Macaranga tanarius (parasol leaf tree)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Introductions
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Growth Stages
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Soil Tolerances
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Environmental Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Wood Products
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Macaranga tanarius (L.) Müll. Arg.
Preferred Common Name
- parasol leaf tree
Other Scientific Names
- Croton laccifer Blanco
- Croton lacciferus Blanco
- Macaranga tanarius var. brevibracteata Müll.Arg.
- Macaranga tanarius var. glabra F.Muell.
- Macaranga tanarius var. tomentosa (Blume) Müll.Arg.
- Macaranga tomentosa (Blume) Druce
- Macaranga vulcanica Elmer ex Merr.
- Mappa moluccana Wight
- Mappa tanarius (L.) Blume
- Mappa tomentosa Blume
- Ricinus tanarius L.
- Rottlera tanarius (L.) Hassk.
- Rottlera tomentosa (Blume) Hassk.
International Common Names
- English: blush macaranga; Davids heart; elephant’s ear; hairy mahang; hairy mahogany; heart leaf; kamala; macaranga; nasturtium tree
Local Common Names
- Indonesia: hanuwa; mapu; mara; tutup ancur
- Malaysia: ka-lo; kundoh; mahang puteh; tampu
- Philippines: binunga; himindang; kuyonon
- Solomon Islands: rebareba; taksui
- Thailand: hu chang lek; lo khao; mek; paang
- Vietnam: hach dâu nam
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageNative to southeastern Asia, through to Australia and the western Pacific islands, Macaranga tanarius is a medium-sized tree that is cultivated in tropical regions throughout the world for a range of uses, including the production of timber, firewood, traditional medicinal products and shade. It is also used as an ornamental and in reforestation. As a pioneer species, M. tanarius is favoured by disturbance and rapidly colonizes gaps or margins in well-developed rainforest. In Hawaii, given its potential for rapid colonization and its ability to form dense stands, it is considered either an environmental weed or a potentially invasive cultivated plant threatening endangered native species.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Euphorbiales
- Family: Euphorbiaceae
- Genus: Macaranga
- Species: Macaranga tanarius
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageMacaranga is a genus of the Euphorbiaceae family. It comprises 250-280 species from tropical Africa, Madagascar and Malesia to Australia and some parts of the Pacific. The genus Macaranga derives its name from mokarana, the Malagasy vernacular name for M. alnifolia, a species native to eastern Madagascar (Rakotovao et al., 2012; World Agroforestry Centre, 2015).
Description
Top of pageAdapted from Purwaningsih and Sukardjo (1991):
Evergreen, dioecious, small to medium-sized tree up to 20 m tall, usually much shorter; bole straight, up to 50 to 70 cm in diameter. Branches rather thick, glaucous, pubescent when young. Trunk seldom exceeding 30 cm diameter. Outer bark is covered with narrow, brittle, brownish stripes. Leaves simple, alternate; suborbicular, 8-32 cm x 5-28 cm, rounded at the base, acuminate at the apex, entire, sometimes denticulate or slightly lobed, with distinct veins; petiole 6-27 cm long, attached to the blade on the underside, with large caducous stipules at the base. Flowers in axillary, paniculate inflorescences, composed of bracts enclosing clusters of flowers; male flowers minute, many in a cluster with (3-)5-6(-10) stamens; female flowers few in a cluster, with a subovoid, glandular, two-celled ovary and two large stigmas. Fruit a bicoccus capsule, about 1 cm in diameter, with long, soft prickles, yellowish, glandular outside. Seeds globose, about 5 mm in diameter, rugose.
Distribution
Top of pageIn its native range, M. tanarius occurs from the Andaman Islands (India), southern China, Ryukyu Islands, northern Australia and Malesia to the west Pacific islands (Whitmore, 1980; Airy Shaw, 1982). It is a common species in mainland South-East Asia, including southern Thailand and peninsular Malaysia, and on Indonesian islands, including Sumatra, Borneo, Lesser Sunda Islands and Sulawesi, as well as New Guinea and the Philippine Archipelago (Purwaningsih and Sukardjo, 1991).
