Medicago lupulina (black medick)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Growth Stages
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Medicago lupulina L.
Preferred Common Name
- black medick
Other Scientific Names
- Medica lupulina Scop.
- Medicago appenina Woods
- Medicago cupaniana Guss.
- Medicago wildenowii Merat
International Common Names
- English: hop-clover; nonesuch; yellow trefoil
- Spanish: lupulina; mielga azafranada
- French: lupuline; luzerne lupuline; minette dorée
- Chinese: tian lan mu xu
- Portuguese: luzerna-brava; luzerna-lupulina
Local Common Names
- Dominican Republic: frijolillo; frijolito; habichuelita
- Estonia: humal-lutsern
- Georgia (Republic of): sviisebri iondzha
- Germany: gelbklee; hopfenklee; hopfen-luzerne
- Lithuania: apynine liucerne
- Mexico: alfalfilla; carretilla
- Portugal: alfalfa-lupulina; luzerna-preta; trevo-amarelo
- Romania: lucherne lupuline
- Spain: meligón; mielga negra; trébol rastrero; trebolera
- Ukraine: burkunchik
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageMedicago lupulina is an annual or short-lived perennial herb with a wide native range across Africa, Asia and Europe. It is a common weed in disturbed areas, wastelands, roadsides, abandoned pastures and forest margins. It is a nitrogen-fixing species cultivated for forage and used as a soil improver; it is also a seed contaminant of other crops. Currently, it is listed as invasive in the Philippines, Hawaii, New Zealand and a small number of islands in Oceania. However, there is limited information available about its environmental impact in these locations.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Fabales
- Family: Fabaceae
- Subfamily: Faboideae
- Genus: Medicago
- Species: Medicago lupulina
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageFabaceae is one of the largest families of flowering plants, and includes about 745 genera and 19,500 species growing in a wide range of climates and habitats (Stevens, 2012). The genus Medicago comprises more than 88 species of both annuals and perennials (The Plant List, 2013). The primary centre of diversity for this genus is located in the Caucasus, northwestern Iran and northeastern Turkey. The most well-known species within this genus is M. sativa (alfalfa), an important forage crop cultivated worldwide. Most members of the genus are creeping herbs, but some are shrubs and trees (Quiros and Bauchan, 1988).
Description
Top of pageThe following description is from the Flora of China Editorial Committee (2017):
Annual or short-lived perennial herbs, 15-60 cm height, glabrescent to pubescent, sometimes glandular. Stems decumbent, prostrate or ascending, much branched. Stipules ovate-lanceolate, to 10 mm, entire or toothed, base rounded or hastate, apex acuminate; petiole 1-2 cm; leaflets elliptic, ovate, or obovate, 5-20 x 4-6 mm, papery, pubescent, lateral veins to 10 pairs, base cuneate, margin distally obscurely serrate, apex truncate or retuse, apiculate. Flowers 10-20 in small heads; peduncles slender, straight, longer than subtending leaves, glabrate to densely appressed pubescent; bracts bristlelike, minute; pedicel less than 1 mm. Calyx 2 mm, glabrate to densely hairy. Corolla yellow, 2-2.2 mm; standard suborbicular, apex retuse, longer than wings and keel. Legume reniform, 3 x 2 mm, sculptured with concentric arcuate veins, sparsely hairy, black when ripe, one seeded, seed is brown, ovoid and smooth.
