Adelges tsugae (hemlock woolly adelgid)

Pictures

Top of page

Picture

Title

Caption

Copyright

Adults on Hemlock sprig

Adelges tsugae (Hemlock woolly adelgid); adults on Hemlock sprig. USA.

©Tom Coleman/USDA Forest Service/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US

Damage symptoms on Eastern hemlock

Hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae); damage symptoms on Eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis). Joyce Kilmer area, North Carolina, USA.

©Jason Van Driesche/Bugwood.org - CC BY-NC 3.0 US

Egg masses

Hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae); egg masses on Tsuga sp. Laboratory photograph, Charlotte, North Carolina, USA.

©Lorraine Graney/Bartlett Tree Experts/Bugwood.org - CC BY-NC 3.0 US

Identity

Top of page

Preferred Scientific Name

Adelges tsugae Annand

Preferred Common Name

hemlock woolly adelgid

Other Scientific Names

Chermes tsugae Annand

International Common Names

French: puceron lanigère de la pruche

Local Common Names

Germany: Laus, Hemlockstannen; Tannenlaus, Hemlocks-

EPPO code

ADLGTS (Adelges tsugae)

Summary of Invasiveness

Top of page

The hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae) is a small, aphid-like insect that has become a serious pest of eastern hemlock and Carolina hemlock. The most obvious sign of infestation is the presence of white, woolly egg masses on the underside of hemlock needles. Infested eastern North American hemlocks defoliate prematurely and will eventually die if left untreated. A. tsugae is a difficult insect to control as the white waxy secretion protects it from pesticides. It is dispersed to new habitats through the nursery trade and locally by wind, birds, mammals and humans. Hemlock trees provide important habitats for many wildlife species and A. tsugae has severe adverse ecological impacts which will become more severe as its distribution expands. Explanations for the rapid and invasive expansion of A. tsugae include a lack of natural enemies, a lack of resistance or tolerance to infestation by eastern hemlock and Carolina hemlock, and large reproductive output (Trotter and Shields, 2009).

Taxonomic Tree

Top of page

Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Metazoa
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Uniramia
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Sternorrhyncha
Unknown: Aphidoidea
Family: Adelgidae
Genus: Adelges
Species: Adelges tsugae

Description

Top of page

Adelges tsugae is a small (0.74mm), reddish-purple, aphid-like insect that covers itself with a white, waxy secretion. Both winged and wingless forms are present. Their mouthparts are thread-like and about 1.5mm long and used to suck sap. Eggs are brownish-orange but darken as the embryo matures. When the eggs hatch, reddish-brown crawlers move about actively in search of a suitable site to settle. The tiny crawlers can only be seen with a hand lens as they are barely visible to the naked eye. Once the crawlers settle, they insert their mouthparts into the plant at the base of the hemlock needles and remain in the same place for the duration of their life. Dormant first instar nymphs are black with a white fringe around the edge and down the centre of the back. The developing nymphs produce white, cottony, waxy tufts that cover their bodies. The white masses are 3mm or more in diameter. The presence of these masses on the twigs and bark of hemlock is a sure sign of A. tsugae.

Distribution

Top of page

Native range: China and Japan. A. tsugae were first described in western North America in 1924 and may be native to western North America (Havill and Footitt, 2007; US Forest Service, 2012).

Introduced range: Unintentionally introduced to eastern USA from Japan sometime before 1951, when it was first documented on ornamental hemlocks in Richmond, Virginia. Initially a pest of ornamental hemlock, but in the 1980s, A. tsugae was recognized as a threat to eastern and Carolina hemlocks as populations moved north through New Jersey, Long Island, and southern Connecticut and ultimately all of New England (Trotter and Shields, 2009). For distribution maps see the US Forest service website on hemlock woolly adelgid.

A. tsugae have moved south almost twice as fast as they have moved north, and some have linked this with a potential role of low temperatures in limiting the expansion of populations (Trotter and Shields, 2009).

Distribution Table

Top of page

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 24 Jun 2020

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Asia
China	Present	Native			Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
India	Present				Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
Japan	Present	Native			Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
Taiwan	Present				Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
North America
Canada	Present				CABI (Undated)	Present based on regional distribution.
-British Columbia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)	First reported: 1920s
-Ontario	Present, Few occurrences				IPPC (2020) NAPPO (2013)
United States	Present				CABI (Undated)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Alaska	Present	Introduced			Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
-California	Present	Introduced			Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
-Connecticut	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)	First reported: 1980s
-Delaware	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)	First reported: 1991-2002
-District of Columbia	Present	Introduced			Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
-Georgia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)	First reported: 1991-2002
-Idaho	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)	First reported: 1920s
-Maine	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)	First reported: 1920s
-Maryland	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)	First reported: 1991-2002
-Massachusetts	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)	First reported: 1980s
-New Hampshire	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)	First reported: 1985-2002
-New Jersey	Present	Introduced	1978	Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
-New York	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)	First reported: 1968-1985
-North Carolina	Present	Introduced	1995	Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
-Oregon	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)	First reported: 1920s
-Pennsylvania	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)	First reported: 1960s
-Rhode Island	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)	First reported: 1991-2002
-South Carolina	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)	First reported: 1991-2002
-Tennessee	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)	First reported: 1991-2002
-Vermont	Present	Introduced			Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)
-Virginia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)	First reported: 1950s
-Washington	Present	Introduced			Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)	First reported: 1920s
-West Virginia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2011)	First reported: 1991-2002

