| Picture | Title | Caption | Copyright |
|---|---|---|---|
| Field symptoms | Hot spot" in groundnut field infested with M. hapla. | ©R.A. Motsinger/Nemapix Vol. 1 |
Datasheet
Meloidogyne hapla (root knot nematode)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Growth Stages
- Symptoms
- List of Symptoms/Signs
- Biology and Ecology
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Seedborne Aspects
- Pathway Vectors
- Plant Trade
- Impact
- Detection and Inspection
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pageIdentity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Meloidogyne hapla Chitwood, 1949
Preferred Common Name
- root knot nematode
International Common Names
- English: Northern root knot nematode
- Spanish: nematodo norteno de quiste (Mexico)
- French: nodosité des racines
Local Common Names
- Germany: Älchen, Nördliches Wurzelgallen-
- Japan: kita-nekobu-sentyubyo
- Netherlands: wortelknobbelaaltje
- Turkey: kok ur nematodu
EPPO code
- MELGHA (Meloidogyne hapla)
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Metazoa
- Phylum: Nematoda
- Family: Meloidogynidae
- Genus: Meloidogyne
- Species: Meloidogyne hapla
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of page
Meloidogyne hapla was first described from the USA by Chitwood (1949). The type host was Solanum tuberosum and the type locality was Long Island, New York, USA. No synonyms are known, although some of the records attributed to this species refer to other species such as Meloidogyne chitwoodi.
Description
Top of page
Measurements (after Whitehead, 1968).
Females (n=20): L = 419-845 (612) µm; width = 311-561 (430) µm; spear (9) = 10-13 (11) µm; width spear base (9) = 2-3 (2) µm; dorsal oesophageal gland orifice (8) = 4-6 (5) µm behind spear base; length median bulb (5) = 31-43 (36) µm; width median bulb (6) = 26-37 (31) µm; length median bulb valves (6) = 10-13 (12) µm; width median bulb valves (6) = 9-11 (10) µm.
Males (n=25): L = 791-1432 (1139) µm; a = 33.3-47.0 (41.7); length head (21) = 4.3-7.9 (5.6) µm; spear = 17.3-22.7 (20.0) µm; width spear base = 2.5-5.0 (3.5) µm; dorsal oesophageal gland orifice (8) = 2.5-3.2 (2.9) µm behind spear base; b' (total length divided by distance from anterior end to middle of median bulb) = 12.8-19.2 (15.5); c (24) = 73-283 (118); length median bulb (24) = 15.1-25.9 (19.2) µm; width median bulb (24) = 7.2-12.9 (9.3) µm; length median bulb valves (23) = 3.6-7.2 (5.9) µm; spicules (length of arc) (8) = 21.6-28.1 (25.7) µm; gubernaculum (5) = 7.2-9.4 (8.2) µm.
Infective juveniles (n=20) (J2): L = 312-355 (337) µm; a (18) = 20.1-26.6 (23.9); length tail (15) = 33-48 (43) µm; c (15) = 7.3-10.2 (7.9); c' (15) = 3.7-4.7 (4.4); length body to middle of genital primordium (13) = 177-214 (200) µm; spear (9) = 7.9-10.9 (9.7) µm.
Eggs (unembryonated) (n=20): 71-91 (78) µm 26-40 (31) µm.
Description (after Orton Williams, 1974)
Female: Body pyroid with short neck. Cuticle becoming thicker in posterior half of body, sometimes considerably. Head with two annules behind head-cap. Spear knobs rounded, inconspicuous. Excretory pore 14-20 annules behind head, hemizonid just posterior to pore. Posterior cuticular pattern roughly circular, composed of closely spaced smooth or slightly wavy striae. Dorsal arch low. Lateral fields may be unmarked, may be marked only by slight irregularities in the striae, or dorsal and ventral striae may meet at a slight angle along the fields. Some forking of striae at lateral fields may also occur. In some cases ventral striae may extend laterally on one or both sides to form 'wings' which the dorsal striae meet almost at right angles. Tail with few striae but distinct punctuations forming a stippled area between the anus and tail terminus. Sometimes the stippling may be more diffuse over the inner part of the pattern. Phasmids fairly widely spaced.