M. tanarius has been introduced to Singapore, the Marshall Islands and all the main islands of Hawaii, having become naturalized and invasive in valleys on Kauai, Oahu and Maui (Starr et al., 2003; PIER, 2015; Speith and Harrison, 2015).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 17 Dec 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Asia |
|||||||
Brunei | Present | Native | |||||
Cambodia | Present | Native | |||||
China | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
Hong Kong | Present | Native | |||||
India | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands | Present | Native | |||||
-Karnataka | Present | Native | |||||
Indonesia | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Irian Jaya | Present | Native | |||||
-Lesser Sunda Islands | Present | Native | |||||
-Sulawesi | Present | Native | |||||
-Sumatra | Present | Native | |||||
Japan | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Ryukyu Islands | Present | Native | |||||
Laos | Present | Native | |||||
Malaysia | Present | Native | |||||
Myanmar | Present | Native | |||||
Philippines | Present | Native | |||||
Singapore | Present | Introduced | |||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Native | |||||
Taiwan | Present | Native | |||||
Thailand | Present | Native | |||||
Vietnam | Present | Native | |||||
North America |
|||||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Hawaii | Present, Localized | Introduced | 1927 | Invasive | |||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | Native | |||||
Christmas Island | Present | Native | |||||
French Polynesia | Absent, Formerly present | 1960 | Two male specimens introduced to Papeari, Tahiti, in 1960 from Vanuatu, neither of which survived | ||||
Marshall Islands | Present | Introduced | Observed on Jaluit Atoll | ||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | Native | |||||
Solomon Islands | Present | Native | |||||
Timor-Leste | Present | Native | |||||
Vanuatu | Present | Native |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageIn Hawaii, forestry records for M. tanarius report that in 1926, six trees were planted in Honolulu on Oahu and 237 trees in Hilo on Hawaii for forestry purposes. A further 30 trees were planted in Lihue-Koloa on Kauai in 1927 (Skolmen, 1960). The species is now naturalized in Hawaii in disturbed mesic valleys on Kauai and Oahu (Wagner et al., 1999) and also on Maui (Oppenheimer et al., 1999). M. tanarius is naturalized on West Maui in the Waikapu area, where it forms dense thickets in streams, valleys and moist areas. These dense thickets crowd out desirable native vegetation and can form deep shade in streams and valleys. This prolific tree also invades roadsides, fence lines and disturbed areas near to major infestation sites.
Introductions
Top of pageIntroduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reason | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
Hawaii | 1926-1927 | Forestry (pathway cause); Ornamental purposes (pathway cause) | Government | Yes | No | Skolmen (1960) |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageApart from Hawaii, M. tanarius is not listed as an invasive species in any of the regions outside its native range. However, given its uses as an ornamental and in reforestation projects, further intentional introduction of M. tanarius in the tropics is likely.
Habitat
Top of pageM. tanarius is limited to tropical and subtropical climates. As a fast-growing pioneer plant, it is often found growing in secondary forests and especially in cleared rainforests. Its spread is favoured by disturbance and so rapidly colonizes gaps or margins in well-developed rainforest (Australian Tropical Rainforest Plants, 2010). It is also found in thickets, brushwood, village groves, coastal rainforest and estuaries (Florabank, 2015; World Agroforestry Centre, 2015). M. tanarius occurs mainly in areas with a mean annual rainfall between 950 and 4000 mm, at altitudes from near sea level up to 800 m (Florabank, 2015). It grows in a variety of soil types including clay, loam and sand, and is fairly common in lowlands (World Agroforestry Centre, 2015).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Secondary/tolerated habitat | |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Principal habitat | Natural |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Principal habitat | Natural |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageA study by Tseng et al. (2003) indicated that the phytotoxins produced during leaf decomposition of M. tanarius inhibited the growth of Lactuca sativa, Bidens pilosa and Leucaena leucocephala. They concluded that the pattern of weed exclusion underneath stands of M. tanarius and its invasion into adjacent grassland vegetation results from allelopathic interactions.
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
M. tanarius has a haploid chromosome number of 11 (Miller and Webster, 1966; Whitmore et al., 1970).
Reproductive Biology
M. tanarius is pollinated by insects and to a lesser extent by wind (Ishida et al., 2009), with flowering and fruiting occurring several times a year. It propagates by seed, with an average germination rate of 50% if the pulp remains on the seeds (World Agroforestry Centre, 2015).
Physiology and Phenology
Cotyledons of M. tanarius are broadly elliptic to orbicular, about 16 mm in diameter; upper surface hairy; undersurface sometimes bearing numerous small, yellow glands (Australian Tropical Rainforest Plants, 2010).
