Meloidogyne arenaria (peanut root-knot nematode)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- Risk of Introduction
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Growth Stages
- Symptoms
- List of Symptoms/Signs
- Biology and Ecology
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Pathway Vectors
- Plant Trade
- Impact
- Diagnosis
- Detection and Inspection
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Meloidogyne arenaria (Neal, 1889) Chitwood, 1949
Preferred Common Name
- peanut root-knot nematode
Other Scientific Names
- Anguillula arenaria Neal, 1889
- Heterodera arenaria (Neal, 1889) Marcinowski, 1909
- Meloidogyne arenaria arenaria (Neal, 1889) Chitwood, 1949
- Meloidogyne arenaria thamesi Chitwood in Chitwood et al., 1952
- Meloidogyne thamesi (Chitwood et al., 1952) Goodey, 1963
- Tylenchus arenarius (Neal, 1889) Cobb, 1890
International Common Names
- English: groundnut root knot nematode; root-knot nematode disease
- Spanish: nematodo nodulador del cacahuete
- French: nématode galligène de l'arachide; nodosite des racines
Local Common Names
- Germany: Erdnusswurzelgallen-Aelchen
- Japan: Nekobu-sentyubyo
EPPO code
- MELGAR (Meloidogyne arenaria)
- MELGTH (Meloidogyne thamesi)
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Metazoa
- Phylum: Nematoda
- Family: Meloidogynidae
- Genus: Meloidogyne
- Species: Meloidogyne arenaria
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageTwo host races of M. arenaria have been recognized: race 1 infects and reproduces on groundnut, whereas populations of race 2 do not (Taylor and Sasser, 1978). It is ironic that many populations of the nematode with the common name peanut root-knot nematode do not infect peanut.
Two cytological races of M. arenaria have been described (Triantaphyllou, 1963, 1979). The most common populations belong to race A and are triploid (3n = 51-56). Race B populations are less common and are diploid (2n = 34-37). There is no correlation between host race and cytological race.
Description
Top of pageThe perineal pattern may be characteristic for the species, but some populations may contain individual variants that restrict the usefulness of this character. Likewise, other species of Meloidogyne may also have perineal patterns that closely resemble that of M. arenaria. The perineal pattern of M. arenaria may be very similar to that of M. incognita and other Meloidogyne species. Patterns that contain short, lateral incisures resemble that of M. javanica, and patterns that are rounded to hexagonal, often containing wings, are like that of M. hapla. The perineal pattern of M. arenaria has a low and rounded dorsal arch, but in some individuals it may be high and squarish. The striae are coarse and smooth to wavy, and some striae may bend toward the vulva. The most useful character of the perineal pattern is the lines in the lateral areas of the dorsal arch that sharply curve toward the tail terminus and meet the ventral striae at an angle. These striae become forked and the distance between them increases near the lateral areas which are often demarcated, but not delineated by distinct lateral incisures. Very short lateral incisures may be present very near the tail terminus. Some perineal patterns of M. arenaria form one or two 'wings' that extend laterally and are marked by fusion of the striae in the dorsal and ventral arches.
Males of M. arenaria are long (0.9-2.3 mm) and narrow (27-48 µm). Although the shape of the head is a useful morphological character, it is similar to several other less common species. The labial disc and medial lips form a smooth, posteriorly sloping head cap. The head annule is smooth and usually not marked with additional head annulations. Both the head annule and the body annulations are in the same contour. The stylet is long (20-28 µm) and robust with a bluntly pointed tip. The wide, cylindrical shaft gradually merges with the large, rounded, slightly tear-drop-shaped knobs. The dorsal oesophageal gland orifice to the base of the stylet is long to very long (4-8) 6 µm. The overall morphology of males of M. arenaria is similar to other species within the genus.
Second-stage juveniles of M. arenaria are long (398-605 (504) µm) and slender (13-18 (15) µm). The tail is moderately long (44-69 (56) µm), and the poorly defined hyaline tail terminus is moderately long (6-13 (9) µm), with a finely rounded to pointed tip. The stylet of second-stage juveniles is moderately long (10-12 (11) µm), and the dorsal oesophageal gland orifice distance to the stylet base is moderately long (3-5 (4) µm). The morphology of the second-stage juvenile of M. arenaria is similar to many other species of Meloidogyne and requires critical evaluation by light and scanning electron microscopy in order to be differentiated.
