Lolium multiflorum
(Italian ryegrass)

Pictures

Top of page

Identity

Top of page

Preferred Scientific Name

• Lolium multiflorum Lam. (1779)

Preferred Common Name

• Italian ryegrass

Other Scientific Names

• Lolium italicum A. Braun

International Common Names

• English: annual ryegrass; westerwold ryegrass
• Spanish: ballico de Italia; raygras Italiano
• French: ivraie multiflore; ray-grass d'Italie
• Portuguese: azevem

Local Common Names

• Brazil: azevem-anual
• Germany: Italienisches Raygras; Welsches Weidelgras; Westerwoldisches Weidelgras
• Italy: loglio Italico; loietto Italico
• Japan: nezumimugi
• Netherlands: Italiaanse raaigras
• Sweden: Italienskt rajgraes

EPPO code

• LOLMU (Lolium multiflorum)

Summary of Invasiveness

Top of page L. multiflorum is a highly competitive and rapidly growing plant, capable of producing large quantities of seed. It is genetically diverse and displays a high degree of phenotypic plasticity and these characteristics mean that is highly adaptable. It can invade natural grassland and other plant communities that are subject to frequent disturbance.

Taxonomic Tree

Top of page

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Monocotyledonae
•                     Order: Cyperales
•                         Family: Poaceae
•                             Genus: Lolium
•                                 Species: Lolium multiflorum

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Top of page The taxonomy and nomenclature of Lolium multiflorum is complicated by the many known variants and forms; var. macrostachyum, var. microstachyum, forma longiaristatum, forma cristatum and forma viviparum were named and briefly described by Beddows (1973). L. multiflorum hybridizes freely with L. perenne (L. x hybridum), L. rigidum (L. x hubbardii), L. temulentum and L. remotum. The variability of this species, and its tendency to form tetraploids has resulted in the development of a number of tetraploid cultivars which are commercially available as high-yielding pasture grasses.

Description

Top of page An annual to biennial poaceous species. Leaf blades green to dark green, hairless, flat, upper surface evenly ribbed, lower surface smooth and shiny. Length up to 40 cm, width 5-12 mm. Young leaves are rolled in the bud. Auricles are small and narrow. Ligule is white, translucent, shorter than wide. Inflorescence is a spike up to 30 cm in length. The spikelets edge-on to the rachis. Rachis is recessed opposite each spikelet, which more or less fits into the recess. Spikelets consist of 10-20 florets, laterally flattened, green, 15-25 mm long. Only the ternimal spikelet has two more or less equal glumes. Otherwise, only one glume subtending each spikelet, lanceolate, about 10 mm long, less than half as long as the spikelet, outer surface fine-nerved, ribbed like the upper surface of the leaf blade. Lemma lanceolate, 5-8 mm long, five nerved. Awn nearly terminal, fine, straight, about 10 mm long. Palea similar to lemma in shape and size, two nerves with tiny hairs along them. Anthers three; yellow or purple.

Plant Type

Top of page Annual
Biennial
Grass / sedge
Seed propagated

Distribution

Top of page L. multiflorum is native to central and southern Europe, north-west Africa and south-west Asia (Hubbard, 1968). It has now spread, largely as a result of its cultivation as a pasture grass, to temperate regions of all continents. It is normally restricted to lowland habitats, but may grow at higher altitudes where drainage and nutrient status permit (Beddows, 1973), although it has not been recorded above 900 m.

Distribution Table

Top of page

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 10 Jan 2020

History of Introduction and Spread

Top of page L. multiflorum has been deliberately introduced into the temperate regions of North and South America, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand (Lamp et al., 1990) where it is valued as a highly productive and nutritious pasture species. In these areas it has rapidly and successfully spread to become a weed of annual crops, vineyards and orchards. It has also invaded natural grassland communities and is frequently found on waste and regularly disturbed ground.

Habitat

Top of page

L. multiflorum is able to invade a number of habitats, particularly where ground cover is discontinuous or where there is regular disturbance. It is grown as a forage species throughout its range and frequently occurs as a weed of arable land, or as an invasive species on waste ground, farm tracks and around farm buildings. It has also been reported as an invasive species on natural species-rich grassland and as a riparian weed species. It performs best in areas with relatively high rainfall and on fertile soils. Severe frost, drought, excessive moisture or infertile soils do not favour the establishment and development of L. multiflorum, and growth is best on soils ranging from pH 6 to 7, with 8 as maximum.