Male: Numerous in some populations, absent in others. Head not offset, a truncate cone to hemispherical in outline. Usually only one annule behind head-cap. Spear slender, spear knobs rounded and not offset. Anterior cephalid on second body annule, posterior cephalid just anterior to level of relaxed spear. Hemizonid 45-58 annules behind head, 0-4 annules anterior to excretory pore. Lateral field with four incisures. Tail terminus bluntly rounded; phasmids at about cloacal level. One or two testes. Spicules slightly curved, with small sharp processes projecting from the spicule wall at the junction of head and shaft into the spicule head. Gubernaculum crescentic, proximal end thicker than distal end.
Females (n=20): L = 419-845 (612) µm; width = 311-561 (430) µm; spear (9) = 10-13 (11) µm; width spear base (9) = 2-3 (2) µm; dorsal oesophageal gland orifice (8) = 4-6 (5) µm behind spear base; length median bulb (5) = 31-43 (36) µm; width median bulb (6) = 26-37 (31) µm; length median bulb valves (6) = 10-13 (12) µm; width median bulb valves (6) = 9-11 (10) µm.
Males (n=25): L = 791-1432 (1139) µm; a = 33.3-47.0 (41.7); length head (21) = 4.3-7.9 (5.6) µm; spear = 17.3-22.7 (20.0) µm; width spear base = 2.5-5.0 (3.5) µm; dorsal oesophageal gland orifice (8) = 2.5-3.2 (2.9) µm behind spear base; b' (total length divided by distance from anterior end to middle of median bulb) = 12.8-19.2 (15.5); c (24) = 73-283 (118); length median bulb (24) = 15.1-25.9 (19.2) µm; width median bulb (24) = 7.2-12.9 (9.3) µm; length median bulb valves (23) = 3.6-7.2 (5.9) µm; spicules (length of arc) (8) = 21.6-28.1 (25.7) µm; gubernaculum (5) = 7.2-9.4 (8.2) µm.
Infective juveniles (n=20) (J2): L = 312-355 (337) µm; a (18) = 20.1-26.6 (23.9); length tail (15) = 33-48 (43) µm; c (15) = 7.3-10.2 (7.9); c' (15) = 3.7-4.7 (4.4); length body to middle of genital primordium (13) = 177-214 (200) µm; spear (9) = 7.9-10.9 (9.7) µm.
Eggs (unembryonated) (n=20): 71-91 (78) µm 26-40 (31) µm.
Description (after Orton Williams, 1974)
Female: Body pyroid with short neck. Cuticle becoming thicker in posterior half of body, sometimes considerably. Head with two annules behind head-cap. Spear knobs rounded, inconspicuous. Excretory pore 14-20 annules behind head, hemizonid just posterior to pore. Posterior cuticular pattern roughly circular, composed of closely spaced smooth or slightly wavy striae. Dorsal arch low. Lateral fields may be unmarked, may be marked only by slight irregularities in the striae, or dorsal and ventral striae may meet at a slight angle along the fields. Some forking of striae at lateral fields may also occur. In some cases ventral striae may extend laterally on one or both sides to form 'wings' which the dorsal striae meet almost at right angles. Tail with few striae but distinct punctuations forming a stippled area between the anus and tail terminus. Sometimes the stippling may be more diffuse over the inner part of the pattern. Phasmids fairly widely spaced.
Male: Numerous in some populations, absent in others. Head not offset, a truncate cone to hemispherical in outline. Usually only one annule behind head-cap. Spear slender, spear knobs rounded and not offset. Anterior cephalid on second body annule, posterior cephalid just anterior to level of relaxed spear. Hemizonid 45-58 annules behind head, 0-4 annules anterior to excretory pore. Lateral field with four incisures. Tail terminus bluntly rounded; phasmids at about cloacal level. One or two testes. Spicules slightly curved, with small sharp processes projecting from the spicule wall at the junction of head and shaft into the spicule head. Gubernaculum crescentic, proximal end thicker than distal end.