Distribution
Top of pageDistribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 29 Apr 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Algeria | Present, Few occurrences | ||||||
Côte d'Ivoire | Present | ||||||
Egypt | Present | ||||||
Ethiopia | Present | ||||||
Gambia | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Ghana | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Liberia | Present, Few occurrences | ||||||
Libya | Present | ||||||
Madagascar | Present | ||||||
Malawi | Present | ||||||
Mauritius | Present | ||||||
Morocco | Present | ||||||
Mozambique | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Nigeria | Present | ||||||
São Tomé and Príncipe | Present | ||||||
Senegal | Present | ||||||
South Africa | Present | ||||||
Sudan | Present | ||||||
Tanzania | Present | ||||||
Tunisia | Present | ||||||
Uganda | Present | ||||||
Zimbabwe | Present | ||||||
Asia |
|||||||
Armenia | Present | ||||||
Azerbaijan | Present | ||||||
Bangladesh | Present | ||||||
China | Present | ||||||
-Anhui | Present | ||||||
-Fujian | Present | ||||||
-Guangdong | Present | ||||||
-Hainan | Present | ||||||
-Hebei | Present | ||||||
-Henan | Present | ||||||
-Hunan | Present | ||||||
-Inner Mongolia | Present | ||||||
-Jiangsu | Present | ||||||
-Shaanxi | Present | ||||||
-Shandong | Present | ||||||
-Shanxi | Present | ||||||
-Yunnan | Present | ||||||
-Zhejiang | Present | ||||||
India | Present | ||||||
-Andhra Pradesh | Present | ||||||
-Chhattisgarh | Present | ||||||
-Delhi | Present | ||||||
-Gujarat | Present | ||||||
-Haryana | Present | ||||||
-Karnataka | Present | ||||||
-Madhya Pradesh | Present | ||||||
-Maharashtra | Present | ||||||
-Punjab | Present | ||||||
-Tamil Nadu | Present | ||||||
-Uttar Pradesh | Present | ||||||
-West Bengal | Present | ||||||
Indonesia | Present | ||||||
-Java | Present | ||||||
-Sumatra | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Iran | Present | ||||||
Iraq | Present | ||||||
Japan | Present | ||||||
-Honshu | Present | ||||||
-Kyushu | Present | ||||||
-Ryukyu Islands | Present | ||||||
-Shikoku | Present | ||||||
Jordan | Present | ||||||
Lebanon | Present | ||||||
Malaysia | Present | ||||||
Maldives | Present, Widespread | Original citation: Kozhokaru et al., 1979 | |||||
Mongolia | Present | ||||||
Nepal | Present | ||||||
North Korea | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Pakistan | Present | ||||||
Philippines | Present | ||||||
Saudi Arabia | Present | ||||||
South Korea | Present | ||||||
Sri Lanka | Present | ||||||
Syria | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Taiwan | Present | ||||||
Tajikistan | Present | ||||||
Thailand | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Turkey | Present | ||||||
Turkmenistan | Present | ||||||
Uzbekistan | Present | ||||||
Vietnam | Present | ||||||
Europe |
|||||||
Belgium | Present | ||||||
Bulgaria | Present | ||||||
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia | Present | ||||||
France | Present | ||||||
Germany | Present | ||||||
Greece | Present | Introduced | 1963 | ||||
Hungary | Present | ||||||
Iceland | Present, Localized | ||||||
Ireland | Present | ||||||
Italy | Present | ||||||
-Sicily | Present | Original citation: d'Errico and Ingenito (2003) | |||||
Moldova | Present | ||||||
Montenegro | Present | ||||||
Netherlands | Present | ||||||
North Macedonia | Present | ||||||
Poland | Present, Localized | ||||||
Portugal | Present | ||||||
Romania | Present, Localized | ||||||
Russia | Present | ||||||
-Central Russia | Present | ||||||
-Eastern Siberia | Present, Localized | ||||||
Spain | Present | ||||||
-Canary Islands | Present | ||||||
Switzerland | Present | ||||||
Ukraine | Present | ||||||
United Kingdom | Present | Introduced | 1889 | ||||
North America |
|||||||
Belize | Present | ||||||
Bermuda | Present | ||||||