Habitat List

Top of page

Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial
	Terrestrial – Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
		Protected agriculture (e.g. glasshouse production)	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
		Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
		Disturbed areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
		Rail / roadsides	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
		Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
	Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural	Natural grasslands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Littoral
		Coastal areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)

Hosts/Species Affected

Top of page L. multiflorum is principally a weed of winter- and spring-sown cereals, and is also common in oilseed rape (Brassica napus var. napus), flax (Linum usitatissimum), vegetable crops and orchards. However, it has the potential to be a weed of any crop grown within its geographical range.

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

Top of page

Biology and Ecology

Top of page Genetics

The normal diploid chromosome number of L. multiflorum is 2n = 14 (Beddows, 1973). However, its tendency to form tetraploids has resulted in the development of a number of high-yielding commercial tetraploid varieties. Multiple introductions and the outcrossing breeding system of L. multiflorum mean that weedy populations can be highly genetically variable. L. multiflorum readily forms intrageneric hybrids with L. perenne, L. rigidum, L. temulentum and L. remotum. Bennett et al. (2002) used electrophoretic analysis of four enzyme systems to distinguish between Lolium species and suggested that plant breeding and agricultural practices were increasing hybridization between the species. Taxonomic evaluation of Italian populations of L. multiflorum (Dinelli et al., 2002) found a significant number (40-60%) of hybrid individuals in all populations. These were the result of intrageneric hybridization and of intergeneric hybridization with Festuca species. Lolium spp. are able to form hybrids with Festuca arundinacea and F. pratensis (Zeller, 1999; Morgan et al., 2001; Zare et al., 2002) and the potential for formation of these Festulolium hybrids is being used to combine valuable traits in commercial cultivars.

Life-Cycle and Growth Characteristics

The existence of a range of commercially produced cultivars of L. multiflorum makes generalizations about the species life-cycle and ecology difficult. It may complete its life-cycle as a summer annual, winter annual or biennial, and cultivars which persist for longer than two seasons have been developed. L. multiflorum cv. westerwolds is a strictly annual type.

L. multiflorum reproduces solely by seed. In arable soils in Italy, the peak emergence period was autumn (Covarelli and Peccetti, 1989). L. multiflorum grows vigorously in the seedling stage and exhibits good winter growth which continues into spring with some growth in the summer if sufficient moisture is available. It is a prolific seed producer and freshly disseminated seed exhibits little dormancy and high rates of germination. After 4 years burial in soil, initial germination of 93% had fallen to 3% (Lewis, 1958).

L. multiflorum is susceptible to freezing temperatures which cause rupturing of the cell walls (Beddows, 1973). The plants require an ample supply of water and are adversely affected by drought.

Associations

Many cultivars and populations of L. multiflorum have been shown to be associated in a symbiotic relationship with clavicipitaceous fungal endophytes from the genus Neotyphodium (Latch et al., 1987; Latch et al., 1988; Nelson and Read, 1990; Wilson et al., 1991). These endophytes modify the physiology, ecology and reproductive biology of infected plants (Clay, 1990). Germination rate and vegetative and reproductive biomass are all increased by this association (Latch et al., 1985; Clay, 1987; Reed, 1987).

L. multiflorum is host to a large number of pathogens which may also infect crop plants. Of particular note are Pythium arrhenomanes, which causes root rot disease of sugarcane (Dissanayake et al., 1997); Xylella fastidiosa, which causes leaf scald disease in plum trees (Leite et al., 1997); Xanthomonas campestris (Alizadeh et al., 1997); Polymyxa graminis (Adams and Jacquier, 1994); Barley yellow dwarf virus (Henry and Dedryver, 1991); Burkholderia glumae and B. plantarii, two important pathogens of rice (Miyagawa et al., 1988) and Rice gall dwarf virus (Morinaka, 1986).

Rainfall

Top of page

Rainfall Regime

Top of page Summer
Winter

Soil Tolerances

Top of page

Soil drainage

• free

Soil reaction

• alkaline
• neutral

Soil texture

• heavy
• light
• medium

Special soil tolerances

• saline

Natural enemies

Top of page

Notes on Natural Enemies

Top of page L. multiflorum is a food plant for a vast range of herbivores. The most widely reported and economically important of these are listed separately. During a survey, conducted between 1985 and 1989 in Jiangxi, China, 196 species were recorded feeding on L. multiflorum (Long et al., 1990). A large number of other pathogens and pests have been listed for L. multiflorum. These are listed below, but it should be noted that they have little potential for the biological control of weedy populations due to the widespread use of this species as a forage grass.