Distribution
Top of pageM. lupulina has a wide native range across northern Africa, temperate and subtropical Asia and Europe (USDA-ARS, 2017). It has also been widely introduced and occurs in North America, the Caribbean, Central and South America, Central and East Asia, South Africa, Oceania and some parts of Europe (ILDIS, 2017; USDA-ARS, 2017; USDA-NRCS, 2017). It is listed as an invasive species in the Philippines, Hawaii, New Zealand and on a small number of islands in Oceania (PIER, 2017). According to NOBANIS (2017), M. lupulina is considered native to Finland and Sweden according to USDA-ARS (2017), although elsewhere it is listed as introduced in these countries (NOBANIS, 2017).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 17 Dec 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Algeria | Present | Native | |||||
Egypt | Present | Native | |||||
Ethiopia | Present | ||||||
Kenya | Present | ||||||
Libya | Present | Native | |||||
Mauritius | Present | ||||||
Morocco | Present | Native | |||||
Somalia | Present | ||||||
South Africa | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Tanzania | Present | ||||||
Tunisia | Present | Native | |||||
Asia |
|||||||
Afghanistan | Present | Native | |||||
Armenia | Present | Native | |||||
Azerbaijan | Present | Native | |||||
China | Present | Native | |||||
Georgia | Present | Native | |||||
India | Present | Native | |||||
-Bihar | Present | Native | |||||
-Delhi | Present | Native | |||||
-Gujarat | Present | Native | |||||
-Haryana | Present | Native | |||||
-Himachal Pradesh | Present | Native | |||||
-Jammu and Kashmir | Present | Native | |||||
-Madhya Pradesh | Present | Native | |||||
-Punjab | Present | Native | |||||
-Rajasthan | Present | Native | |||||
-Uttar Pradesh | Present | Native | |||||
-West Bengal | Present | Native | |||||
Iran | Present | Native | |||||
Iraq | Present | Native | |||||
Israel | Present | Native | |||||
Japan | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Bonin Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Kazakhstan | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Kyrgyzstan | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Lebanon | Present | Native | |||||
Mongolia | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Nepal | Present | Native | |||||
North Korea | Present | Native | |||||
Pakistan | Present | Native | |||||
Philippines | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Saudi Arabia | Present | Native | |||||
South Korea | Present | Native | |||||
Syria | Present | Native | |||||
Taiwan | Present | Native | |||||
Tajikistan | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Turkey | Present | Native | |||||
Turkmenistan | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Uzbekistan | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Yemen | Present | Native | |||||
Europe |
|||||||
Albania | Present | Native | |||||
Austria | Present | Native | |||||
Belarus | Present | Native | |||||
Belgium | Present | Native | |||||
Bulgaria | Present | Native | |||||
Croatia | Present | ||||||
Cyprus | Present | Native | |||||
Czechia | Present | ||||||
Czechoslovakia | Present | Native | |||||
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia | Present | Native | |||||
Denmark | Present | Native | |||||
Estonia | Present | Native | |||||
Finland | Present | Native and Introduced | Considered both native and introduced in the country | ||||
France | Present | Native | |||||
Germany | Present | Native | |||||
Greece | Present | Native | |||||
Hungary | Present | Native | |||||
Iceland | Present | Introduced | 1874 | Rare | |||
Ireland | Present | Native | |||||
Italy | Present | Native | |||||
Latvia | Present | Native | |||||
Lithuania | Present | Native | |||||
Netherlands | Present | Native | |||||
Norway | Present | Native | |||||
Poland | Present | Native | |||||
Portugal | Present | Native | |||||
-Azores | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Madeira | Present | Native | |||||
Romania | Present | Native | |||||
Russia | Present | Native and Introduced | Considered both native and introduced in the country | ||||
-Central Russia | Present | Native | |||||
-Eastern Siberia | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Russian Far East | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Southern Russia | Present | Native | |||||
-Western Siberia | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Serbia | Present | ||||||
Serbia and Montenegro | Present | Native | |||||
Spain | Present | Native | |||||
-Canary Islands | Present | Native | |||||
Svalbard and Jan Mayen | Present | Introduced | 1988 | ||||
Sweden | Present | Native and Introduced | Considered both native and introduced in the country | ||||
Switzerland | Present | Native | |||||
Ukraine | Present | Native | |||||
United Kingdom | Present | Native | |||||
North America |
|||||||
Bahamas | Present | Introduced | |||||
Canada | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Alberta | Present | Introduced | |||||
-British Columbia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Manitoba | Present | Introduced | |||||
-New Brunswick | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Newfoundland and Labrador | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Northwest Territories | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Nova Scotia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Ontario | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Prince Edward Island | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Quebec | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Saskatchewan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | |||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | Possible invasive | ||||
Greenland | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guatemala | Present | Introduced | Adventive | ||||
Haiti | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mexico | Present | Introduced | Adventive | ||||
Saint Pierre and Miquelon | Present | Introduced | |||||
United States | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Alabama | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Alaska | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Arizona | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Arkansas | Present | Introduced | |||||
-California | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Colorado | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Connecticut | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Delaware | Present | Introduced | |||||
-District of Columbia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Georgia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Idaho | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Illinois | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Indiana | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Iowa | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Kansas | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Kentucky | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Louisiana | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Maine | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Maryland | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Massachusetts | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Michigan | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Minnesota | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Mississippi | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Missouri | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Montana | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Nebraska | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Nevada | Present | Introduced | |||||
-New Hampshire | Present | Introduced | |||||
-New Jersey | Present | Introduced | |||||
-New Mexico | Present | Introduced | |||||
-New York | Present | Introduced | |||||
-North Carolina | Present | Introduced | |||||
-North Dakota | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Ohio | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Oklahoma | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Oregon | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Pennsylvania | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Rhode Island | Present | Introduced | |||||
-South Carolina | Present | Introduced | |||||
-South Dakota | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Tennessee | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Texas | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Utah | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Vermont | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Washington | Present | Introduced | |||||
-West Virginia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Wisconsin | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Wyoming | Present | Introduced | |||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Lord Howe Island | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-New South Wales | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Queensland | Present | Introduced | |||||
-South Australia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Tasmania | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Victoria | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Western Australia | Present | Introduced | |||||
New Zealand | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Kermadec Islands | Present | Introduced | 1967 | ||||
Norfolk Island | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Also cultivated | |||
Tonga | Present | ||||||
U.S. Minor Outlying Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Brazil | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Chile | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Ecuador | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Peru | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Uruguay | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageM. lupulina was introduced from Eurasia into North America for use as a forage plant for livestock and as a soil improver. It was probably also introduced unintentionally as a contaminant among seeds of other crops. By 1792, it was harvested in Canada and, by 1821, it was recorded as naturalized in Montreal (Turkington and Cavers, 1979). In 1874 it was introduced to Iceland, where it remains rare and has not become established (NOBANIS, 2017).