M. tanarius flowers and bears fruit fairly regularly (World Agroforestry Centre, 2015). In Australia it flowers from spring to summer and fruits mature in summer (Florabank, 2015). In Hong Kong, it is reported to flower from April to May and to fruit from June to August (Hong Kong Flora and Vegetation, 2012).
Longevity
Under cultivation, this species lives less than 15 years (Florabank, 2015). Under natural conditions, the lifespan is over 20 years, but as a pioneer species that quickly fills any gap that occurs in the forest canopy allowing light to penetrate to the ground, M. tanarius quickly disappears as the longer-lived components of the mature rainforest return.
Population Size and Structure
M. tanarius tends to form dense thickets that impede the growth of other vegetation, thus allowing it to form near monocultures.
Associations
This species is myrmecophilic: several ant species in the genera Crematogaster and Camponotus can serve as partners that sometimes colonize the trees (Guhling et al., 2005).
In Japan, M. tanarius is pollinated by the flower bug Orius atratus (Anthocoridae, Hemiptera), which breeds on the inflorescences (Ishida et al., 2009).
Environmental Requirements
M. tanarius is found in tropical and subtropical climates, from coastal estuaries to inland upland sites as high as 800 m above sea level (World Agroforestry Centre, 2015). It has been reported to tolerate temperatures as low as 6°C and as high as 34°C. When dormant, the plant can survive temperatures down to about 1°C (FAO, 2007). It tolerates different soil types including clay, loamy, medium and coarsely textured soils, either acid or neutral. It prefers a mean annual rainfall between 800 and 1200 mm, but tolerates 700 to 4000 mm. The species is sensitive to waterlogging and drought (Florabank, 2015).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
30 | 30 |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) | 6 | |
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 20 | 30 |
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC) | 34 | |
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC) | 15 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 700 | 4000 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
Soil reaction
- acid
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- saline
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageThe potential damage by the bug Decomioides schneirlai, which feeds on M. tanarius’ floral nectar without contributing to the pollination of the plant, is regulated by the plant’s insect pollinator Orius atratus (Ishida et al., 2009).
When it suffers leaf damage from herbivory, M. tanarius produces extrafloral nectar on its shoots and leaves to attract predators and parasitoids, which reduce the number of herbivores on the plant (Heil et al., 2001).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageNatural Dispersal
Seeds of M. tanarius are dispersed mainly by birds and, to a lesser extent, by wind (Ishida et al., 2009) and possibly also by water (Starr et al., 2003).
Vector Transmission (Biotic)
The seeds of M. tanarius are dispersed primarily by birds (Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, 2015).
Accidental Introduction
Because of its profuse seed production, ease of dispersal and intentional planting, M. tanarius is very likely to escape from cultivation into suitable habitats.
Intentional Introduction
M. tanarius is cultivated commercially for reforestation purposes and is planted widely as a popular ornamental in Hawai'i and other tropical regions of the world (Speith and Harrison, 2015), so it is highly likely that it will be introduced to new areas.
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Digestion and excretion | Seed dispersed by birds | Yes | Yes | |
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Yes | |||
Forestry | Yes | Yes | ||
Horticulture | Yes | USDA (1915) | ||
Ornamental purposes | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Water | Yes | Starr et al. (2003) | ||
Wind | Yes | Starr et al. (2003) |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Positive |
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Negative |
Environmental Impact
Top of pageImpact on Habitats
Given its potential for rapid colonization and its ability to form dense stands, M. tanarius is a threat to native species and their habitats in Hawaii, where it is considered an environmental weed (Global Compendium of Weeds, 2007) or a potentially invasive cultivated plant (Staples et al., 2000).
Impact on Biodiversity
On the Hawaiian island of Maui, habitat degradation and competition from M. tanarius and other invasive alien plant species, such as Lantana camara, Rubus rosifolius, Erigeron karvinskianus and Adiantum hispidulum, are serious threats to Pritchardia munroi, a species of fan palm endemic to Hawaii. This species was, until 2007, only known in the wild from a single individual on the leeward side of east Molokai. The species is currently known from two locations on the island of Molokai and three on West Maui, some of which only have single trees. P. munroi, originally listed as endangered in 1992, is listed as critically endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. One of the priority actions for conserving P. munroi is the control of introduced invasive plant species around all populations (Bruegmann and Newton, 2011).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Fast growing
- Gregarious
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Monoculture formation
- Threat to/ loss of endangered species
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Allelopathic
- Competition - shading
- Rapid growth
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Top of pageEconomic Value
According to Sosef et al. (1998), some Macaranga species are regarded as commercial timber in Indonesia. When traded, it is found in mixed consignments of light-weight hardwood.