Plant Trade

Top of page

Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Bark
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx
Fruits (inc. pods)
Leaves
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches
Wood

Wood Packaging

Top of page

Impact Summary

Top of page

Impact

Top of page L. multiflorum is a vigorously competitive species and, as such, many attempts have been made to establish its yield-reducing potential in wheat. In field trials in the UK, densities of up to 200 plants/m² decreased wheat yields by between 12 and 15% (Drennan and Alshallash, 1996). Similar trials in North Carolina, USA, showed that over the density range of 0 to 100 plants/m², L. multiflorum reduced wheat grain yields by 4.2% for every 10 plants/m² (Liebl and Worsham, 1987). In Oregon, USA, wheat grain yield was reduced by 4100 kg/ha with an increase in the density of L. multiflorum from 0.7 to 93 plants/m² (Appleby et al., 1976). In Italy, Zanin et al. (1993) estimated that the economic threshold for the control of L. multiflorum with herbicides was between 25 and 35 plants/m². In trials in Chile, L. multiflorum densities of 10 plants/m² reduced wheat yield by between 1.3 and 1.6%. Every additional 10 plants/m² of L. multiflorum reduced wheat yield by 140-2000 kg/ha (Pedreros, 2001). Competition between a number of wheat varieties and L. multiflorum at a range of densities was assessed in Argentinean field trials. At 150 plants/m², L. multiflorum was more aggressive than wheat; however, differences in the competitive abilities of different wheat cultivars were significant up to 100 L. multiflorum plants/m² (Acciaresi et al., 2001).

Environmental Impact

Top of page L. multiflorum is known to be invasive in its natural and introduced ranges and can reduce the species richness and diversity of natural grasslands when these are regularly disturbed by grazing or cutting.

Threatened Species

Top of page

Risk and Impact Factors

Top of page Invasiveness

• Invasive in its native range
• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Highly adaptable to different environments
• Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
• Highly mobile locally
• Has high reproductive potential
• Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year

Impact outcomes

• Negatively impacts agriculture
• Reduced native biodiversity

Impact mechanisms

• Competition - monopolizing resources
• Competition - strangling
• Pest and disease transmission

Likelihood of entry/control

• Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
• Difficult/costly to control

Uses

Top of page L. multiflorum is grown world-wide as a highly productive and nutritious pasture grass. It may also be grown as a soil stabilizer to prevent or reduce soil erosion and as a species for revegetating burnt, degraded or contaminated landscapes.

Uses List

Top of page

Animal feed, fodder, forage

• Fodder/animal feed
• Forage

Environmental

• Erosion control or dune stabilization
• Revegetation
• Soil improvement

General

• Ornamental

Materials

• Poisonous to mammals

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

Top of page L. multiflorum may be easily confused with other members of the genus. Glume usually as long as the spikelet. Species are most easily distinguished on the basis of floral structure.

Lolium temulentum has lemmas which are ovate to elliptic and less than three times as long as wide, the caryopsis is also less than three times as long as wide. In other Lolium spp. these structures are more than three times as long as wide.

Lolium perenne is a perennial species which has tillers at flowering and fruiting time and lemmas which are usually unawned.

Lolium rigidum is an annual species, very similar to L. multiflorum, without tillers at flowering, with (usually) unawned lemmas (awned in L. multiflorum) and spikelets with usually less than 11 florets (L. multiflorum usually has more than 11 florets).

Prevention and Control

Top of page

Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Cultural Control

Control of established plants by mechanical or hand weeding will only be effective if complete removal from the soil is achieved, preventing subsequent regrowth. This is generally impractical, although cultivation is able to successfully control small and recently emerged seedlings. In competition experiments between wheat and L. multiflorum, the yield of wheat was increased at higher N fertilizer rates, and when crop density was increased (Angonin and Caussanel, 1992). Cross-sowing of wheat is not an effective means of controlling L. multiflorum (Appleby and Brewster, 1992).