Costa Rica | Present | ||||||
Cuba | Present | ||||||
El Salvador | Present | ||||||
Guadeloupe | Present | ||||||
Guatemala | Present | ||||||
Jamaica | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Martinique | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Mexico | Present | ||||||
Puerto Rico | Present | ||||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | ||||||
United States | Present | ||||||
-Alabama | Present | ||||||
-Arizona | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Arkansas | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-California | Present | ||||||
-Florida | Present | ||||||
-Georgia | Present | ||||||
-Hawaii | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Kansas | Present | ||||||
-Louisiana | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Mississippi | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-New Jersey | Present | ||||||
-New York | Present | ||||||
-North Carolina | Present | ||||||
-Oklahoma | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-South Carolina | Present | ||||||
-Texas | Present | ||||||
-Virginia | Present | ||||||
-West Virginia | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | ||||||
-New South Wales | Present | ||||||
-Queensland | Present | ||||||
-South Australia | Present | ||||||
-Tasmania | Present | ||||||
-Western Australia | Present | ||||||
Cook Islands | Present | ||||||
Fiji | Present | ||||||
Niue | Present | ||||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | ||||||
Samoa | Present | ||||||
Solomon Islands | Present | ||||||
Tuvalu | Present | ||||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | ||||||
Bolivia | Present | ||||||
Brazil | Present | ||||||
-Alagoas | Present | ||||||
-Amazonas | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Bahia | Present | ||||||
-Ceara | Present | ||||||
-Goias | Present | ||||||
-Mato Grosso do Sul | Present | ||||||
-Minas Gerais | Present | ||||||
-Para | Present | ||||||
-Paraiba | Present | ||||||
-Parana | Present | ||||||
-Pernambuco | Present | ||||||
-Rio de Janeiro | Present | ||||||
-Rio Grande do Norte | Present | ||||||
-Rio Grande do Sul | Present | ||||||
-Santa Catarina | Present | ||||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | ||||||
-Sergipe | Present | ||||||
Chile | Present | ||||||
Colombia | Present | ||||||
Ecuador | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Guyana | Present | ||||||
Paraguay | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Peru | Present | ||||||
Suriname | Present | ||||||
Uruguay | Present | ||||||
Venezuela | Present |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageHosts/Species Affected
Top of pageFor further details on hosts see Sasser (1952, 1954), Taylor et al. (1982) and Colbran (1958).
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pageSymptoms
Top of pageNon-specific above-ground symptoms include patchy, stunted growth; discoloration and leaf chlorosis; excessive wilting during dry, hot conditions; stunting of whole plants; reduced yield and quality; and sometimes premature senescence or death.
Infected plants are often stunted and chlorotic. Small to large galls (2-200 mm in diameter) occur on the roots of infected plants. M. arenaria populations often produce many small bead-like galls that do not form short lateral roots (Eisenback et al., 1981). Small wart-like projections may occur on infected corms, tubers and peanut pods. Symptoms are similar to those produced by most of the other root-knot nematode species.
Root-knot is generally more severe in sandy soils and under adverse environmental conditions such as drought and high temperatures. M. arenaria can interact with fungi or bacteria to cause more severe symptoms, break resistance to the disease agent, or allow weakly parasitic and non-pathogenic organisms to cause disease.
