Limnocharis flava (yellow bur-head)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Growth Stages
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Soil Tolerances
- Water Tolerances
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Plant Trade
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Generate reportPictures
Top of page| Picture | Title | Caption | Copyright |
|---|---|---|---|
| Flower | Close-up of L. flava flower. | Azmi B. Man | |
| Flowers | Flowers and fruits of L. flava. | Azmi B. Man | |
| Habit | L. flava, habit. | Azmi B. Man | |
| Line artwork | a. stamens; b. staminode; c. compound ovary; d. compound fruit of many follicles (fruitlets); e. follicle; f. seed. | SEAMEO-BIOTROP |
Identity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau
Preferred Common Name
- yellow bur-head
Other Scientific Names
- Alisma flava L.
- Damasonium flavum (L.) Mill. Gard.
- Limnocharis emarginata Humb. et Bonpl.
- Limnocharis laforesti Duchas. Ex Griseb
- Limnocharis mattogrossensis O. Ktze.
- Limnocharis plumieri Rich., Mem.
International Common Names
- English: hermit's waterlily; sawah lettuce; velvet leaf; yellow sawah lettuce; yellow velvetleaf
- Spanish: cebolla de chucho
- French: buchon
Local Common Names
- Bangladesh: kalmi; kengkong
- Brazil: barata
- Cambodia: Trakiet
- India: Manja payal
- Indonesia: bangeng; eceng; Enceng, Berek, Gunda; genjer
- Japan: Kibana omodaka
- Laos: kaanz choong
- Malaysia: jinjir; Paka Rawan; paku rawan
- Malaysia/Sarawak: emparuk
- Thailand: Bon cheen, Taalapat ruesee; bonchin; nangkwak; talapatrusi
- Vietnam: k[ef]o n[ef]o; n[ee] th[ar]o
EPPO code
- LMNFL (Limnocharis flava)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageL. flava, commonly known as yellow bur head, is a perennial broad-leaved weed which behaves as an annual in certain habitats. It spreads throughout South-East Asia especially in rice crops, and also in South America and the USA. It prefers wet conditions such as lowland rice fields, shallow canals and ditches and reproduces both by seed and vegetatively. Heavy infestations of L. flava indicate a fertile soil. The effectiveness of drainage ditches and irrigation channels can be reduced through siltation caused by blockages of L. flava leaves and roots. Young leaves, petioles and flower stalks can be eaten as vegetables. Whole plants are used as fodder for pigs, cattle or fish and plant residues can be also be used for feed and as green manure. L. flava can be controlled by chemical such as 2,4-D herbicides and sulfonyl urea products such as bensulfuron and bensulfuron/metsulfuron. Bentazon/MCPA can be used to control multiple resistant biotype of L. flava.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Monocotyledonae
- Order: Hydrocharitales
- Family: Limnocharitaceae
- Genus: Limnocharis
- Species: Limnocharis flava
Description
Top of page L. flava is a perennial, robust, erect, lactiferous, marsh herb, 20-100 cm tall, rooting in mud and strongly tillering. Leaves basal, rosulate, glabrous, long-petioled, orbicular or ovate, 5-30 x 4-25 cm, entire, yellowish-green, curvinerved, transversely latticed-veined, underneath at apex with a purple-rimmed water pore, folded lengthwise in bud; with numerous air chambers, 5-75 cm long. Inflorescence axillary, long-peduncled, umbelliform, glabrous, 5-15-flowered, erect, recurved after fruiting until it reaches the water or mud; peduncles 10-90 cm long. Flowers rather large, in the axils of membranous bracts; pedicels 3-7 cm long; sepal 3, enlarged and clasping the fruit after anthesis, yellow-green, ovate-elliptic, 7-25 x 5-15 mm; petals 3, pale yellow, obovate, very thin, 1.5-3 x 0.7 x 2 cm, becoming a slimy mass after anthesis; apex rounded, base darker coloured. Stamens more than 15, surrounded by a whorl of staminodes. Ovaries numerous in one whorl, superior, laterally much compressed, simulating a single, deeply incised ovary; stigmas narrowly linear, sessile. Compound fruit 1.5-2 cm in diameter, enclosed by the sepals. Seeds numerous, minute, horseshoe-shaped, dark brown, 1-15 mm long, testa spongy with thin tranverse ridges.Distribution
Top of pageL. flava is spread throughout South-East Asia (Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, South Myanmar, Sri Lanka, India and Vietnam), especially in rice-growing areas, and in South America and the USA. It has recently been reported in northern Queensland, Australia, where it is the target of an eradication campaign (Waterhouse et al., 2003).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Jan 2020History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageL. flava is native to tropical and subtropical America (i.e. northwestern Mexico, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Cuba, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Windward Islands, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, West Indies, Peru and Brazil) and has been introduced to southern USA and parts of Asia. Abhilash et al. (2008) report that the earliest record of its introduction to Asia is as an ornamental in the Botanic Garders, Bogor, Indonesia in 1866, and that by 1870 it was mentioned as 'a newly introduced alien' on the banks of the river flowing through the Botanic Gardens. It now occurs throughout Indonesia and the rest of South-East Asia. Abhilash et al. (2008) describe its spread in Asia. In Sri Lanka it was introduced as an ornamental in 1998 and subsequently became naturalized and a serious weed in rice fields.