Distribution
Top of page
M. hapla is extremely widely distributed, particularly in temperate regions and the cooler, higher altitude areas of the tropics. According to Whitehead (1969), M. hapla only flourishes at high altitudes above 6000 feet in East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda), despite the abundance of host plants at lower altitudes. In Queensland, Australia, M. hapla was not found as far north as M. javanica (Colbran, 1958). Taylor and Buhrer (1958) reported that in the USA, M. hapla was the commonest root-knot nematode north of 39°N.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 17 Feb 2021| Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
| Algeria | Present, Few occurrences | ||||||
| Côte d'Ivoire | Present | ||||||
| Egypt | Present | ||||||
| Ethiopia | Present | ||||||
| Kenya | Present | ||||||
| Libya | Present | ||||||
| Malawi | Present | ||||||
| Morocco | Present | ||||||
| Nigeria | Present | ||||||
| South Africa | Present | ||||||
| Tanzania | Present | ||||||
| Uganda | Present | ||||||
| Zimbabwe | Present, Localized | ||||||
Asia |
|||||||
| Armenia | Present | ||||||
| China | Present | ||||||
| -Chongqing | Present | ||||||
| -Fujian | Present | ||||||
| -Gansu | Present | ||||||
| -Hebei | Present | ||||||
| -Henan | Present | ||||||
| -Inner Mongolia | Present | ||||||
| -Jiangsu | Present | ||||||
| -Shandong | Present | ||||||
| -Shanxi | Present | ||||||
| -Sichuan | Present | ||||||
| -Yunnan | Present | ||||||
| India | Present | ||||||
| -Himachal Pradesh | Present | ||||||
| -Jammu and Kashmir | Present | ||||||
| -Tamil Nadu | Present | ||||||
| -Uttar Pradesh | Present | ||||||
| -West Bengal | Present | ||||||
| Indonesia | Present | ||||||
| -Java | Present | ||||||
| Iran | Present | ||||||
| Israel | Present | ||||||
| Japan | Present | ||||||
| -Hokkaido | Present | ||||||
| -Honshu | Present | ||||||
| -Kyushu | Present | ||||||
| -Ryukyu Islands | Present | ||||||
| -Shikoku | Present | ||||||
| Kazakhstan | Present | ||||||
| Kyrgyzstan | Present | ||||||
| Malaysia | Present | ||||||
| Mongolia | Present | ||||||
| Pakistan | Present | ||||||
| Philippines | Present | ||||||
| South Korea | Present | ||||||
| Sri Lanka | Present | ||||||
| Taiwan | Present | ||||||
| Tajikistan | Present | ||||||
| Thailand | Present | ||||||
| Turkey | Present | ||||||
| Turkmenistan | Present | ||||||
| Uzbekistan | Present | ||||||
Europe |
|||||||
| Belarus | Present | ||||||
| Belgium | Present | ||||||
| Bulgaria | Present | ||||||
| Czechia | Present | ||||||
| Estonia | Present | ||||||
| Federal Republic of Yugoslavia | Present | ||||||
| Union of Soviet Socialist Republics | Present | ||||||
| Finland | Present | ||||||
| France | Present | ||||||
| Germany | Present | ||||||
| Greece | Present | ||||||
| -Crete | Present | ||||||
| Hungary | Present | ||||||
| Italy | Present | ||||||
| Latvia | Present | ||||||
| Lithuania | Present | ||||||
| Moldova | Present | ||||||
| Netherlands | Present | ||||||
| North Macedonia | Present | ||||||
| Norway | Present | ||||||
| Poland | Present | ||||||
| Portugal | Present | ||||||
| Romania | Present | ||||||
| Russia | Present, Widespread | ||||||
| -Central Russia | Present | ||||||
| -Southern Russia | Present | ||||||
| -Western Siberia | Present | ||||||
| Serbia and Montenegro | Present | ||||||
| Slovakia | Present | ||||||
| Slovenia | Present | Original citation: ?irca and Urek (2005) | |||||
| Spain | Present | ||||||
| Switzerland | Present | ||||||
| Ukraine | Present | ||||||
| United Kingdom | Present | ||||||
| -England | Present | ||||||
North America |
|||||||
| Canada | Present, Widespread | ||||||
| -New Brunswick | Present, Localized | ||||||
| -Ontario | Present | ||||||
| -Prince Edward Island | Present | ||||||
| -Quebec | Present | ||||||
| Costa Rica | Present | ||||||
| Guatemala | Present | ||||||
| Mexico | Present | ||||||
| Panama | Present | ||||||
| United States | Present, Widespread | ||||||
| -California | Present | ||||||
| -Connecticut | Present | ||||||
| -Florida | Present | ||||||
| -Georgia | Present | ||||||
| -Hawaii | Present | ||||||
| -Idaho | Present | ||||||
| -Maine | Present | ||||||
| -Michigan | Present | ||||||
| -Minnesota | Present | ||||||
| -Nevada | Present | ||||||
| -New Jersey | Present | ||||||