List of Symptoms/Signs
Top of pageSign | Life Stages | Type |
---|---|---|
Leaves / abnormal colours | ||
Leaves / wilting | ||
Roots / galls along length | ||
Roots / reduced root system | ||
Whole plant / dwarfing | ||
Whole plant / early senescence |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageThe egg of a root-knot nematode develops into a vermiform first-stage juvenile that undergoes one moult into a second-stage juvenile. The second-stage juvenile hatches from the egg, moves freely in the soil, penetrates the root just behind the root cap, migrates intercellularly in the root and establishes a feeding site within the developing vascular cylinder. As it feeds on the nematode-induced giant cell system, the second-stage juvenile loses its mobility and begins to increase in girth. After it has imbibed a sufficient quantity of sustenance, the flask-shaped second-stage juvenile moults three times without feeding and matures into a saccate adult female. Females of M. arenaria reproduce by mitotic parthenogenesis; as soon as they are mature adults they begin producing eggs (Triantaphyllou and Hirschmann, 1960).
Male second-stage juveniles undergo a metamorphosis during the third moult into elongate vermiform fourth-stage juveniles. The fourth-stage juvenile male remains enclosed in the cuticle of the second and third stages where it moults again to form an adult vermiform male. The male escapes from the cuticles and the root system. It moves freely in the soil, not feeding, only mating with mature adult females. As populations of M. arenaria reproduce by mitotic parthenogenesis, males serve no reproductive function (Triantaphyllou and Hirschmann, 1960).
The length of one generation of M. arenaria is greatly affected by temperature. At very high temperatures (>29°C), the life cycle takes approximately 3 weeks, but at very cool temperatures it can be extended to 2-3 months.
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Anatonchus | Parasite | Nematodes|Juveniles | ||||
Arthrobotrys tortor | Predator | Nematodes|Juveniles | ||||
Aspergillus flavus | Antagonist | |||||
Aspergillus niger | Antagonist | |||||
Butlerius | Parasite | Nematodes|Juveniles | ||||
Catenaria anguillulae | Pathogen | Nematodes|Juveniles | ||||
Clonostachys rosea | Antagonist | Adults | ||||
Dactylella | Predator | Nematodes|Juveniles | ||||
Diplogaster | Parasite | Nematodes|Juveniles | ||||
Discolaimus | Parasite | Nematodes|Juveniles | ||||
Dorylaimus | Parasite | Nematodes|Juveniles | ||||
Fusarium oxysporum | Pathogen | Eggs | ||||
Gliocladium catenulatum | Antagonist | Adults | ||||
Hypoaspis aculeifer | Predator | Eggs | ||||
Mononchoides | Parasite | Nematodes|Juveniles | ||||
Mononchus | Parasite | Nematodes|Juveniles | ||||
Myrothecium verrucaria | Pathogen | |||||
Paecilomyces lilacinus | Parasite | Nematodes|Juveniles | ||||
Paecilomyces nostocoides | Pathogen | |||||
Pasteuria penetrans | Pathogen | Nematodes|Juveniles | ||||
Pseudopapulaspora kendrickii | Pathogen | |||||
Sarocladium strictum | Pathogen | Eggs | ||||
Seinura | Parasite | Nematodes|Juveniles | ||||
Trichoderma harzianum | Antagonist | |||||
Trichoderma koningii | Antagonist | |||||
Tripyla | Predator | Nematodes|Juveniles | ||||
Verticillium chlamydosporium | Parasite | Eggs | ||||
Verticillium lamellicola | Pathogen |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pagePathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Clothing, footwear and possessions | Eggs and galls in soil. | Yes | ||
Containers and packaging - wood | Eggs and galls in soil. | Yes | ||
Land vehicles | Eggs and galls in soil. | Yes | ||
Eggs and galls in soil. | Yes | |||
Soil, sand and gravel | Eggs and galls in soil. | Yes |
Plant Trade
Top of pagePlant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport | Pest stages | Borne internally | Borne externally | Visibility of pest or symptoms |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes | nematodes/adults; nematodes/eggs; nematodes/juveniles | Yes | Yes | Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope |
Growing medium accompanying plants | nematodes/adults; nematodes/eggs; nematodes/juveniles | Yes | Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope | |
Roots | nematodes/adults; nematodes/eggs; nematodes/juveniles | Yes | Yes | Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope |
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants | nematodes/adults; nematodes/eggs; nematodes/juveniles | Yes | Yes | Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope |
Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport |
---|
Bark |
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx |
Fruits (inc. pods) |
Leaves |
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches |
True seeds (inc. grain) |
Wood |
Impact
Top of pageThe average loss caused by root-knot nematodes is thought to be around 5%; however, in some fields the loss can be complete. In some areas of the world, root-knot nematodes are so common that galls on roots are considered normal. Often the damage caused by these nematodes is overlooked or the blame is placed on other agronomic problems. Stunted, unthrifty growth by infected plants is often attributed to vague agricultural ailments such as tired, poor, worn-out and exhausted land (Sasser and Carter, 1984).