Habitat
Top of pageM. lupulina grows in wastelands, forest margins, fields, and along riverbanks and roadsides (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2017). This species also grows in waterlogged areas such as marshes, bogs, watercourses and lake and river shores (Belov, 2013).
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageM. lupulina is listed as an agricultural weed of alfalfa, maize plantations and apple orchards (Vibrans, 2009).
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pagePlant name | Family | Context | References |
---|---|---|---|
Malus domestica (apple) | Rosaceae | Main | |
Medicago sativa (lucerne) | Fabaceae | Main | |
Solanum lycopersicum (tomato) | Solanaceae | Unknown | |
Zea mays (maize) | Poaceae | Main |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome number reported for M. lupulina varies from 2n = 16 to 2n = 32 (Turkington and Cavers, 1979; Quiros and Bauchan, 1988).
Reproductive Biology
M. lupulina has hermaphroditic flowers and a mixed breeding system, varying from complete self-pollination to extensive outcrossing (Turkington and Cavers, 1979). The nectar and pollen of its flowers attract various insects, particularly bees (i.e. Apis, Bombus and Halictid bees), but also butterflies and flies (PFAF, 2017).
Physiology and Phenology
In North America, seedlings of M. lupulina often appear in spring and plants will flower within six weeks after emergence. Under favourable conditions, seeds are produced after nine weeks and vigorous plants are able to continue producing seeds throughout the growing season. In most habitats the majority of plants die during the winter and seeds remain dormant until spring (Turkington and Cavers, 1979).
In China, M. lupulina produces flowers from April to September (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2017). Similarly, in Canada, it flowers between April and October (Turkington and Cavers, 1979). In Pakistan, plants produce flowers from March to June (Flora of Pakistan, 2017).
Associations
Similar to other Fabaceae species, rhizobia bacteria are found in nodules on the roots of M. lupulina, which allow the plant to fix nitrogen (PFAF, 2017).
Environmental Requirements
M. lupulina thrives in moist habitats with full to partial sunlight at elevations from sea level to 2800 m. It has the potential to grow in a wide range of soil types including calcareous and dry soils, sandy soils, loams, clay-loams and gravel soils with pH ranging from 4.8 to 7.8 (Turkington and Cavers, 1979; PIER, 2017). Plants generally do not survive dry periods of longer than one month (PFAF, 2017).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
BS - Steppe climate | Tolerated | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Preferred | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | |
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | |
Ds - Continental climate with dry summer | Preferred | Continental climate with dry summer (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry summers) | |
Dw - Continental climate with dry winter | Preferred | Continental climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry winters) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
63 | 45 | 0 | 2800 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Dry season duration | 1 month | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
- seasonally waterlogged
Soil reaction
- acid
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bean leafroll virus | Pathogen | not specific | ||||
Costelytra zealandica | Herbivore | Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Dasineura lupulinae | Antagonist | Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Fusarium culmorum | Pathogen | Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Phoma medicaginis | Pathogen | Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Uromyces striatus | Herbivore | Other|All Stages | not specific |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageA range of diseases, herbivores and pests have been reported to affect M. lupulina. These include the bean leafroll virus, the fungus Fusarium culmorum and the larvae of Costelytra zealandica (Turkington and Cavers, 1979).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageM. lupulina spreads by seed, which can be dispersed over great distances by birds and other grazing animals. Seeds can also float in water for up to five days (Turkington and Cavers, 1979; Vibrans, 2009; PIER, 2017).
Accidental Introduction
Seeds of M. lupulina are reported as a common contaminant in seed samples of white clover, red clover, alfalfa and birdsfoot trefoil (Turkington and Cavers, 1979).