Habitat
Top of pageL. flava is a perennial herb that prefers wet conditions such as lowland ricefields, and shallow waters in canals, swamps, pools and ditches. In Kerala, India, the weed density decreases as water depth increases, as L. flava is a rooted emergent preferring shallow water bodies and marshy areas (Abhilash et al., 2008). Abandoned paddy fields and reclaimed coconut fields with marshy areas are the main habitat in Kerala. The soil is generally fertile in areas where the weed occurs.
Habitat List
Top of page| Category | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Terrestrial | ||||
| Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | ||
| Protected agriculture (e.g. glasshouse production) | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
| Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | |||
| Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
| Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
| Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | |||
| Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | |||
| Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
| Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | ||
| Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
| Riverbanks | Present, no further details | |||
| Wetlands | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
| Littoral | ||||
| Coastal areas | Present, no further details | |||
| Marine | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
| Freshwater | ||||
| Present, no further details | ||||
| Irrigation channels | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
| Lakes | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
| Reservoirs | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
| Rivers / streams | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
| Ponds | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
| Brackish | ||||
| Estuaries | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of page In South and South-East Asia, L. flava is a serious weed in ricefields, where it thrives on the fertilizers applied for crop (rice) growth and multiplies rapidly.Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of page| Plant name | Family | Context |
|---|---|---|
| Oryza sativa (rice) | Poaceae | Other |
Growth Stages
Top of page Flowering stage, Fruiting stage, Seedling stage, Vegetative growing stageBiology and Ecology
Top of pageL. flava is perennial but behaves as an annual in certain habitats. It reproduces by seed and vegetatively (by stolons). It is hydrochorous, and is a prolific seed-producing plant, with individual plants capable of yielding up to 1,000,000 seeds per year. The mechanism of seed dispersal is discussed in Nayar and Sworupanandan (1978).
L. flava flowers the whole year round. The flowers open in the morning and close after a few hours. There is no record of any pollinating agent. After anthesis, the sepals enlarge and surround the fruit whereas the petals become a slimy mass. When ripe, the fruit carpels fall into the water where they release the seeds, which sink to the bottom. The downturned inflorescence which rests on the water surface often produces a new plant (van den Bergh, 1993).
Climate
Top of page| Climate | Status | Description | Remark |
|---|---|---|---|
| A - Tropical/Megathermal climate | Preferred | Average temp. of coolest month > 18°C, > 1500mm precipitation annually | |
| Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
| Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
| C - Temperate/Mesothermal climate | Tolerated | Average temp. of coldest month > 0°C and < 18°C, mean warmest month > 10°C |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of page| Latitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1300 |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- seasonally waterlogged
Soil reaction
- acid
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
Water Tolerances
Top of page| Parameter | Minimum Value | Maximum Value | Typical Value | Status | Life Stage | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Water pH (pH) | 4 | 6 | Optimum | |||
| Water temperature (ºC temperature) | 25 | 30 | Optimum | 30-35 tolerated |
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageL. flavus produces large numbers of seeds, with a single plant capable of producing over 1,000,000 seeds a year. The fruitlets are carried by water, floating to new locations and dispersing seeds along the way. Seeds are also carried with the mud sticking to the feet of birds, by man and agricultural implements (Kotalawala, 1976), or with cereals from an infested field transported to an uninfected area.