Chemical Control

In trials in Argentina, pre-emergence applications of trifluralin gave effective control of L. multiflorum, and resulted in increased yield of barley (Scursoni and Satorre, 1997). Clodinafop is recommended for the control of Italian ryegrass up to the three tiller stage (Strachan, 1995) and, in trials in Chile, gave good control of a range of annual grass weeds including L. multiflorum only when sprayed at an early growth stage (Ormeno and Diaz, 1995). Oxyfluorfen applied to broccoli crops in autumn gave 69-97% control in the USA (Eaton et al., 1990). Post-emergence application of metribuzin at the two leaf stage gave good control of L. multiflorum in wheat in Mississippi, USA (Shaw and Wesley, 1991). In South Africa, 80% control was achieved using triasulfuron in wheat and barley (van Biljon et al., 1988). Propyzamide (Purea and Sutton, 1989), fluazifop (Bonanno and Monaco, 1986), chlorsulfuron applied pre-emergence in wheat (Griffin, 1986) and haloxyfop-ethoxyethyl (Visbecq and Morel, 1983) have all been used successfully to control L. multiflorum. Mamarot and Rodriguez (1997) give recommendations for herbicide use against Lolium spp. in a range of crops, for example, EPTC and atrazine in maize; carbetamide in legumes, rape and sunflower; monolinuron in potato; and a wide range of herbicides related to sethoxydim and fluazifop in broad-leaved crops. In Australia, glyphosate and/or paraquat-based herbicides are used for control of Lolium spp. prior to crop sowing (Neve et al., 2003).

Compounds and extracts from a number of plants have been shown to have allelopathic effects against L. multiflorum, though there are no reports of these being used on a commercial scale. Dry foliage extracts from leaves of Rhazya stricta collected in Saudi Arabia inhibited the germination and growth of L. multiflorum (Al-Mutlaq, 2001). Extracts from medium-grain fatty rice bran resulted in 30-96% stand reduction of L. multiflorum (Kuk et al., 2001). The n-hexane-, acetone- and water-soluble fractions from an aqueous acetone extract of lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) inhibited the germination and growth of L. multiflorum shoots and roots (Kato-Noguchi, 2001). Germination and shoot and root growth may also be inihibited by extracts from Evolvulus alsinoides (Kato-Noguchi, 2000). Seed germination of L. multiflorum has been shown to be reduced by aqueous extracts of Tribulus terrestris (Verdú et al., 1999).

Herbicide Resistance

Biotypes of L. multiflorum with evolved resistance to herbicides have been reported in Brazil, Chile, France, Italy, the UK and USA (Heap, 2003). In the UK, seeds were collected from fields in which diclofop-methyl had failed to control the grass. Glasshouse trials were performed on these accessions to determine their susceptibility to various herbicide treatments. Resistance to diclofop-methyl, fenoxaprop and fluazifop was detected, with some evidence of resistance to traloxydim and partial resistance to isoproturon (Moss et al., 1993). Diclofop resistance has also been reported in biotypes from wheat fields in Oregon, USA (Stanger and Appleby, 1989; Gronwald et al., 1992). These biotypes were susceptible to pre-emergence tri-allate + diuron or post-emergent applications of metribuzin and these have been recommended as alternatives for the control of L. multiflorum. Sulfometuron-resistant biotypes have been reported in Mississippi, USA (Taylor and Coats, 1996).

Detailed studies of four resistant L. multiflorum populations in the UK identified resistance to diclofop-methyl, fluazifop-P-butyl, tralkoxydim and partial resistance to isoproturon (Cocker et al., 2001). In three of the populations, resistance was conferred by an enhanced rate of herbicide metabolism. A fourth population possessed an insensitive ACCase target site. An L. multiflorum biotype resistant to diclofop-methyl was investigated in France. It showed intermediate resistance to tralkoxydim and a small increase in tolerance to haloxyfop-methyl, quizalofop-ethyl, sethoxydim and cycloxydim (Prado et al., 2000). Such patterns of cross-resistance are not uncommon in L. multiflorum and other grass weeds.

Of greater concern is the recent confirmation of evolved resistance to glyphosate in an L. multiflorum biotype from a Chilean orchard (Perez and Kogan, 2003).

Biological Control

The potential for biological control of L. multiflorum as a weed has not been investigated due to the economic importance of this species as a forage grass.

References

Top of page

Acciaresi HA, Chidichimo HO, Sarand=n SJ, 2001. Traits related to competitive ability of wheat (Triticum aestivum) varieties against Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum). Biological Agriculture & Horticulture, 19(3):275-286; 32 ref.

Adams MJ, Jacquier C, 1994. Infection of cereals and grasses by isolates of Polymyxa graminis (Plasmodiophorales). Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society, 48(4):386-388.

Alizadeh A, Arlat M, Sarrafi A, Boucher CA, Barrault G, 1997. Restriction fragment length polymorphism analyses of Iranian strains of Xanthomonas campestris from cereals and grasses. Plant Disease, 81(1):31-35; 26 ref.