Intentional Introduction
M. lupulina has been widely and intentionally introduced for agricultural use as a forage plant for livestock and as a soil improver (Turkington and Cavers, 1979; USDA-ARS, 2017).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Crop production | Weed in agricultural land; seed contaminant | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2017) |
Forage | Cultivated as forage for livestock | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2017) |
Habitat restoration and improvement | Soil improver | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2017) |
Seed trade | Seed contaminant | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2017) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Livestock | Forage plant for livestock | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2017) |
Water | Seeds float in water for up to five days | Yes | Yes | Turkington and Cavers (1979) |
Impact
Top of pageAlthough M. lupulina is listed as invasive on a number of islands, e.g. Philippines, Hawaii and some islands in Oceania (PIER, 2017), there is very little information about the impact of this species in these locations. However, this species is an aggressive agricultural weed and is a seed contaminant, so it is likely to have a negative economic impact (Turkington and Cavers, 1979; Vibrans, 2009).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Highly mobile locally
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Modification of nutrient regime
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Competition (unspecified)
- Rapid growth
- Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
- Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
- Difficult to identify/detect in the field
Uses
Top of pageM. lupulina is cultivated as a forage crop and is also used as a soil improver and for ground cover. This species is often planted as a “bee plant” for honey production. It is sometimes used as revegetator and as part of the composition of artificial meadows (Turkington and Cavers, 1979; USDA-ARS, 2017).
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Forage
Environmental
- Revegetation
- Soil improvement
Human food and beverage
- Honey/honey flora
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageM. lupulina is similar in appearance to Trifulium dubium, but these two species can be distinguished by: (1) the large, broad, toothed or sharply pointed stipules and (2) the mucronate leaf tip of M. lupulina (Turkington and Cavers, 1979).
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Control
Chemical Control
Herbicides such as 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and dicamba have been used to control M. lupulina when growing as a weed in agricultural fields (Turkington and Cavers, 1979).
References
Top of pageAcevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
Belov M, 2013. Chileflora. http://www.chileflora.com/index.html
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2017. Flora of China. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2
Flora of Pakistan, 2017. Flora of Pakistan/Pakistan Plant Database (PPD). St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Tropicos website. http://www.tropicos.org/Project/Pakistan
ILDIS, 2017. International Legume Database and Information Service: World Database of Legumes (version 10). Reading, UK: School of Plant Sciences, University of Reading. http://www.ildis.org/
Mir C, 2012. Estrategia Nacional de Especies Exóticas Invasoras Realizado en el marco del Proyecto “Mitigando las amenazas de las especies exóticas invasoras en el Caribe Insular”. Dominican Republic: Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales Santo Domingo
NOBANIS, 2017. European Network on Invasive Alien Species. https://www.nobanis.org/about-nobanis/
PFAF, 2017. Plants For A Future Database. http://www.pfaf.org/USER/Default.aspx
PIER, 2017. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Quiros CF, Bauchan GR, 1988. The genus Medicago and the origin of the Medicago sativa complex. Alfalfa and Alfalfa Improvement—Agronomy Monographs, 29:93-126
Stevens PF, 2012. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
The Plant List, 2013. The Plant List: a working list of all plant species. Version 1.1. London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.http://www.theplantlist.org
USDA-ARS, 2017. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl
USDA-NRCS, 2017. The PLANTS Database. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov/
Vibrans H, 2009. Malezas de México. Listado alfabético de las especies, ordenadas por género (Weeds of Mexico. Alphabetical list of species, ordered by genera). http://www.conabio.gob.mx/malezasdemexico/2inicio/paginas/lista-plantas-generos.htm
Distribution References
CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
ILDIS, 2017. International Legume Database and Information Service: World Database of Legumes (version 10)., Reading, UK: School of Plant Sciences, University of Reading. http://www.ildis.org/
Mir C, 2012. (Estrategia Nacional de Especies Exóticas Invasoras Realizado en el marco del Proyecto “Mitigando las amenazas de las especies exóticas invasoras en el Caribe Insular)., Dominican Republic: Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales Santo Domingo.
NOBANIS, 2017. European Network on Invasive Alien Species., https://www.nobanis.org/about-nobanis/
PIER, 2017. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
USDA-ARS, 2017. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
USDA-NRCS, 2017. The PLANTS Database. Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: National Plant Data Team. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov
Vibrans H, 2009. Weeds of Mexico. Alphabetical list of species, ordered by general. (Malezas de México. Listado alfabético de las especies, ordenadas por género)., http://www.conabio.gob.mx/malezasdemexico/2inicio/paginas/lista-plantas-generos.htm
Contributors
Top of page03/04/17 Original text by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
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