Habitat

Top of page

The secondary host of Adelges tsugae is hemlock (where the asexual cycle occurs), and spruce is the primary host where the sexual cycle occurs. Experts hope that an aversion to cold weather will slow or stop its northern movement. In New Jersey and Connecticut, a large population of Adelges tsugae died as a result of a cold period in the winter of 2000.

Habitat List

Top of page

Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial	Managed	Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural forests	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Riverbanks	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)

Hosts/Species Affected

Top of page

Some of the adults produced during the spring generation are winged individuals that are unable to reproduce on hemlock, therefore they leave the hemlock tree in search of spruce, the alternate host. But because no suitable spruce host is available in North America, they soon die. Hemlocks growing in poor conditions (compacted soils, ledgy soils, poor drainage, drought prone, etc.) are much more likely to succumb within 3-5 years from invasion. Hemlocks growing under better growing conditions have been shown to withstand infestations longer.

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

Top of page

Plant name	Family	Context
Picea (spruces)	Pinaceae	Unknown
Picea abies (common spruce)	Pinaceae	Unknown
Picea engelmannii (Engelmann spruce)	Pinaceae	Unknown
Picea glauca (white spruce)	Pinaceae	Unknown
Picea jezoensis (Yeddo spruce)	Pinaceae	Unknown
Picea mariana (black spruce)	Pinaceae	Unknown
Picea pungens (blue spruce)	Pinaceae	Unknown
Picea sitchensis (Sitka spruce)	Pinaceae	Unknown
Tsuga (hemlocks)	Pinaceae	Unknown
Tsuga canadensis (eastern hemlock)	Pinaceae	Unknown
Tsuga caroliniana (Carolina hemlock)	Pinaceae	Unknown
Tsuga diversifolia	Pinaceae	Unknown
Tsuga sieboldii (Japanese hemlock)	Pinaceae	Unknown

Biology and Ecology

Top of page

Nutrition
The hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae) utilizes hemlock as its secondary host, where the asexual cycle occurs and spruce as its primary host, where the sexual cycle occurs. In North America the sexual cycle has not been previously recorded. Young twigs are the preferred feeding sites. Immature nymphs and adults feed on trees by sucking sap from the twigs. They attach themselves just below the base (abscission layer) of newly developed needles and feed on xylem parenchyma cells (tissue that manufactures and stores plant food).

Reproduction
A. tsugae has both sexual and asexual (parthenogenic) reproduction. In its native range the asexual cycle occurs on hemlock while the sexual stage occurs on spruce. However, because of a lack of suitable spruce species to act as a host, in its introduced range, A. tsugae has two asexual generations per year on hemlock (Trotter and Shields, 2009). Each adult can produce between 50-300 eggs within its lifetime. The large reproductive output of hemlock woolly adelgid contributes towards its invasive expansion (see also ‘Summary of Invasiveness’ section for explanations of invasiveness).

Lifecycle stages
Spring generation adults lay numerous eggs within large, white, woolly sacs. The eggs hatch and crawlers from the second generation move to attach themselves to new needles. Once they find a site, they settle and become dormant (no feeding) until fall (autumn). At that time, they end their dormancy and begin to feed and develop through the fall and winter. A. tsugae is atypical of most insect species in that it is inactive for much of the growing season and very active throughout the winter.

Natural enemies

Top of page

Natural enemy	Type	References
Diapterobates humeralis	Predator
Laricobius osakensis		Montgomery et al. (2011)
Mallada prasina	Predator

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Top of page

Introduction pathways to new locations
Forestry:
Nursery trade:Adelges tsugae was inadvertently shipped to Maine from Connecticut on untreated nursery stock in 1999.
Other:Adelges tsugae was accidentally introduced to the North American continent earlier this century (McClure 1987).