Diagnosis
Top of pageA DNA probe that is specific for M. arenaria has been developed and may be useful for diagnosis of this species (Baum et al., 1994). Cytological and biochemical characterization provide additional characters for identification of M. arenaria (Triantaphyllou, 1979; Esbenshade and Triantaphyllou, 1989).
Detection and Inspection
Top of pageSimilarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pagePrevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Host-Plant ResistanceMuch progress has been made in the use of resistant plants for reducing the damage caused by M. arenaria on various crop plants (Sasser and Kirby, 1979). Plants with some level of resistance include cultivars of cowpea, crown vetch, soyabean, passionfruit, okra, cassava, tomato, sweet potato, cucumber, guava rootstock, pepper, tobacco and various grasses (Sasser and Kirby, 1979). No useful source of resistance has been found in peanut.
Crop Rotation
Meloidogyne species are obligate parasites and populations decline rapidly in the absence of a host. Rotation of susceptible host crop plants with those that are immune or poor hosts is a useful way to reduce the effect that M. arenaria has on plant growth. Unfortunately, the non-host, when it does occur, is usually less profitable than the susceptible crop. M. arenaria has a very large host range and non-hosts or cultivars that have been reported resistant should be used with caution because of the innate variability that occurs in the root-knot nematodes. Other agronomic and economic factors are also important in the selection of a rotation crop. An adequate weed control programme is absolutely necessary for a crop rotation scheme to be effective because many weed species serve as suitable hosts (Taylor and Sasser, 1978).
Chemical Control
Nematicides have often been used for limiting the damage that nematodes cause on plants. Nematicides are usually used as a soil treatment before planting. However, a few nematicides can be applied after planting. These chemicals are relatively expensive and they require costly equipment and trained personnel to apply them.
High-value crops that are good hosts of M. arenaria can be protected with a soil fumigant. These chemicals volatilize and kill the nematodes on contact. Less valuable crops can be protected with cheaper non-fumigant nematicides that dissolve in water and act as nerve poisons. They prevent nematodes from feeding on plants for 2-3 weeks, but their effect is reversible. Often they do not kill the nematodes. Because they are water soluble, their effectiveness is dependent on an adequate amount of soil moisture. If an optimum amount of water is available, the optimum effect is achieved; if too much or too little water is present, very little control is achieved (Bunt, 1987).
Biological Control
Numerous attempts have been made to control root-knot nematodes with parasitic and predacious organisms or various organic amendments, with varying degrees of success. Naturally occurring organisms, such as Pasteuria penetrans, which are obligate parasites of Meloidogyne, may prove to be effective for biological control.