Pathway Causes
Top of page| Cause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Botanical gardens and zoos | Yes | |||
| Crop production | Yes | |||
| Digestion and excretion | Yes | |||
| Flooding and other natural disasters | Yes | |||
| Food | Yes | |||
| Forage | Yes | |||
| Landscape improvement | Yes | |||
| Medicinal use | Yes | |||
| Nursery trade | Yes | |||
| Ornamental purposes | Yes | |||
| Pet trade | Yes | |||
| Research | Yes | |||
| Seed trade | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
Top of page| Vector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Containers and packaging - wood | Yes | |||
| Floating vegetation and debris | Yes | |||
| Germplasm | Yes | |||
| Host and vector organisms | Yes | |||
| Land vehicles | Yes | |||
| Livestock | Yes | |||
| Pets and aquarium species | Yes | |||
| Plants or parts of plants | Yes | |||
| Soil, sand and gravel | Yes | |||
| Water | Yes | |||
| Wind | Yes |
Plant Trade
Top of page| Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport |
|---|
| Bark |
| Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes |
| Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx |
| Fruits (inc. pods) |
| Growing medium accompanying plants |
| Leaves |
| Roots |
| Seedlings/Micropropagated plants |
| Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches |
| True seeds (inc. grain) |
| Wood |
Impact Summary
Top of page| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Animal/plant collections | Positive |
| Animal/plant products | Negative |
| Biodiversity (generally) | Positive |
| Crop production | Negative |
| Environment (generally) | Negative |
| Fisheries / aquaculture | Positive |
| Forestry production | Negative |
| Human health | Positive |
| Livestock production | Positive |
| Native fauna | Positive |
| Native flora | Positive |
| Rare/protected species | Negative |
| Tourism | Positive |
| Trade/international relations | Negative |
| Transport/travel | Negative |
Economic Impact
Top of pageL. flava chokes irrigation and drainage channels, promotes silting, and reduces water discharge capacity (Kotalawala, 1976). The effectiveness of drainage ditches and irrigation channels can be reduced through siltation caused by blockage of water flow by L. flava leaves and root systems. In some situations, infestations of the weed are so severe that they have forced the abandonment of ricefields.
Environmental Impact
Top of pageImpact on Habitats
If allowed to grow unchecked, L. flava may become a very invasive weed of streams and wetlands. L. flava colonizes shallow wetlands and the margins of deeper waterways, where it can quickly grow to dominate native aquatic plants. The natural ecological balance may thus be altered to seriously impact native water-dwelling creatures.
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page Invasiveness- Invasive in its native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Tolerant of shade
- Highly mobile locally
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Gregarious
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Reproduces asexually
- Damaged ecosystem services
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Host damage
- Increases vulnerability to invasions
- Infrastructure damage
- Modification of hydrology
- Modification of successional patterns
- Monoculture formation
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Negatively impacts cultural/traditional practices
- Negatively impacts human health
- Negatively impacts livelihoods
- Negatively impacts aquaculture/fisheries
- Negatively impacts tourism
- Reduced amenity values
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Soil accretion
- Threat to/ loss of endangered species
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Transportation disruption
- Causes allergic responses
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - shading
- Competition - smothering
- Competition - strangling
- Pest and disease transmission
- Filtration
- Fouling
- Herbivory/grazing/browsing
- Induces hypersensitivity
- Interaction with other invasive species
- Parasitism (incl. parasitoid)
- Pathogenic
- Rapid growth
- Rooting
- Trampling
- Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
- Highly likely to be transported internationally illegally
- Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
- Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Top of pageHeavy infestations of L. flava indicate a fertile soil. Young leaves, petioles and flower stalks are eaten as a vegetable in Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam and Bangladesh. Whole plants are given as fodder to pigs, cattle or fish and plant residues can be used for feed and as green manure. Slime from the plant can be used as soap. L. flava often serves as an ornamental plant in ponds and was introduced to the USA for use in water gardens. Abhilash et al. (2009) report that the plant has potential for phytofiltration of cadmium for low-level Cd-contaminated water.