Local dispersal methods
Garden escape/garden waste:
Hikers' clothes/boots: Humans can disperse the insect through recreational activities.
Horticulture (local):Adelges tsugae can be spread via infested nursery stock (Ward et al. 2004).
On animals: The eggs and nymphs can be readily dispersed by birds, deer and other mammals.
On animals (local): The eggs and nymphs can be readily dispersed by birds.
On animals (local): The eggs and nymphs, which are not attached to the plant via mouthparts can be readily dispersed by wind.
People sharing resources (local): Humans can also disperse the insect through various activities, including logging and recreational activities.
Road vehicles: Humans can disperse the insect through recreational activities.

Pathway Causes

Top of page

Cause	Notes	Long Distance	Local
Escape from confinement or garden escape			Yes
Forestry		Yes
Horticulture			Yes
Nursery trade	Adelges tsugae was inadvertently shipped to Maine from Connecticut on untreated nursery stock in 199	Yes
People sharing resources			Yes

Pathway Vectors

Top of page

Vector	Long Distance	Local
Clothing, footwear and possessions		Yes
Host and vector organisms		Yes
Land vehicles		Yes
Plants or parts of plants	Yes	Yes

Plant Trade

Top of page

Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport	Pest stages	Borne internally	Borne externally	Visibility of pest or symptoms
Leaves			Yes
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants			Yes
Wood			Yes

Impact Summary

Top of page

Category	Impact
Biodiversity (generally)	Negative
Economic/livelihood	Negative
Forestry production	Negative
Native flora	Negative

Impact

Top of page

General Impacts

Original text compiled by IUCN SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG)

The hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae) is damaging hemlock ecosystems in eastern North America where both eastern hemlock (see Tsuga canadensis in IUCN Red List of Threatened Species) and Carolina hemlock (T. caroliniana) serve as hosts. To date, approximately 25% of the 1.3 million hectares of host type has been infested. The entire range of eastern hemlock is at risk within the next 20 to 30 years. Immature nymphs as well as adults damage trees by sucking sap from the twigs. The trees lose vigour and prematurely drop their needles, to the point of defoliation, which may lead to death. If left uncontrolled, the adelgids can kill a tree within three to four years. Trees of all sizes and ages are attacked, but natural stands of hemlock are at greatest risk for death. The value of ornamental hemlocks is reduced by the presence of the dirty, white woolly masses attached to the twigs or base of needles. Eastern hemlock is economically important in several areas of the eastern United States. The nursery industry in North Carolina and Tennessee currently maintains approximately $34 million in hemlock growing stock. This industry is feeling the effects of A. tsugae in reduced sales of native hemlock for ornamental use.

Hemlock trees are ecologically important and provide a unique environment. Eastern hemlock trees can reach a lifespan of 900 years and this tree is a component of many old growth communities. The hemlock forest also provides nesting sites and a foraging habitat for Neotropical migratory bird species. For example, the Acadian flycatcher (Empidonax virescens) uses Eastern hemlock for nesting and populations are thought to be negatively affected by A. tsugae infestation in Appalachian riparian forests (Allen et al., 2009). In addition, lepidopterans, such as the hemlock angle (Semiothisa fissinotata), which feed solely on hemlocks, will be affected. Several threatened or endangered species of flora and fauna require hemlock forests to survive. These forests are normally stable and resistant to plant invasions, but the loss of hemlocks from such forests will greatly affect the microclimate and soil conditions. Large-scale hemlock die-offs will affect species diversity, vegetation structure, stand environmental conditions and ecosystem processes. Numerous studies have suggested that A. tsugae and associated loss of hemlock trees can impact upon ecosystem processes such as nitrogen and carbon cycling (see Cobb, 2010; Nuckolls et al., 2009; Orwig et al., 2008; Hadley et al., 2008). The loss of hemlock trees from the forests can lead to increased dominance of deciduous hardwood species, which may in turn have ecosystem effects (Spalding and Rieske, 2010).

Threatened Species

Top of page

Threatened Species	Conservation Status	Where Threatened	Mechanism	References	Notes
Tsuga canadensis (eastern hemlock)	LC (IUCN red list: Least concern)	Canada; USA	Herbivory/grazing/browsing	ISSG (2011)
Plethodon shenandoah (Shenandoah salamander)	VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Virginia	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (1994)

Risk and Impact Factors

Top of page

Invasiveness

Proved invasive outside its native range

Impact outcomes

Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Host damage
Negatively impacts forestry
Threat to/ loss of endangered species
Threat to/ loss of native species

Impact mechanisms

Herbivory/grazing/browsing

Prevention and Control

Top of page

Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Management information

Original text compiled by the IUCN SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG)

The USDA Forest Service has produced a handbook which summarizes current scientific knowledge of the impact of Adelges tsugae on eastern hemlock forests. It is designed to help resource managers make informed decisions in preparing management plans to deal with the hemlock woolly adelgid. In addition, Onken (2005) provides a summary of management options and future directions for the control of A. tsugae.