| -New York | Present | ||||||
| -North Carolina | Present | ||||||
| -North Dakota | Present | ||||||
| -Ohio | Present | ||||||
| -Oklahoma | Present | ||||||
| -Oregon | Present | ||||||
| -Pennsylvania | Present | ||||||
| -Rhode Island | Present | ||||||
| -Tennessee | Present | ||||||
| -Texas | Present | ||||||
| -Utah | Present | ||||||
| -Virginia | Present | ||||||
| -Washington | Present | ||||||
| -Wisconsin | Present | ||||||
| -Wyoming | Present | ||||||
Oceania |
|||||||
| Australia | Present, Widespread | ||||||
| -New South Wales | Present | ||||||
| -Queensland | Present | ||||||
| -South Australia | Present | ||||||
| -Tasmania | Present | ||||||
| New Zealand | Present | ||||||
| Norfolk Island | Present | ||||||
| Papua New Guinea | Present, Widespread | ||||||
South America |
|||||||
| Argentina | Present | ||||||
| Brazil | Present | ||||||
| -Bahia | Present | ||||||
| -Ceara | Present | ||||||
| -Goias | Present, Localized | ||||||
| -Minas Gerais | Present | ||||||
| -Para | Present | ||||||
| -Parana | Present | ||||||
| -Pernambuco | Present | ||||||
| -Rio Grande do Norte | Present | ||||||
| -Rio Grande do Sul | Present | ||||||
| -Santa Catarina | Present, Localized | ||||||
| -Sao Paulo | Present, Localized | ||||||
| Chile | Present | ||||||
| Colombia | Present | ||||||
| Ecuador | Present, Widespread | ||||||
| Paraguay | Present | ||||||
| Peru | Present | ||||||
| Uruguay | Present | ||||||
| Venezuela | Present | ||||||
Risk of Introduction
Top of page
M. hapla represents a severe risk to agricultural areas where it is not currently found, but as the species is virtually cosmopolitan the actual phytosanitary risk is probably low.
Habitat
Top of page
The infective second stage juveniles are found in the soil where they hatch from the eggs. The second stage penetrates a suitable root and all subsequent stages are located within the root tissue of the host where they remain as sedentary endoparasites with the exception of the adult vermiform male which may escape from the root into the soil.
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of page
M. hapla is extremely polyphagous, attacking a wide variety of crops and weeds. Goodey et al. (1965) listed over 550 hosts and many more have been added since then. The species has recorded hosts in most of the higher plant families and attacks both herbaceous and woody plants. However, many grasses and cereals appear to be non-hosts. Carter (1985) provided a review of the recorded hosts.
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pageSymptoms
Top of page
Typical symptoms of attack include a galling of the root system, the galls being relatively small and subspherical, often with a marked proliferation of small roots at the site of the gall (this is in contrast to the symptoms caused by other common species of Meloidogyne). In potato tubers, brown spots appearing in the tubers after the females commence egg production may identify infection sites. Severe attack by M. hapla results in impaired root function and concomitant stunting of the above ground parts leading to a reduction in yield.
List of Symptoms/Signs
Top of page| Sign | Life Stages | Type |
|---|---|---|
| Leaves / abnormal colours | ||
| Roots / galls along length | ||
| Roots / reduced root system | ||
| Whole plant / dwarfing | ||
| Whole plant / early senescence |
Biology and Ecology
Top of page
M. hapla is an obligate sedentary endoparasite of plant roots and tubers. The second stage infective juvenile penetrates the root and settles down within the cortex. As with all root-knot nematodes, a giant cell system of trophic cells is formed by the plant in response to secretions from the nematode. With each moult the nematode becomes more obese, although males become vermiform at the last moult and then emerge into the soil. The obese female swells enormously and produces numerous eggs (typically about 500) in a protective gelatinous matrix.
Unlike many root knot nematodes, M. hapla can withstand cold, eggs and juveniles surviving field temperatures below 0°C. However, it seems to be less tolerant of high temperatures than Meloidogyne incognita, for example. The optimum temperature for invasion and growth of M. hapla is in the range 20-25°C, a mean temperature of 27°C being inimical to development.