Al-Mutlaq KF, 2001. Herbicidal activity of Rhazya stricta. Assiut Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 32(3):169-174; 14 ref.

Angonin C, Caussanel JP, 1992. Effect of the density of two weed species (Poa annua L. and Lolium multiflorum Lam.) on the yield of spring wheat (Triticum aestivum cv. Ventura) in terms of the level of fertilization. IXe Colloque international sur la biologie des mauvaises herbes, 16-18 September 1992, Dijon, France. Paris, France: ANPP, 315-325.

Appleby AP, Brewster BD, 1992. Seeding arrangement on winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) grain yield and interaction with Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum). Weed Technology, 6(4):820-823.

Appleby AP, Olson PD, Colbert DR, 1976. Winter wheat yield reduction from interference by Italian ryegrass. Agronomy Journal, 68(3):463-466.

Beddows AR, 1973. Biological flora of the British Isles, Lolium multiflorum. Journal of Ecology, 55:567-587.

Bennett SJ, Hayward MD, Marshall DF, 2002. Electrophoretic variation as a measure of species differentiation between four species of the genus Lolium. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, 49(1):59-66.

Biljon JJ van, Hugo KJ, Iwanzik W, 1988. Triasulfuron: a new broadleaf herbicide in wheat and barley. Applied Plant Science, 2(2):49-52.

Bonanno AR, Monaco TJ, 1986. Response of several grass species to sethoxydim and fluazifop in potato (Solanum tuberosum). Proceedings, Southern Weed Science Society, 39th annual meeting, 171.

Chaudhary SA, Parker C, Kasasian L, 1981. Weeds of Central, Southern and Eastern Arabian Peninsula. Tropical Pest Management, 27(2):181-190.

Clay K, 1987. Effects of fungal endophytes on the seed and seedling biology of Lolium perenne and Festuca arundinacea. Oecologia, 73(3):358-362

Clay K, 1990. Fungal endophytes of grasses. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 21:275-295.

Cocker KM, Northcroft DS, Coleman JOD, Moss SR, 2001. Resistance to ACCase-inhibiting herbicides and isoproturon in UK populations of Lolium multiflorum: mechanisms of resistance and implications for control. Pest Management Science, 57(7):587-597; 30 ref.

Covarelli G, Peccetti G, 1989. Timing of the emergence of the main weed species of central Italy. Informatore Agrario, 45(16):99-103.

Dinelli G, Bonetti A, Lucchese C, Catizone P, Bravin F, Zanin G, 2002. Taxonomic evaluation of Italian populations of Lolium spp. resistant and susceptible to diclofop-methyl. Weed Research (Oxford), 42(2):156-165; 40 ref.

Dissanayake N, Hoy JW, Griffin JL, 1997. Weed hosts of the sugarcane root rot pathogen, Pythium arrhenomanes. Plant Disease, 81(6):587-591; 14 ref.

Drennan DSH, Alshallash KS, 1996. Plant density effects on competition between spring wheat and Lolium multiflorum. Seizie^grave~me confe^acute~rence du COLUMA. Journe^acute~es internationales sur la lutte contre les mauvaises herbes, Reims, France, 6-8 de^acute~cembre 1995. Tome 1., 331-335; 5 ref.

Eaton W, Coffey DL, Mullins CA, Rhodes GNJr, 1990. Weed control with oxyfluorfen in transplanted broccoli. Tennessee Farm and Home Science, No. 154:17-21.

Ferrero A, Maggiore T, 1992. Dissemination of weeds by irrigation. Mededelingen van de Faculteit Landbouwwetenschappen, Universiteit Gent, 57(3b):1093-1098.

Fröman B, Persson S, 1974. An Illustrated Guide to the Grasses of Ethiopia. Assella, Ehiopia: Chilalo Awraja Development Unit.

Griffin JL, 1986. Ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) control in winter wheat (Triticum aestivum). Weed Science, 34(1):98-100.

Gronwald JW, Betts KC, Ehlke NJ, Wyse DL, 1992. Diclofop-resistance in a Lolium multiflorum biotype from Oregon. Proceedings of the 1st International Weed Control Congress Melbourne, Australia: Weed Science Society of Victoria, Vol. 2:189-191.

Heap I, 2003. The International Survey of Herbicide Resistant Weeds. http://www.weedscience.com.

Henry M, Dedryver CA, 1991. Occurrence of barley yellow dwarf virus in pastures of western France. Plant Pathology, 40(1):93-99.