Preventative measures: Certain species of Asian hemlocks are resistant to A. tsugae, and nurseries are beginning to grow and sell those in the United states. The western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) is highly resistant to A. tsugae, but it does not grow well outside of its native range of the northwestern United States. Care should be taken when moving trees, logs or firewood from infested areas to uninfested areas (see 'Cultural measures'). Selective removal of heavily infested trees from the immediate vicinity will retard the establishment of new infestations.

Remote sensing may aid earlier detection of A. tsugae infestation; spectral signatures of infestation become apparent before needle discolouration is visible (Cook et al. 2010).

Legal measures: A number of states in the USA impose strict quarantine measures to prevent the further spread of A. tsugae. States with existing quarantines include Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont and Michigan (Ward et al. 2004).

Cultural measures: It is imperative to maintain the health of threatened trees, as a healthy tree can tolerate higher densities of A. tsugae (McClure, 1995; in Ward et al. 2004). This can be done by simple steps such as mulching to maintain soil moisture and irrigation during dry periods. Quarantines should be observed to limit movement of hemlock products such as logs, firewood, and seedlings from infested areas (Ward et al. 2004). Nitrogen fertilizer should not be applied as it enhances A. tsugae survival and reproduction (McClure, 1995; in Ward et al. 2004).

Silvicultural measures: There are a range of silvicultural options available for management of infested hemlock-dominated forests: 1) do nothing, 2) light selection cut/shelterwood cut, 3) high intensity cutting. For hemlock-hardwood or hemlock-conifer mixes, the options include 1) do nothing, or 2) cut hemlock in groups or throughout the stand. Orwig and Kittredge (2005) provide a comprehensive guide for silvicultural management options.

Fajvan (2007) is developing silvicultural thinning guidelines – it is hoped that thinning can play a part in increasing hemlock survivability, since with reduced stand density, the hemlock may re-allocate resources towards increased vigour, which could reduce impacts of a subsequent invasion of A. tsugae.

Salvage cutting is sometimes used - harvesting trees which are dead or dying to recover their economic value (Ward et al. 2004).

Chemical treatment: The high cost of treatment limits insecticide use to the protection of individual high value trees. Applications need to be repeated at regular intervals to be effective (Ward et al. 2004). However, because A. tsugae can damage trees so quickly, it is important to detect infestations early and to implement a management program immediately. In the landscape and nursery industry, A. tsugae is very manageable if the problem is addressed early and aggressively. The black nymphs are most susceptible to control tactics when they are exposed on new growth, before they secrete their white, protective wax.

One of the best control tactics is the use of horticultural oils. These can be applied as either a dormant oil spray or as a summer spray. In order for these to be effective, they must be applied on the entire plant and may need to be reapplied later in the growing season. Oil is also effective against rust mites, spider mites and armoured scales, while being nontoxic to certain predators (Cowles and Abbey, 1999; in Ward et al. 2004). However, this is impractical for tall trees or large areas (Ward et al. 2004).

Another product that has been shown to achieve very good results is a chemical pesticide known as imidacloprid (Merit). It works best as a systemic and can be introduced into the plant via soil or trunk injection. Webb et al. (2003) discovered that hemlocks recovered quickly following applications of imidacloprid. Cowles et al. (2005) found that trunk injection methods were less effective for control of A. tsugae than near-trunk soil placement of imidacloprid, and they state that insecticide treatment should be considered a "stop-gap measure to preserve trees of exceptional value until such time that biological control becomes established". Soil application can provide multiple years benefit, but there is concern about the impact on aquatic and soil organisms. Trunk injection is better suited for areas where there is special concern for minimising imidacloprid release to the environment, but protection is shorter-lived than soil application (Ward et al. 2004). Cowles provides recommendations for soil applications of imidacloprid: "apply imidacloprid (1) as a shallow subsurface injection, (2) dispersed near and around the tree’s base, (3) using the lowest effective labelled rate (0.75 g active ingredient per inch d.b.h.), and, most importantly, (4) when the soil is moist but not saturated. Currently, some managers keep a 50-foot buffer zone around streams, within which trees may only be treated via trunk injection".

Insecticidal soap, malathion or diazinon can be used effectively for control if the infested tree is thoroughly drenched with the pesticide once or twice a year. Pyrethroids are effective against A. tsugae but may prevent establishment of specialist predatory beetles released for biological control (Ward et al. 2004).

Biological control: Because chemical control is not practical in a forest setting, research is underway to evaluate predators imported to the United States from the native habitat of A. tsugae.