Social Benefit
Orwa et al. (2009) listed the following uses for M. tanarius. In Indonesia and the Philippines, the gum from the bark is used as a glue. This species is used for firewood, its fibers can be used to make particle boards. In Sumatra, the fruit is added to palm juice and boiled to produce sugar for use in foods. Poles of this species have been used by pepper growers in southern Sumatra to make temporary ladders to harvest their crop (Sosef et al., 1998).
The bark is used in a decoction to treat dysentery, a decoction of the root is used to treat fever and haemoptysis, and powdered leaves are used for healing wonds (Purwaningsih and Sukrdjo, 1991). Other uses include dyes made from its leaves and fermented drinks made from the leaves and bark (Purwaningsih and Sukrdjo, 1991).
M. tanarius is a popular ornamental tree.
Environmental Services
M. tanarius has been recommended as a shade and shelter tree to promote natural regeneration on deforested land (Sosef et al., 1998; World Agroforestry Centre, 2015). Moreover, it is recognized for its erosion control and windbreak potential and, particularly, for its tolerance to sandy sites and salt-laden coastal winds (Florabank, 2015). M. tanarius has also been characterised as a fire retardant species (Noosa’s Native Plants, 2015).
Uses List
Top of pageEnvironmental
- Agroforestry
- Boundary, barrier or support
- Erosion control or dune stabilization
- Firebreak
- Revegetation
- Windbreak
Fuels
- Fuelwood
Materials
- Alcohol
- Bark products
- Dyestuffs
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
Ornamental
- garden plant
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageA similar species to M. tanarius in Hawaii is Macaranga mappa (L.) Mull. Arg., which is distinguishable from M. tanarius by its larger leaves (60-100 cm) and bracts, and pink calyx (Starr et al., 2003).
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Public Awareness
The Big Island Association of Nurserymen in Hawaii has voluntarily agreed to not order or sell M. tanarius to prevent further spread. It has been classified as "High Risk" by the Hawaii-Pacific Weed Risk Assessment and should not be cultivated (Speith and Harrison, 2015). Starr et al. (2003) suggested discouraging the public from planting M. tanarius, especially near uncultivated areas or water bodies.
Eradication
Eradication techniques include hand-pulling or treatment with herbicide.
Cultural Control and Sanitary Measures
Control by use as firewood is unlikely, as this species has been reported as undesirable for charcoal production in the Philippines (Hyman, 1983).
Biological Control
There are no known biological agents for the control of M. tanarius (Starr et al., 2003).
Chemical Control
In large wild stands, Starr et al. (2003) suggested cut stump or basal bark herbicide application as a possibly effective method for the control of M. tanarius. Foliar spray on taller individuals, however, may not be effective and is not advised in areas where non-target plants are present, although control methods suggested for dense stands in Maui, Hawaii, include aerial applications of herbicide via spray ball or herbicide ballistic technology (Maui Invasive Species Council, 2013).
Monitoring and Surveillance (Incl. Remote Sensing)
In the West Maui mountains, M. tanarius populations were mapped using helicopter surveys and ground surveying. This revealed that M. tanarius had a much larger range than was previously thought, and resulted in this species being added to the area’s priority invasive species lists (Maui Invasive Species Council, 2013).
References
Top of pageAiry Shaw HK, 1982. The Euphorbiaceae of Central Malesia (Celebes, Moluccas, Lesser Sunda Is.). Kew Bulletin, 37(1):1-40.
Australian Tropical Rainforest Plants, 2010. Australian Tropical Rainforest Plants. Version 6.1 - December 2010. CSIRO, Queensland, Australia.
Bruegmann M; Newton J, 2011. 5-Year review. Short form summary. Species reviewed: Pritchardia munroi (lo'ulu). Current classification: Endangered. Washington, DC, USA: US Fish and Wildlife Service, 11 pp. http://ecos.gov/docs/five_year_review/doc3844.pdf
FAO, 2007. Ecocrop. http://ecocrop.fao.org/
Florabank, 2015. Florabank. Australian Government, Greening Australia and CSIRO. http://www.florabank.org.au/
GBIF, 2015. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. http://www.gbif.org/species
Heil M; Koch M; Hilpert A; Fiala B; Boland W; Linsenmair E, 2001. Extrafloral nectar production of the ant-associated plant, Macaranga tanarius, is an induced, indirect, defensive response elicited by jasmonic acid. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 98(3):1083-1088.