The nematode may be associated with other pathogens, including bacteria (such as Pseudomonas caryophylli) and fungi (such as Fusarium oxysporum, Rhizoctonia solani and Verticillium dahliae).
For further information see Orton Williams (1974).
Unlike many root knot nematodes, M. hapla can withstand cold, eggs and juveniles surviving field temperatures below 0°C. However, it seems to be less tolerant of high temperatures than Meloidogyne incognita, for example. The optimum temperature for invasion and growth of M. hapla is in the range 20-25°C, a mean temperature of 27°C being inimical to development.
The nematode may be associated with other pathogens, including bacteria (such as Pseudomonas caryophylli) and fungi (such as Fusarium oxysporum, Rhizoctonia solani and Verticillium dahliae).
For further information see Orton Williams (1974).
Natural enemies
Top of page| Natural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Arthrobotrys oligospora | Predator | |||||
| Glomus fasciculatum | Antagonist | |||||
| Myrothecium verrucaria | Pathogen | |||||
| Pasteuria penetrans | Pathogen |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of page
Pasteuria penetrans is known to parasitize root knot nematodes. The soil-dwelling second stage juveniles may be infected during the soil phase (Den Belder and Jansen, 1994). Arthrobotrys is also known to entrap the juveniles (Oostendorp et al., 1990; Watson et al., 1990).
Seedborne Aspects
Top of page
M. hapla is not seedborne in the usual interpretation of the term, although it may be transmitted by infected planting material such as seed potatoes.
Pathway Vectors
Top of page| Vector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clothing, footwear and possessions | Eggs and juveniles in soil. | Yes | ||
| Containers and packaging - wood | Eggs and juveniles in soil. | Yes | ||
| Land vehicles | Eggs and juveniles in soil. | Yes | ||
| Eggs and juveniles in soil. | Yes | |||
| Soil, sand and gravel | Eggs and juveniles in soil. | Yes |
Plant Trade
Top of page| Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport | Pest stages | Borne internally | Borne externally | Visibility of pest or symptoms |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes | adults; eggs; juveniles | Yes | Yes | Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope |
| Growing medium accompanying plants | adults; eggs; juveniles | Yes | Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope | |
| Roots | adults; eggs; juveniles | Yes | Yes | Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope |
| Seedlings/Micropropagated plants | adults; eggs; juveniles | Yes | Yes | Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope |
| Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport |
|---|
| Bark |
| Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx |
| Fruits (inc. pods) |
| Leaves |
| Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches |
| True seeds (inc. grain) |
| Wood |
Impact
Top of page
M. hapla attacks nearly all temperate vegetables of economic importance and is well known as being capable of causing considerable reductions in yield, even to the point of total crop loss. In the field, crops including lucerne, groundnut, potato, carrot, sugarbeet, strawberry, pyrethrum and onion may be severely affected. For further quantitative information, see Luc et al. (1990) and Evans et al. (1993).
Detection and Inspection
Top of page
M. hapla may be detected within the galled roots and tubers of the host by careful dissection and examination under the stereomicroscope. The infective juveniles may be recovered from soil using standard extraction methodologies as may the adult vermiform males when these occur.
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of page
M. hapla is broadly similar to other members of the genus and normally requires the service of an experienced nematologist to identify to species level with any certainty. A suite of morphological characters, including the form of the perineal pattern of the mature female and the length and form of the second stage juvenile tail facilitate identification. Confusion with Meloidogyne chitwoodi is possible and PCR assays have been developed to assist in the rapid differentiation of the species. The galls formed by this species are usually rather atypical of root-knot nematodes in general in that they are often rather discrete and globular and arranged along the root. This symptom may be confused with galling by Nacobbus aberrans, the false root-knot nematode, and care should be taken to examine the nematodes inside the gall to confirm their identity.
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Various methods have been used to cleanse planting material, including hot water treatment (McDonald and Misari, 1976; Zunke, 1981) and a range of nematicidal drenches. Treatment in the field also relies upon the application of nematicides although frequent rotation with cereals or other graminaceous non-host crops may also be efficacious. Glasshouse soils may be fumigated to eradicate the pest. Many crops have potential for development of resistant or tolerant varieties.