The ladybird beetle (Sasajiscymnus (Pseudoscymnus) tsugae) and the oribatid mite (Diapterobates humeralis) are effective predators in Japan. The ladybird beetle has been reared and released in Connecticut, New Jersey, Virginia and others, and demonstrates excellent potential. The USDA Forest Service is spearheading a mass-rearing and release program in National Forests in the eastern United States. As of 2004, nearly one million beetles had been released in more than 100 sites in 15 states from Georgia to Maine (Ward et al. 2004). It has been correlated with a recovery of eastern hemlocks in Connecticut (Cheah et al. 2005).

Another ladybird beetle, Scymnus sinuanodulus, collected in China is also being evaluated. A third beetle species (Laricobius nigrinus), from British Columbia (Ward et al. 2004), is under study at the Virginia Tech Department of Entomology as a host-specific predator of A. tsugae in western North America. Both S. sinuanodulus and L. nigrinus are currently being evaluated in field studies and show good potential (see USDA, 2012; Zilahi-Balogh et al., 2005). L. nigrinus is a predator endemic to western North America; the beetle's life history is synchronous with the spring generation of A. tsugae. After analysing results from releases, Mausel et al. (2010) recommended larger release sizes in cold areas where establishment probability was low. It has also been found that L. nigrinus individuals from inland areas appear to be more cold tolerant and would therefore be preferable for release in the colder portions of A. tsugae's invaded range compared with coastal beetles (Mausel et al., 2011). Another Lariocobus species (L. osakensis) has been investigated - a host range study (Vieira et al., 2011) has indicated that L. osakensis is a specific predator of A. tsugae, and is not a threat to non-target species, supporting its potential as a biological control agent.

Other possibilities include the use of an insect-killing fungi, which has shown some promise (see Costa et al. (undated)), and a study by Shields and Hirth (2005), which reports the existence of endosymbiotic bacteria in A. tsugae, and the death of the insect following treatment with antibiotic.

Integrated management: Rehabilitation of affected areas: Hemlock forests affected by A. tsugae are often replaced by species such as maple and birch, resulting in a quite different forest. For example, Dhungel et al. (2011) suggested that partial canopy removal resulting from the loss of T. canadensis due to hemlock woolly adelgid may benefit aggressive tree species such as striped maple (A. pensylvanicum). Restoration efforts can begin before salvage operations by encouraging regeneration of desirable species, such as white pine. It is also important to limit the spread of invasive alien species when restoring damaged stands. Of particular concern are burning bush (Euonymus alata) and Japanese barberry (Berberis thunbergii). Control of invasive species is best done by eradicating established plants before hemlock mortality. See Ward et al. 2004 for more detail.

Bibliography

Top of page

References from GISD

Asaro, C., Berisford, C.W., Montgomery, M.E., Rhea, J. and Hanula, J. 2005. Biological control of the hemlock woolly adelgid in the Southern Appalachians. In: Onken, B. and Reardon, R. (Compilers). 2005. Third Symposium on Hemlock Woolly Adelgid in the Eastern United States. Asheville, North Carolina. February 1-3, 2005.

Cheah, C.A.S-J., Mayer, M.A., Palmer, D., Scudder, T. and Chianese, R. 2005. Assessments of biological control of hemlock woolly adelgid with Sasajiscymnus tsugae in Connecticut and New Jersey. In: Onken, B. and Reardon, R. (Compilers). 2005. Third Symposium on Hemlock Woolly Adelgid in the Eastern United States. Asheville, North Carolina. February 1-3, 2005.

Conway, H., Culin, J.D. and Hedden, R. 2004. Introduced biological control agents for hemlock woolly adelgid (HWA). Clemson University Entomology Insect Information Series.

Cowles, R.S. Soil application of imidacloprid to control hemlock woolly adelgid: best management practices. USDA Forest Service, Hemlock Woolly Adelgid website: Chemical control.

Cowles, R.S., Cheah, C. S-J. and Montgomery, M.E. 2005. Comparing systemic imidacloprid application methods for controlling hemlock woolly adelgid. In: Onken, B. and Reardon, R. (Compilers). 2005. Third Symposium on Hemlock Woolly Adelgid in the Eastern United States. Asheville, North Carolina. February 1-3, 2005.

Evans, R.A. 2002. Hemlock ecosystems and Hemlock Woolly Adlegid at Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area.

Felton, K. and Onken, B. 2006. Life stages of the hemlock woolly adelgid in the northern range. Prepared by USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Protection, Morgantown, West Virginia.

Havill, N.P. 2005. Using mitochondrial DNA to determine the native range of the Hemlock Woolly Adelgid. In: Onken, B. and Reardon, R. (Compilers). 2005. Third Symposium on Hemlock Woolly Adelgid in the Eastern United States. Asheville, North Carolina. February 1-3, 2005.