Hong Kong Flora and Vegetation, 2012. Hong Kong Flora and Vegetation. http://www.hkflora.com/
Maui Invasive Species Committee, 2013. Invasive Species Management using Prevention and Control Technologies in the West Maui Mountains. The West Maui Mountains Watershed Partnership. http://dlnr.hawaii.gov/hisc/files/2013/03/HISC-WMMWP-Jan-2013-Final-Report-Submitted.pdf
Miller KI; Webster GL, 1966. Chromosome numbers in the Euphorbiaceae. Brittonia, 18(4):372-9.
Noosa's Native Plants, 2015. Noosa's Native Plants. Noosa Integrated Catchment Assn. Inc and Noosa biosphere. http://www.noosanativeplants.com.au/articles/happening-now/
Oppenheimer HL; Meidell JS; Bartlett RT, 1999. New plant records for Maui and Moloka'i. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, 59(2):7-11.
Penniman TM; Buchanan L; Loope LL, 2011. Recent plant eradications on the islands of Maui County, Hawai'i. In: Island invasives: eradication and management. Proceedings of the International Conference on Island Invasives, 8-12 February 2010, Auckland, New Zealand [ed. by Veitch, C. R. \Clout, M. N. \Towns, D. R.]. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 325-331.
PIER, 2015. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Purwaningsih; Sukardjo S, 1991. Macaranga tanarius (L. Muell.) Dye and tannin producing plants. PROSEA 3 [ed. by Lemmens, R. H. M. J. \Wulijarni-Spetjiptoed, N.]. Wageningen, The Netherlands: Pudoc, 88-89.
Rakotovao G; Rabevohitra AR; Collas de Chatelperron P; Guibal D; Gerard J, 2012. Atlas of the woods of Madagascar (Atlas des bois de Madagascar). Versailles, France: Editions Quae, 413 pp.
Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, 2015. Seed Information Database (SID) Version 7. Richmond, Surrey, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens Kew. http://data.kew.org/sid/
Speith E; Harrison S, 2015. Invasive plant field guide: Pu'uhonua o Honaunau National Historical Park, Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park, Pu'ukohola Heiau National Historic Site. Washington, DC, USA: US Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 32 pp. https://science.nature.gov/im/units/pacn/assets/docs/Invasive_Species_Cards_and_Calendars_PBIN/NPS_CARDS_KONA_12112012_final.pdf
Staples GW; Herbst D; Imada CT, 2000. Survey of invasive or potentially invasive cultivated plants in Hawaii. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, 65:35 pp.
Starr F; Starr K; Loope L, 2003. Hawaii Ecosystems at Risk: Macaranga tanarius, parasol leaf tree, Euphorbiaceae. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/reports/pdf/macaranga_tanarius.pdf
USDA, 1915. New Plant introductions. Washington, USA: United States Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, 130.
Volkens G, 1903. The flora of the Marshall Islands. After the government physician Dr. Sschnee and other sources. (Die Flora der Marshallinseln. Nach Aufzeichungen des Regierungsarztes Herr Dr. Schnee und andere Quellen.) In: Notizblatt des Königlichen botanischen Gartens und Museums zu Berlin, 4(32). 83-91.
Whitmore TC, 1980. Macaranga in New Guinea and the Bismarck Archipelago: Studies in Macaranga VIII. Kew Bulletin, 34(3):599-606.
World Agroforestry Centre, 2015. Macaranga tanarius. Agroforestree Database: a tree reference and selection guide. Version 4. http://www.worldagroforestry.org/treedb2/speciesprofile.php?Spid=1092
Distribution References
CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
GBIF, 2015. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. http://www.gbif.org/species
PIER, 2015. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Purwaningsih, Sukardjo S, 1991. Macaranga tanarius (L. Muell.) Dye and tannin producing plants. In: PROSEA, 3 [ed. by Lemmens RHMJ, Wulijarni-Spetjiptoed N]. Wageningen, The Netherlands: Pudoc. 88-89.
World Agroforestry Centre, 2015. Macaranga tanarius. In: Agroforestree Database: a tree reference and selection guide. Version 4, http://www.worldagroforestry.org/treedb2/speciesprofile.php?Spid=1092
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
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