References
Top of pageAbdullaeva OI, 1986. Parasitic nematodes in greenhouses of the Tashkent Region. Uzb-Biol-Zh. Tashkent : "Fan". (3):63-64
Ahmed MM, Saeed M, 1981. Studies on root-knot in Pakistan. Proceedings of the Third Research and Planning Conference on Root-Knot Nematodes Meloidogyne spp. Region VI Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State University Graphics
Anon, 1958a. Border interceptions. Canadian Insect Pest Review, 36:155-157
Anon, 1958b. Border interceptions. Canadian Insect Pest Review, 36:87-188
Anon, 1959a. Border interceptions. Canadian Insect Pest Review, 37:144-145
Anon, 1963a. Interceptions of interest-nematodes. Canadian Insect Pest Review, 41:87
Anon, 1963b. Interceptions of interest-nematodes. Canadian Insect Pest Review, 41:107-108
Antônio H, 1982. Root-knot nematodes attacking soybean in Brazil. Proceedings of the Research and Planning Conference on Root-Knot Nematodes Meloidogyne spp. Region III Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State University Graphics
Arutyunov AV, 1986. Gall nematodes from the genus Meloidogyne, parasites of rare plants of the Central Asian flora. Byulleten'-Glavnogo-Botanicheskogo-Sada, No.143, 67-71
Baker AD, 1959. Some records of plant parasitic nematodes encountered in Canada in 1958. Canadian Insect Pest Review, 37:120-122
BGARC, 1972. Report for 1971. Plant Nematology. Gent, Belgium: Government Agricultural Research Centre, 123-141
Blake CD, 1963. Identification and distribution of root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) in New South Wales with special reference to the Richmond-Tweed region. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 88:373-378
Brande JV, Gillard DA, 1957. Importance et repartition en Belgique des nematodes de la sous-famille des Heteroderinae. Z. PflKrankh. PflPath. PflSchutz, 64:93-498
Brinkman H, 1975. Nematological observations in 1973 and 1974. Gewasbescherming, 6(4):57-64
Bunt JA, 1987. Mode of action of nematicides. In: Veech JA, Dickson DW, eds. Vistas on Nematology. Hyattesville, MD: Society of Nematologists, 461-468
Chapman RA, 1957. Reaction of species of Nicotiana to species of root-knot nematodes. Phytopathology, 47:5
Chitwood BG, Specht AW, Havis L, 1952. Root-knot nematodes.-III. Effects of Meloidogyne incognita and M. javanica on some peach rootstocks. Plant Soil, 4:77-95
Cliff GM, Hirschmann H, 1985. Evaluation of morphological variability in Meloidogyne arenaria. Journal of Nematology, 17:445-459
Colbran RC, 1958. Studies of plant and soil nematodes. 2. Queensland host records of root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne species). Queensland Journal Agricultural Science, 15:101-136
Dalmasso A, 1980. Meloidogyne nematodes and canning tomatoes. Revue Horticole, No.205:29-32
Daykin ME, Hussey RS, 1984. Staining and histopathological techniques in nematology. In: Barker KR, Carter CC, Sasser JN, eds. An advanced treatise on Meloidogyne, Vol. II Methodology. Raleigh, NC: A Cooperative Publication of the Department of Plant Pathology and Genetics, North Carolina State University, and the United States Agencey for International Development, 39-48
Eisenback JD, Triantaphyllou HH, 1991. Root-knot nematodes: Meloidogyne species and races, pp. 191-274. In: Nickle WR, ed. Manual of Agricultural Nematology. New York, USA: Marcel Dekker
Franco A, da Ponte JJ, 1989. Acerola, Malpighia glabra L., a new host of root-knot nematodes. Nematologia Brasileria, 13:181-183
Georghiou GP, 1957. Records and notes on the plant parasitic nematodes of Cyprus. Tech. Bulletin Cyprus Department of Agriculture TB-3
Gillard A, 1961. Onderzoekingen omtrent de biologie, de verspreiding en de bestrijding van wortelknobbelaaltjes (Meloidogyne spp.). Meded. LandbHoogesch. OpzoekStns Gent, 26:515-646
Gillard A, Van Den Brande J, 1956. Bijdrage tot de studie de waardplanten van de wortelknobbelaaltjes Meloidogyne hapla Chitwood en Meloidogyne arenaria Neal. Meded. LandbHoogesch. OpzoekStns Gent, 21:653-662
Goffart H, 1957. Bemerkungen zu einigen Arten der Gattung Meloidogyne. Nematologica, 2:177-184
Golden AM, 1953. A root-knot nematode attacking the crown, petiole and leaf of African Violet. Phytopathology, 43:406
Golden AM, 1959. Susceptibility of several Beta species to the sugar-beet nematode (Heterodera schachtii) and root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.). Journal American Society Sugar Beet Technology, 10:444-447