Jefts, S. and Orwig, D. 2005. The effects of HWA outbreaks on ecosystem level changes in Southern New England. In: Onken, B. and Reardon, R. (Compilers). 2005. Third Symposium on Hemlock Woolly Adelgid in the Eastern United States. Asheville, North Carolina. February 1-3, 2005.

Johnson, K., Taylor, G. and Remaley, T. 2005. Managing hemlock woolly adelgid and balsam woolly adelgid at Great Smoky Mountains National Park. In:Onken, B. and Reardon, R. (Compilers). 2005. Third Symposium on Hemlock Woolly Adelgid in the Eastern United States. Asheville, North Carolina. February 1-3, 2005.

Mark S. McClure. 1998. Hemlock Woolly Adelgid, Adelges tsugae (Annand), The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station.

Mark S. McClure. Managing Hemlock Woolly Adelgid, City Trees - The Journal of The Society of Municipal Arborists, Vol 33, Number 6 November/December 1997.

McClure, M., Salom, S., Shields, K. 2001. Hemlock woolly adelgid. FHTET-2001-03.

McClure, M.S. 1997."Managing Hemlock Woolly Adelgid. City Trees - The Journal of The Society of Municipal Arborists. 33 (6) November/December 1997.

McClure, M.S. Undated. Hemlock Woolly Adelgid, Adelges tsugae (Annand). The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station.

Michigan Department of Agriculture. 2001. Hemlock woolly adelgid quarantine. Pesticide and Plant Pest Management Division. http://na.fs.fed.us/fhp/hwa/pdfs/miquar.pdf

Morisawa, T. 22 March 2000. "Hemlock Woolly Adelgid: Adelges tsugae Annand", University of California, Davis, The Nature Conservancy.

Morisawa, T., 2003, Hemlock Woolly Adelgid: Adelges tsugae Annand, University of California, Davis, The Nature Conservancy.

New Hampshire Division of Forests and Lands. 2001. Hemlock Wooly Adelgid. Concord, New Hampshire: Department of Resources and Economic Development.

Onken, B.P. 2002. Hemlock Woolly Adelgid - a race in time. USDA Forest Service.

Orwig, D.A. and Kittredge, D. 2005. Silvicultural options for managing hemlock forests threatened by hemlock woolly adelgid. In: Onken, B. and Reardon, R. (Compilers). 2005. Third Symposium on Hemlock Woolly Adelgid in the Eastern United States. Asheville, North Carolina. February 1-3, 2005.

Pais, R.C. and Polster, K.M. Undated. Strategies for Managing Hemlock Woolly Adelgid (Adelges tsugae) in Forests. EcoScientific Solutions LLC, 930 Meadow Avenue, Suite 2B, Scranton, PA 18505.

Plant Pest Surveillance Unit. 2005. Canadian Food Inspection Agency website. Adelges tsugae (Annand) - hemlock woolly adelgid.

Rabaglia, R.J. 2005. The Maryland hemlock woolly adelgid management plan. In: Onken, B. and Reardon, R. (Compilers). 2005. Third Symposium on Hemlock Woolly Adelgid in the Eastern United States. Asheville, North Carolina. February 1-3, 2005

Salom, S. M., 1999. Virginia Tech Department of Entomology. Hemlock Woolly Adelgid: A Major Threat to Eastern Hemlock, Virginia Forest Landowner Update. Spring 1999 -- Volume 13, No. 2 .

Salom, S.M. 1999. Hemlock Woolly Adelgid: A Major Threat to Eastern Hemlock. Virginia Forest Landowner Update. Spring 1999. 13 (2). Virginia Tech Department of Entomology.

Salom, S.M., M.S. McClure, M.E. Montgomery, G. Zilahi-Balogh, L.T. Kok 2001. Hemlock woolly adelgid in the United States: status of on-going biological control efforts.

Salom, S.M., McClure, M.S., Montgomery, M.E., Zilahi-Balogh, G., and Kok, L.T. 2001. Hemlock woolly adelgid in the United States: status of on-going biological control efforts. pp. 87-97. In: IUFRO World Series Vol. 11. Protection of world forests from insect pests: advances in research. Proceedings of the XXI IUFRO World Congress 7-12 August 2000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Snyder, C.D., Young, J.A., Ross, R.M. and Smith, D.R. 2005. Long-term effects of hemlock forest decline on headwater stream communities. In: Onken, B. and Reardon, R. (Compilers). 2005. Third Symposium on Hemlock Woolly Adelgid in the Eastern United States. Asheville, North Carolina. February 1-3, 2005.