Holm LG, Pancho JV, Herberger JP, Plucknett DL, 1991. A Geographic Atlas of World Weeds. Malabar, Florida, USA: Krieger Publishing Company.

Huang WH, Yang SR, Wang HZ, Yu YJ, 1992. Rejuvenation of sown pastures in southern China. Grassland of China, 1:22-26.

Hubbard CE, 1968. Grasses. 2nd Edition. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin Books.

Humphries CJ, 1980. 5. Lolium L. In: Tutin TG, Heywood VH, Burges NA, Moore DM, Valentine DH, Walters SM, Webb DA, 1980. Flora Europaea, Volume 5. Alimataceae to Orchidaceae Monocotyledones. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 153-154.

Kato-Noguchi H, 2000. Assessment of the allelopathic potential of extracts of Evolvulus alsinoides. Weed Research (Oxford), 40(4):343-350; 24 ref.

Kato-Noguchi H, 2001. Effects of lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.) extract on germination and seedling growth of six plants. Acta Physiologiae Plantarum, 23(1):49-53; 20 ref.

Kuk YongIn, Burgos NR, Talbert RE, 2001. Evaluation of rice by-products for weed control. Weed Science, 49(1):141-147; 30 ref.

Lamp CA, Forbes SJ, Cade JW, 1990. Grasses of temperate Australia. A field guide. Melbourne, Australia; Inkata Press, ix + 310pp.

Latch GCM, Christensen MJ, Hickson RE, 1988. Endophytes of annual and hybrid ryegrasses. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, 31(1):57-63

Latch GCM, Hunt WF, Musgrave DR, 1985. Endophytic fungi affect growth of perennial ryegrass. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, 28(1):165-168

Latch GCM, Potter LR, Tyler BF, 1987. Incidence of endophytes in seeds from collections of Lolium and Festuca species. Annals of Applied Biology, 111(1):59-64

Lazarides M, Cowley K, Hohnen P, 1997. CSIRO handbook of Australian weeds. CSIRO handbook of Australian weeds., vii + 264 pp.

Leite RMVBC, Leite J·nior RP, Ceresini PC, 1997. Alternative hosts of Xylella fastidiosa in plum orchards with leaf scald disease. Fitopatologia Brasileira, 22(1):54-57; 16 ref.

Lewis J, 1958. Longevity of crop and weed seeds. 1. First Interim Report. Proceedings of the International Seed Testing Association, 23:340-354.

Liebl R, Worsham AD, 1987. Interference of Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) in wheat (Triticum aestivum). Weed Science, 35(6):819-823

Long QL, Ye ZX, Peng ZP, Wang DD, 1990. Catalogue of pests on cultivated grass in Jiangxi. Acta Agriculturae Universitatis Jiangxiensis, 12(2):47-60.

Lorenzi H, 1982. Weeds of Brazil, terrestrial and aquatic, parasitic, poisonous and medicinal. (Plantas daninhas de Brasil, terrestres, aquaticas, parasitas, toxicas e medicinais.) Nova Odessa, Brazil: H. Lorenzi, 425 pp.

Lorenzi HJ, Jeffery LS(Editors), 1987. Weeds of the United States and their control. New York, USA; Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Ltd., 355 pp.

Mamarot J, Rodriguez A, 1997. Sensibilité des Mauvaises Herbes aux Herbicides. 4th edition. Paris, France: Association de Coordination Technique Agricole.

Mathiassen SK, Jensen PK, Kudsk P, Larsen TK, 1993. Possibilities for improving the foliar activity of isoproturon. Brighton crop protection conference, weeds. Proceedings of an international conference, Brighton, UK, 22-25 November 1993 Farnham, UK: British Crop Protection Council (BCPC), Vol. 2:585-590.

Miyagawa H, Ozaki K, Kimura T, 1988. Pathogenicity of Pseudomonas glumae and P. plantarii to the ears and leaves of graminaceous plants. Bulletin of the Chugoku National Agricultural Experiment Station, No. 3:31-43; 17 ref.

Morgan WG, King IP, Koch S, Harper JA, Thomas HM, 2001. Introgression of chromosomes of Festuca arundinacea var. glaucescens into lolium multiflorum revealed by genomic in situ hybridization (GISH). Theoretical and Applied Genetics, 103:696-701.

Morinaka T, 1986. Transmission and some properties of rice gall dwarf virus. International symposium on virus diseases of rice and leguminous crops in the tropics Yatabe, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan; Tropical Agriculture Research Centre, 154-159.