Goss O, 1958. List of plant parasitic eelworms recorded in western Australia. Journal Department Agriculture West Australia, 7:317
Graham TW, 1952. Susceptibility of tobacco species to the root-knot nematode species. Plant Disease Reporter, 36:87-88
Hartmann KM, Sasser JN, 1984. Identification of Meloidogyne species on the basis of differential host test and perineal pattern morphology. In: Barker KR, Carter CC, Sasser JN, eds. An advanced treatise on Meloidogyne, Vol. II Methodology. Raleigh, NC: A Cooperative Publication of the Department of Plant Pathology and Genetics, North Carolina State University, and the United States Agency for International Development, 69-77
Hawley WO, 1956. Hot-water treatment for the control of root-knot nematodes on Dioscorea floribunda. Plant Disease Reporter, 40:1045-1046
Huan J, 1983. The identification of some species of root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne) on tea seedlings in Zhejiang Province. Acta Agriculture Universitatis Zhejiangensis, 9:343-359
Huang CS, Costa Manso SBG, 1982. Root-knot problems in horticultural and special crops in Brazil. Proceedings of the Research and Planning Conference on Root-Knot Nematodes Meloidogyne spp. Region III. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State University Graphics
Hunt J, 1952. List of intercepted plant pests, 1951. Service and Regulatory announcements. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture. Research Service, Plant Quarantine Division
Hunt J, 1953. List of intercepted plant pests, 1952. Service and Regulatory announcements. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture. Research Service
Hunt J, 1957. List of intercepted plant pests, 1956. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture. Research Service, Plant Quarantine Division
Hunt J, 1958. List of intercepted plant pests, 1957. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture. Research Service, Plant Quarantine Division
Hunt J, 1959. List of intercepted plant pests, 1958 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture. Research Service, Plant Quarantine Division
Khan AA, Khan MW, 1984. Race compostion of Meloidogyne incognita and M. arenaria populations in vegetable fields in Uttar Pradesh. Supplement to the Journal of Nematology, 23:615-619
Koliopanos CN, 1982. Contribution to the study of the root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne spp.) in Greece. Proceedings of the Second Research and Planning Conference on Root-Knot Nematodes Meloidogyne spp. Region VII Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State University Graphics
Kuiper K, 1963. Enige bijzondere aaltjesaantastingen in 1962. Neth. J. Plant Path., 69:153-154
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Kumar PA, S Subramaniam, EI Jonathan, S Vadivelu, 1987. Meloidogyne sp. infection of Polyanthes tuberosa leaves. International Nematology Network Newsletter. 4:2,12-13
Lewis AJ, 1956a. Root knot of perennial forage legumes. Phytopathology, 46:6
Lewis GD, Mai WF, Newhall AG, 1958. Reproduction of various Meloidogyne species in onion. Plant Disease Reporter, 42:447-448
Lider LA, 1960. Vineyard trials in California with nematode-resistant grape rootstocks. Hilgardia, 30:123-152
Linde WJ Van Der, 1956. The Meloidogyne problem in South Africa. Nematologica, 1:177-183
Linde WJ Van Der, Clemitson JG, Crous ME, 1959. Host-parasite relationships of South African root-knot eelworms (Meloidogyne spp.). Science Bulletin Department of Agriculture Technical Service, Union of South Africa, 385:1-16
Lopez R, 1984. Differential plant responses and morphometrics of some Meloidogyne spp. from Costa Rica. Turrialba, 34:445-458
Machmer JH, 1951. Root-knot of peanut. 1. Distribution. Plant Disease Reporter, 35:364-366
Mai WF, Crittenden HW, Jenkins WR, 1960. Distribution of stylet-bearing nematodes in the Northeastern United States. Bulletin New Jersey Agriculture Experiment Station 795
Mar'enko AY, 1984. Species and race composition of gall nematodes in greenhouse soil. Byulleten' Vsesoyuznogo Instituta Gel'mintologii in K. I. Skryabina, 30:27-29
Martin GC, 1957. Four kinds of root-knot nematode. Rhodesia Agriculture Journal, 54:324-326
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Mulvey RH, 1961. Some records of plant-parasitic nematodes encountered in Canada in 1960. Canada Plant Disease Survey, 40:101-103
Mumford BC, 1960. List of intercepted plant pests, 1959. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Plant Quarantine Division