For general information on the use of nematicides see Luc et al. (1990) and Evans et al. (1993). Both granular and liquid formulations have been used to control this nematode. More recent papers on this subject include LaMondia (1994), Johnston et al. (1995, 1996), Phipps et al. (1995) and Phipps and Eisenback (1996).
References
Top of pageBerbec E, 1972. Badania nad wystepowaniem i szkodliwoscia matwika polnocnego (Meloidogyne hapla Chitwood) na marchwi. Prace Wydzialu Nauk Przyrodniczych Bydgoskiego Towarzystwa Naukowego Ser. B, 15:3-32.
Berge JB; Dalmasso A; Ritter M, 1972. Studies on Meloidogyne hapla found in France. International Symposium of Nematology (11th), European Society of Nematologists, Reading, UK, 3-8 September, 1972. 2-3.
Bridge J, 1988. Plant-parasitic nematode problems in the Pacific Islands. Journal of Nematology, 20(2):173-183.
Brinkman H, 1975. Nematological observations in 1973 and 1974. Gewasbescherming, 6(4):57-64
Carter CC, 1985. Literature search: Host range of Meloidogyne hapla. International Nematology Network Newsletter, 2:16-24.
Chaves E; Torres M, 1993. Parasitic nematodes of potatoes in the south east of Buenos Aires. Boletin Tecnico, Estacion Experimental Agropecuaria, Balcarce, 115.
Colbran RC, 1958. Studies of plant and soil nematodes. 2. Queensland host records of root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne species). Queensland Journal Agricultural Science, 15:101-136.
Erenfelde EY, 1984. The northern root-knot nematode in the Latvian SSR. Byulleten Vsesoyuznogo Naucho Issledovatel'skogo, Instituta Zashchity Rastenii, 57:24-26.
Gladkaya RM, 1983. The biology of gall nematodes in greenhouses in Belorussia. Vestsi Akademii Navuk BSSR Sergya Sel'skagaspadarchykh Navuk, 3:69-71.
Grujicic G; Paunovic M, 1971. A contribution to the study of the root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne hapla Chitwood). Zastita Bilja, 22:112-113, 147-152.
LaMondia JA, 1994. Evaluation of nematicides for control of root-knot and lesion nematodes on strawberry, 1991-1993. Fungicide and Nematicide Tests, 49:184.
Martin GC, 1961. Plants attacked by root-knot nematodes in the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Supplementray List No. 2. Rhodesia Agricultural Journal, 58:66-68.
Minz G, 1956. The root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne spp., in Israel. Plant Disease Reporter, 40(9):798-801.
Muhammad K, 1992. Parasitic nematodes recorded in Malaysia. Quarterly Newsletter, Asia and Pacific Plant Protection Commission, 35:3-4.
Pinochet J; Verdejo S; Marull J, 1989. Evaluacion de siete patrones de Prunus a tres especies de Meloidogyne en Espana. Nematropica, 19:125-134.
Potter JW; Olthof THA; Sheidow NW, 1972. Survival of Meloidogyne hapla on roots of rhubarb, Rheum rhaponticum, in a tobacco greenhouse. Plant Disease Reporter, 56:417-419.
Ratanaprapa D; Chunram C, 1988. Root-knot nematodes on potato. Quarterly Newsletter, Asia and Pacific Plant Protection Commission, FAO, Thailand, 31:16.
Ruelo JS, 1981. Host range studies of Meloidogyne hapla in Taiwan. Plant Disease, 65(6):500-501
Stoeen M, 1974. Nematodes on roses in Norway. Nordisk Jordbrugsforskning, 56(4):418-419
Taylor AL; Buhrer EM, 1958. A preliminary report on the distribution of root-knot nematode in the United States. Phytopathology, 48:464.
Van der Linde WJ, 1956. The Meloidogyne problem in South Africa. Nematologica, 1:177-183.
Whitehead AG, 1969. The distribution of root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) in tropical Africa. Nematologica, 15:315-333.
Zinovev VG; Volodchenko ZG, 1984. Study of the natural nidality of some groups of nematodes important to agriculture. Vestnik Khar'kovskogo Universiteta, 262:74-76.
Distribution References
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Colbran RC, 1958. Studies of plant and soil nematodes. 2. Queensland host records of root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne species). In: Queensland Journal Agricultural Science, 15 101-136.
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