Moss SR, Horswell J, Froud-Williams RJ, Ndoping MM, 1993. Implications of herbicide resistant Lolium multiflorum (Italian rye-grass). Aspects of Applied Biology, No. 35:53-60.

Nelson LR, Read JC, 1990. Fungal endophyte infection in Italian annual ryegrass. Plant Disease, 74(2):183

Neve P, Diggle AJ, Smith FP, Powles SB, 2003. Simulating evolution of glyphosate resistance in Lolium rigidum II: past, present and future glyphosate use. Weed Research, 43:418-428.

Niggli U, Nosberger J, Lehmann J, 1993. Effects of nitrogen fertilization and cutting frequency on the competitive ability and the regrowth capacity of Rumex obtusifolius L. in several grass swards. Weed Research (Oxford), 33(2):131-137.

Niinomi Y, Ikeda M, Yamashita M, Ishida Y, Asai M, Shimono Y, Tominaga T, Sawada H, 2013. Glyphosate-resistant Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) on rice paddy levees in Japan. Weed Biology and Management, 13(1):31-38. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/wbm.12007/abstract

Ormeno N, Dfaz SJ, 1995. Clodinafop, a new herbicide for the selective control of grass weeds in wheat. I. Control efficacy on wild oats (Avena fatua), annual ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum), dogtailgrass (Cynosurus echinatus), and bulbous oatgrass (Arrhenatherum elatius spp. bulbosum). Agricultura Te^acute~cnica (Santiago), 55(2):106-117; 12 ref.

Pedreros LA, 2001. Wild oat (Avena fatua L.) and Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lam.) effect on wheat yield at two locations. Agricultura Te^acute~cnica, 61(3):294-305; 13 ref.

Perez A, Kogan M, 2003. Glyphosate-resistant Lolium multiflorum in Chilean orchards. Weed Research (Oxford), 43(1):12-19; 26 ref.

Prado de R, Gonzalez-Guttierez J, Menendez J, Gasquez J, Gronwald JW, Gimenez-Espinosa R, 2000. Resistance to acetyl CoA carboxylase-inihibiting herbicides in Lolium multiflorum. Weed Science, 48:311-318.

Purea M, Sutton BG, 1989. Application of propyzamide (Kerb) to lettuce via trickle irrigation. Acta Horticulturae, 247:257-261.

Reed KFM, 1987. Perennial ryegrass in Victoria and the significance of the ryegrass endophyte. In: Proceedings Symposium on Perennial Ryegrass Without Staggers, Victoria, Australia, 1-7.

Scursoni JA, Satorre EH, 1997. The effect of trifluralin applied preplant on grass weed control and establishment and yield of barley (Hordeum vulgare). Weed Technology, 11(3):515-519; 17 ref.

Shaw DR, Wesley MT, 1991. Wheat (Triticum aestivum) cultivar tolerance and Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) control with diclofop, BAY SMY 1500 and metribuzin. Weed Technology, 5(4):776-781.

Stanger CE, Appleby AP, 1989. Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) accessions tolerant to diclofop. Weed Science, 37(3):350-353.

Strachan P, 1995. Topik - a new graminicide for cereals. Morley Bulletin, 97:1-2.

Takabayashi M, Kubota T, Abe H, 1979. Dissemination of weed seeds through cow fpces. JARQ [Japan Agricultural Research Quarterly], 13(3):204-207.

Taylor JM, Coats GE, 1996. Identification of sulfometuron-resistant Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) selections. Weed Technology, 10(4):943-946; 11 ref.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008. In: Greene's tuctoria (Tuctoria greenei). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. US Fish and Wildlife Service, 25 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008. In: Showy Indian Clover (Trifolium amoenum). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. US Fish and Wildlife Service, 12 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009. In: Callippe Silverspot Butterfly (Speyeria callippe callippe). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. US Fish and Wildlife Service, 29 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009. In: Solano Grass (Orcuttia mucronata = Tuctoria mucronata). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. US Fish and Wildlife Service, 28 pp.

USDA-ARS, 2004. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx

Verd· AM, Mas MT, Almirall A, 1999. Allelopathic effects of Tribulus terrestris. SEMh Congreso 1999: Sociedad Espan^tilde~ola de Malherbologi^acute~a, Actas, Logron^tilde~o, Spain, 23-25 Noviembre 1999., 241-245; 6 ref.

Visbecq O, Morel JL, 1983. Trials for post-emergence grass control in sugarbeet using haloxyfop-ethoxyethyl. Compte rendu de la 12e conference du COLUMA. Tome II Paris, France: Comite Francais de Lutte Contre les Mauvaises Herbes, 175-182.