Mumford BC, 1961. List of intercepted plant pests, 1960. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Plant Quarantine Division
Mumford BC, 1962. List of intercepted plant pests, 1961. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Plant Quarantine Division
Mumford BC, 1963. List of intercepted plant pests, 1962. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Plant Quarantine Division
Naude TJ, 1956. Entomology. Nematodes. Farming. South Africa, 31:91
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Oostenbrink M, 1958. Enige bijzondere aaltjesaantastingen in 1957. Tijdschr. PlZiekt., 64:122
Oostenbrink M, 1960. Enige bijzondere aaltjesaantastingen in 1959. Tijdschr. PlZiekt., 66:126-127
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Sasser, JN, 1952. Identification of root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) by host reaction. Plant Disease Reporter, 36:84-86
Schieber E, 1961. Parasitic nematodes on Dioscorea in Guatemala. Plant Disease Reporter, 45:425
Schlindler AF, 1958. Root-knot nematodes on the mimosa tree, Albizzia julibrissin. Plant Disease Reporter, 42:315
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Sen K, Dasgupta MK, 1979. Additional hosts of the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne spp. from India. Indian Journal of Nematology, 7:74
Shaoshing Z, Ziming W, 1991. Identification of root-knot nematode species in Fujian. Journal of Fujian Agricultural College, 20:158-164
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Spruyt FJ, 1958. Susceptibility of Serradella to root-knot nematodes. Plant Disease Reporter, 42:897
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Sun SY, Shen BK, Tong RH, Zhu J, 1991. A survey on root-knot diseases of ornamental plants in Lianyungang City, Jiangsu Province. Forest Pest and Disease, 3:24-26
Tarjan AC, 1952c. Pathogenic behaviour of certain root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne spp., on snapdragon, Antirrhinum majus L. Phytopathology, 42:637-641
Tayar A, 1982. Seed treatment for control of M. incognita on cotton. Proceedings of the Second Research and Planning Conference on Root-Knot Nematodes Meloidogyne spp. Region VII Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State University Graphics
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Triantaphyllou AC, 1963. Polyploidy and parthenogenesis in the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne arenaria. Journal of Morphology, 113:489-499
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Tsai B, 1981. Root-knot nematodes in Taiwan. Proceedings of the Third Research and Planning Conference on Root-Knot Nematodes Meloidogyne spp. Region VI. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State University Graphics
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Xue Z, Wu J, Chen M, 1992. Studies on habits of root-knot nematode of kenaf and their control. Acta Phytophylacica Sinica, 19:117-121
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Distribution References
Abdullaeva OI, 1986. Parasitic nematodes in greenhouses of the Tashkent Region. In: Uzb-Biol-Zh. Tashkent, "Fan". 63-64.
Antônio H, 1982. Root-knot nematodes attacking soybean in Brazil. [Proceedings of the Research and Planning Conference on Root-Knot Nematodes Meloidogyne spp], Region III Raleigh, NC, North Carolina State University Graphics.
BGARC, 1972. Report for 1971. In: Plant Nematology, Gent, Belgium: Government Agricultural Research Centre. 123-141.
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Lopez R, 1984. Differential plant responses and morphometrics of some Meloidogyne spp. from Costa Rica. In: Turrialba, 34 445-458.
Schotman C Y L, 1989. Plant pests of quarantine importance to the Caribbean. In: RLAC-PROVEG, 80 pp.
Sen K, Dasgupta MK, 1979. Additional hosts of the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne spp. from India. In: Indian Journal of Nematology, 7 74.
Shaoshing Z, Ziming W, 1991. Identification of root-knot nematode species in Fujian. In: Journal of Fujian Agricultural College, 20 158-164.
Sun SY, Shen BK, Tong RH, Zhu J, 1991. A survey on root-knot diseases of ornamental plants in Lianyungang City, Jiangsu Province. In: Forest Pest and Disease, 3 24-26.
Tayar A, 1982. Seed treatment for control of M. incognita on cotton. [Proceedings of the Second Research and Planning Conference on Root-Knot Nematodes Meloidogyne spp. Region VII], Raleigh, NC, North Carolina State University Graphics.
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