peru and Colombia, in fields infested with mixed populations of Meloidogyne species, mainly M. incognita, common bean seed yield can be reduced by 26 to 63% depending on the bean cultivar grown and other factors (Mullin et al., 1991). M. incognita is a serious pest of Phaseolus vulgaris in the USA where there is a reduction of 66% in crop value in fields where the nematodes are not controlled. The reduced crop value is a result of a combination of reduced plant stands and a 27% lower average pod production by surviving plants (Smittle and Johnson, 1982). Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) is another very susceptible host crop of M. incognita. In Nigerian soils where M. incognita is the predominant nematode parasite, application of nematicides can increase cowpea yields by 95 to 222% (Babatola and Omotade, 1991). Soyabean (Glycine max) is another legume severely damaged by root knot nematodes and in Brazil yield can be reduced by over 55% in the presence of M. incognita (Antonio, 1988). In India, nematicide application to farmers' fields infested with a mixture of M. incognita and Rotylenchulus reniformis increased yield of soyabean by 19% (Prasad, 1999).

Vegetables

M. incognita is a major pest of vegetables throughout the tropics and subtropics. Many crops grown as vegetables are susceptible to the nematode particularly tomato, aubergine, okra, cucumber, melon, carrot, gourds, lettuce and peppers. Estimates of vegetable crop losses due Meloidogyne species, mainly M. incognita and M. javanica, have ranged from 17 to 20% for aubergine (Solanum melongena), 18 to 33% for melon and 24 to 38% for tomato (Sasser, 1979). In India, yield losses of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), tomato and aubergine field crops are estimated at 91%, 42 to 54% and 18%, respectively (Bhatti and Jain, 1977; Subramaniyan et al., 1990). Other trials in India using nematicides showed that in fields naturally infested with mixed populations of M. incognita and M. javanica the avoidable yield losses in peas, okra, tomato and bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) crops is 46% to 56% (Sharma and Baheti, 1992).

Yams

The primary damage to yams (Dioscorea species) by M. incognita is in the reduction in quality and marketability of the tubers due to the extensive surface galling caused by the root knot nematodes (Jatala and Bridge, 1990). It is estimated that there is a reduction of 39 to 52% in the price of galled tubers compared with healthy ones (Nwauzor and Fawole, 1982). However, there are instances were the nematode is known to actually reduce yields, for example in Nigeria significant yield reduction can occur in D. alata due to M. incognita (Adesiyan and Odihirin, 1978). In Martinique, M. incognita is reported to have completely destroyed a crop of the yam D. trifida (Kermarrec, 1974). In India, pot experiments have demonstrated that even low nematode populations of 100 M. incognita juveniles per plant can cause a highly significant reduction in yam (D. rotundata) tuber weights of 27% and larger nematode populations over 55% yield loss (Mohandas and Ramakrishnan, 1997).

Potatoes

Losses of potatoes due to Meloidogyne species, mainly M. incognita, are estimated at 25% or more (Mai et al., 1981).

Spices

M. incognita is an important pest of black pepper (Piper nigrum) in many countries particularly in Brazil and India where infestation levels of over 90% have been reported (Koshy and Bridge, 1990). As few as 10 juveniles per plant can reduce black pepper growth by 16% under potted conditions (Koshy et al., 1979). Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) suffers yield losses of 32 to 47% in the presence of M. incognita in India (Ali, 1986). In Australia, M. incognita and M. javanica are pests of ginger and severe infestation of rhizomes can reduce yields by 57% (Pegg et al., 1974). In pot experiments, a reduction of 74% in ginger rhizome weight has been recorded with initial M. incognita soil populations of 10,000 nematodes (Sukumaran and Sundararaju, 1986).

Coffee

M. incognita is found in many coffee-growing areas in the world but it is in Brazil where its effects have been the most catastrophic. In Brazil, the nematode has caused the complete destruction of coffee plantations and resulted in major agricultural changes as farmers were forced to adopt alternative crops (Campos et al., 1990).

Diagnosis

Top of page General identification of root-knot nematode infestation can be conducted by competent nematologists with basic equipment. Identification of species within the genus Meloidogyne requires the services of specialized taxonomists. In addition to classical taxonomic techniques, biochemical methods are also being developed (Esbenshade and Triantaphyllou, 1985). The situation regarding M. incognita is complicated by the existence of morphologically indistinguishable races differentiated by their ability to reproduce on a range of test host plants (Hartman and Sasser, 1985).

Detection and Inspection

Top of page Above-ground symptoms are non-specific (see Symptoms): examination of roots can reveal the presence of swollen roots and galls. Closer examination, for example with a hand lens, can show the presence of egg masses on the root surface.

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

Top of page Meloidogyne incognita is similar to other species of Meloidogyne. Confusion within this group is common as the characters used tend to be variable.

Prevention and Control

Top of page Methods for the control of M. incognita vary with the production system used and the value of the crop. Chemical control may be used on high-value crops, and a wide range of chemicals are available (Johnson, 1985a; Hague and Gowen, 1987). Strategies of cultural control are less well developed and crop rotations are difficult to design because of the wide host range of M. incognita. Groundnuts or maize, which are both poor or non-hosts to M. incognita, have been evaluated for use in cropping systems designed to manage this nematode (Raymundo, 1985). Systems of integrating cropping sequences and chemical control have been evaluated in the USA (Johnson, 1985b). Resistance to M. incognita exists in a number of commercial crop varieties, principally vegetables (Lehman and Cochran, 1991). These have generally been developed in the USA, but have been evaluated in other parts of the world (for example, see Krishnappa, 1985).

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Top of page

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Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode)

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