Wang ZR, ed. , 1980. Farmland Weeds of China. Beijing, China: Agricultural Publishing House.

Wilson AD, Clement SL, Kaiser WJ, 1991. Survey and detection of endophytic fungi in Lolium germ plasm by direct staining and aphid assays. Plant Disease, 75(2):169-173

Zanin G, Berti A, Toniolo L, 1993. Estimation of economic thresholds for weed control in winter wheat. Weed Research (Oxford), 33(6):459-467.

Zare AG, Humphreys MW, Rogers JW, Mortimer AM, Collin HA, 2002. Androgenesis in a Lolium multiflorum x Festuca arundinacea hybrid. Euphytica, 125: 1-11.

Zeller FJ, 1999. Gene transfer with the aid of genome and chromosome manipulations between Festuca and Lolium species. Angewandte Botanik, 73(1/2):43-49; 80 ref.

Zorilla RA, Davide RG, 1983. Host range, development and survival of the potato cyst nematode, Globodera rostochiensis, Woll., on potato in the Philippines. Philippine Agriculturalist, 66(4):439-447.

Distribution References

Anon, 1987. Weeds of the United States and their control. [ed. by Lorenzi H J, Jeffery L S]. New York, USA: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Ltd. 355 pp.

CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI

Chaudhary S A, Parker C, Kasasian L, 1981. Weeds of central, southern and eastern Arabian Peninsula. Tropical Pest Management. 27 (2), 181-190.

Froman B, Persson S, 1974. An illustrated guide to the grasses of Ethiopia. In: An illustrated guide to the grasses of Ethiopia. Asella, Ethiopia: Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit. 504pp.

Henry M, Dedryver C A, 1991. Occurrence of barley yellow dwarf virus in pastures of western France. Plant Pathology. 40 (1), 93-99. DOI:10.1111/j.1365-3059.1991.tb02297.x

Holm L G, Pancho J V, Herberger J P, Plucknett D L, 1991. A geographic atlas of world weeds. Malabar, Florida, USA: Krieger Publishing Co. 391 pp.

Huang W H, Yang S R, Wang H Z, Yu Y J, 1992. Rejuvenation of sown pastures in southern China. Grassland of China. 22-26.

Humphries CJ, 1980. Lolium L. In: Flora Europaea, Volume 5. Alimataceae to Orchidaceae Monocotyledones, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 153-154.

Lazarides M, Cowley K, Hohnen P, 1997. CSIRO handbook of Australian weeds. Collingwood, Vic. Australia: CSIRO Publishing. vii + 264 pp.

Long Q L, Ye Z X, Peng Z P, Wang D D, 1990. Catalogue of pests on cultivated grass in Jiangxi. Acta Agriculturae Universitatis Jiangxiensis. 12 (2), 47-60.

Lorenzi H, 1982. Plantas daninhas de Brasil, terrestres, aquaticas, parasitas, toxicas e medicinais. Nova Odessa, Brazil: H. Lorenzi. 425 pp.

Mathiassen S K, Jensen P K, Kudsk P, Larsen T K, 1993. Possibilities for improving the foliar activity of isoproturon. In: Brighton crop protection conference, weeds. Proceedings of an international conference, Brighton, UK, 22-25 November 1993. [Brighton crop protection conference, weeds. Proceedings of an international conference, Brighton, UK, 22-25 November 1993.], Farnham, UK: British Crop Protection Council (BCPC). 585-590.

Niggli U, Nösberger J, Lehmann J, 1993. Effects of nitrogen fertilization and cutting frequency on the competitive ability and the regrowth capacity of Rumex obtusifolius L. in several grass swards. Weed Research (Oxford). 33 (2), 131-137. DOI:10.1111/j.1365-3180.1993.tb01926.x

Niinomi Y, Ikeda M, Yamashita M, Ishida Y, Asai M, Shimono Y, Tominaga T, Sawada H, 2013. Glyphosate-resistant Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) on rice paddy levees in Japan. Weed Biology and Management. 13 (1), 31-38. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/wbm.12007/abstract DOI:10.1111/wbm.12007

USDA-ARS, 2004. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx

Zorilla R A, Davide R G, 1983. Host range, development and survival of the potato cyst nematode, Globodera rostochiensis, Woll., on potato in the Philippines. Philippine Agriculturist. 66 (4), 439-447.

Links to Websites

Top of page

Distribution Maps

Top of page