Strategies for Managing Hemlock Woolly Adelgid (Adelges tsugae) in Forests Richard C. Pais and Kathleen M. Polster EcoScientific Solutions LLC 930 Meadow Avenue, Suite 2B, Scranton, PA 18505

USDA Forest Service, 2006. Northeastern area. Hemlock wooly adelgid http://na.fs.fed.us/fhp/hwa/

USDA Forest Service. 2004. Biological control of hemlock woolly adelgid. USDA Forest Service FHTET-2004-04. http://www.invasive.org/hwa/index.cfm

USDA Forest Service. 2004. Number of beetles released and release sites by state.

USDA Forest Service. 2006. List of state and counties with known Hemlock Woolly Adelgid infestations. Prepared by USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Protection, Morgantown, West Virginia.

USDA Forest Service., 2008. Hemlock Woolly Adelgid website. Northeastern Area Forest Health Protection http://www.na.fs.fed.us/fhp/hwa/

USDA National Agricultural Library., 2006. National Invasive Species Information Centre Species profiles Hemlock wooly adelgid. http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/animals/hwa.shtml

USDA. 3 June 2002, " Hemlock Woolly Adelgid Management ", USDA Forest Service - Northeastern Area.

Ward, J.S., Montgomery, M.E., Cheah, C.A.S-J., Onken, B.P. and Cowles, R.S. 2004. Eastern hemlock forests: Guidelines to minimize the impacts of hemlock woolly adelgid. USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry, Morgantown, West Virginia.

Webb, R.E., Frank, J.R. and Raupp, M.J. 2003. Eastern hemlock recovery from Hemlock Woolly Adelgid damage following imidacloprid therapy. Journal of Arboriculture. 29 (5): 298-302.

References

Top of page

Allen MC, Sheehan J Jr, Master TL, Mulvihill RS, 2009. Responses of Acadian Flycatchers (Empidonax virescens) to Hemlock Woolly Adelgid (Adelges tsucae) infestation in Appalachian riparian forests. Auk, 126(3):543-553. http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.1525/auk.2009.08073

Cobb RC, 2010. Species shift drives decomposition rates following invasion by hemlock woolly adelgid. Oikos, 119(8):1291-1298. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/loi/oik

Cook S, Humes K, Hruska R, Williams C, Fraley G, 2010. Previsual detection of two conifer-infesting adelgid species in North American forests. In: General Technical Report - Pacific Northwest Research Station, USDA Forest Service, No.PNW-GTR-802(2) [ed. by Pye, J. M.\Rauscher, H. M.\Sands, Y.\Lee, D. C.\Beatty, J. S.]. Portland, USA: Pacific Northwest Research Station, USDA Forest Service, 551-558.

Dhungel EK, Groninger JW, Holzmueller EJ, 2010. Tree species and environment associations within hemlock-silverbell stands treated for hemlock woolly adelgid in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society, 137(4):401-409. http://www.torreybotanical.org/journal.html

Fajvan MA, 2008. The role of silvicultural thinning in eastern forests threatened by hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae). General Technical Report - Pacific Northwest Research Station, USDA Forest Service [Integrated restoration of forested ecosystems to achieve multiresource benefits: Proceedings of the 2007 National Silviculture Workshop, Ketchikan, Alaska, USA, 7-10 May 2007.], No.PNW-GTR-733:247-256.

Forest Service US, 2012. Northeastern Area. Forest Health Protection - Hemlock Woolly Adelgid. Distribution Maps. http://na.fs.fed.us/fhp/hwa/maps/distribution.shtm.

Forest Service US, 2012. Northeastern Area. Forest Health Protection - Hemlock Woolly Adelgid. http://www.na.fs.fed.us/fhp/hwa/.

Hadley JL, Kuzeja PS, Daley MJ, Phillips NG, Mulcahy T, Singh S, 2008. Water use and carbon exchange of red oak- and eastern hemlock-dominated forests in the northeastern USA: implications for ecosystem-level effects of hemlock woolly adelgid. Tree Physiology [Regional forest responses to environmental change, a IUFRO travelling workshop held in New Hampshire, Massachusetts and New York, USA, 6-13 October 2006.], 28(4):615-627. http://heronpublishing.com

Havill NP, Foottit RG, 2007. Biology and evolution of Adelgidae. Annual Review of Entomology, 52:325-349. http://www.annualreviews.org

ISSG, 2011. Global Invasive Species Database (GISD). Invasive Species Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission. http://www.issg.org/database

Mausel DL, Driesche RGvan, Elkinton JS, 2011. Comparative cold tolerance and climate matching of coastal and inland Laricobius nigrinus (Coleoptera: Derodontidae), a biological control agent of hemlock woolly adelgid. Biological Control, 58(2):96-102. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1049964411000880

Mausel DL, Salom SM, Kok LT, Davis GA, 2010. Establishment of the hemlock woolly adelgid predator, Laricobius nigrinus (Coleoptera: Derodontidae), in the eastern United States. Environmental Entomology, 39(2):440-448. http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.1603/EN09088

Montgomery ME, Shiyake S, Havill NP, Leschen RAB, 2011. A new species of Laricobius (Coleoptera: Derodontidae) from Japan with phylogeny and a key for native and introduced congeners in North America. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 104(3):389-401. http://docserver.ingentaconnect.com/deliver/connect/esa/00138746/v104n3/s3.pdf?expires=1306550229&id=0000&titleid=10263&checksum=EA6B2DAAC72485321B2320ED40B7D3E9

NAPPO, 2013. Phytosanitary Alert System: Detection and eradication of hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae Annand) in Niagara Glen park, Ontario. Phytosanitary Alert System: Detection and eradication of hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae Annand) in Niagara Glen park, Ontario. NAPPO. http://www.pestalert.org/oprDetail.cfm?oprID=554

Nuckolls AE, Wurzburger N, Ford CR, Hendrick RL, Vose JM, Kloeppel BD, 2009. Hemlock declines rapidly with hemlock woolly adelgid infestation: impacts on the carbon cycle of Southern Appalachian forests. Ecosystems, 12(2):179-190. http://springerlink.metapress.com/content/6616693064u73306/fulltext.pdf

Orwig DA, Cobb RC, D'Amato AW, Kizlinski ML, Foster DR, 2008. Multi-year ecosystem response to hemlock woolly adelgid infestation in southern New England forests. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 38(4):834-843. http://cjfr.nrc.ca

Spaulding HL, Rieske LK, 2010. The aftermath of an invasion: structure and composition of Central Appalachian hemlock forests following establishment of the hemlock woolly adelgid, Adelges tsugae. Biological Invasions, 12(9):3135-3143. http://www.springerlink.com/content/r314k14r3v6268l2/

Trotter RT III, Shields KS, 2009. Variation in winter survival of the invasive hemlock woolly adelgid (Hemiptera: Adelgidae) across the eastern United States. Environmental Entomology, 38(3):577-587. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1603/022.038.0309

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1994. In: Shenandoah salamander (Plethodon shenandoah) Recovery Plan. US Fish and Wildlife Service, 36 pp..

USDA, 2012. Hemlock Woolly Adelgid. Release and Evaluation of Scymnus sinuanodulus. http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/disturbance/invasive_species/hwa/control_management/release_scymnus_sinuanodulus/.

Vieira LC, McAvoy TJ, Chantos J, Lamb AB, Salom SM, Kok LT, 2011. Host range of Laricobius osakensis (Coleoptera: Derodontidae), a new biological control agent of hemlock woolly adelgid (Hemiptera: Adelgidae). Environmental Entomology, 40(2):324-332. http://docserver.ingentaconnect.com/deliver/connect/esa/0046225x/v40n2/s16.pdf?expires=1303714478&id=0000&titleid=10265&checksum=79795E41E45F4DAE0DE93B3E5D746542

Zilahi-Balogh GMG, Kok LT, Salom SM, 2005. A predator case history: Laricobius nigrinus, a derodontid beetle introduced against the hemlock woolly adelgid. Second International Symposium on Biological Control of Arthropods, Davos, Switzerland, 12-16 September, 2005. Washington, USA: United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 651-664.

Distribution References

CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI

Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG), 2011. Global Invasive Species Database (GISD). In: Global Invasive Species Database (GISD), Auckland, New Zealand: University of Auckland. http://www.issg.org/database

IPPC, 2020. Detection of Hemlock Woolly Adelgid (Adelges tsugae) at the Harold Mitchell Nature Reserve in Wainfleet, Ontario. In: IPPC Official Pest Report, Rome, Italy: FAO. https://www.ippc.int/

NAPPO, 2013. Phytosanitary Alert System: Detection and eradication of hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae Annand) in Niagara Glen park, Ontario.,

Principal Source

Top of page

Global Invasive Species Database

Contributors

Top of page

Reviewed by: Gabriella (Riella) Zilahi-Balogh, PhD Entomologist/Entomologiste Programme Officer, Plant Health/agent de programme, protection des végétaux Canada

Principal sources:USDA Forest Service - Hemlock Woolly Adelgid website. Northeastern Area Forest Health Protection

Compiled by:

Last Modified: Friday, February 09, 2007

Distribution Maps

Top of page

You can pan and zoom the map

Save map

Unsupported Web Browser:

One or more of the features that are needed to show you the maps functionality are not available in the web browser that you are using.

Please consider upgrading your browser to the latest version or installing a new browser.

More information about modern web browsers can be found at http://browsehappy.com/

Datasheet

Adelges tsugae (hemlock woolly adelgid)

Toolbox