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Fodder/animal feed
- Forage
Environmental
- Agroforestry
- Host of pest
- Ornamental
General
- Botanical garden/zoo
- Laboratory use
- Pet/aquarium trade
- Research model
Human food and beverage
- Vegetable
Materials
- Green manure
- Manure
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Ornamental
- Potted plant
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Control
Cultural control
L. flava may be controlled by frequent tillage (wet) during land preparation and manual weeding during the rice-growing period (Azmi, 2003).
Mechanical control
Hand-pushed rotary weeders may be used to control the weed in transplanted rice.
Chemical control
Chemicals such as 2,4-D amine and metsulfuron are effective against L. flava. Biotypes resistant to 2,4-D and ALS-inhibiting herbicide have been found in Indonesia (Edison, 1996) and Malaysia (Nakayama et al., 1999), respectively. A combination of bentazon and MCPA can be used to control the herbicide-resistant biotype (R biotype) (Azmi, 2003). Bentazon sodium/MCPA dimethyl at 0.74 kg a.i./ha can be used to control the R biotype in L. flava resistant areas (Erwan et al., 2006).
References
Top of pageAICAF, 1996. Weeds in the Tropics. Tokyo, Japan: Association for International Cooperation of Agriculture and Forestry, 304 pp
Anwar AI, Azmi M, 1988. Rice field weeds (in Malay). Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI), 168 pp
Azmi M, 2003. Control of herbicide resistance biotype of Limnocharis flava in direct-seeded rice. Paper presented at the 6th International Conference on Plant Protection in the Tropics. 11-14 th August, 2003, Pan Pacific Hotel, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
deGraft-Johnson KAA, Akpabey FJ, 2015. Aquatic plant management in Ghana. Accra, Ghana: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and Water Research Institute.
Edison P, 1996. A biotype of Limnocharis flava resistant to 2,4-D. Paper presented to IMTGT Conference on Environment, Penang, Malaysia, 3 pp
Ernest A, 2015. Diversity, distribution and control of aquatic macrophytes of southern Ghana with particular reference to the alien invasives. MPhil Thesis. Legon, Ghana: University of Ghana.
Ingold CT, 1995. An unusual smut fungus: Doassansiopsis limnocharidis. Mycologist, 9(2):58-59
Karthigeyan K, Sumathi R, Jayanthi J, Diwakar PG, Lakra GS, 2004.
Mansor P, 1988. Traditional salad vegetables of Malaysia. Ulam-ulam tradisional Malaysia. Teknologi Sayur Sayuran, 4:1-5
Miller JW, 1997. Plant pathology section. Tri-ology Technical Report, 36(1):12-13
Nakayama S, Azmi M, Ruslan AG, 1999. Limnocharis flava resistant to 2,4-D and bensulfuron methyl. The Management of Biotic Agents in Direct Seeded Rice Culture in Malaysia - Some experience in the Muda area. MARDI/MADA/JIRCAS Integrated Study Report (1992-1999), 129-140
Noda K, Teerawatsakul M, Prakongvongs C, Chaiwiratnukul L, 1985. Major Weeds in Thailand. Bangkok, Thailand: Department of Agriculture
Van den Bergh MH, 1993. Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau. In: Siemonsma JS, Piluek K, eds. Plant Resources of South-East Asia 8. Vegetables. Wageningen, Netherlands: Pudoc Scientific Publishers, 192-194
Vera PA, Aldama JR, 1983. Rice production in Paraguay. Arroz, 32(322):26-28
Waterhouse BM, Everett-J, Wilson PG, 2003. Know your enemy: recent records of potentially serious weeds in northern Australia, Papua New Guinea and Papua (Indonesia). Proceedings of the 5th International Flora Malesiana Symposium, Sydney, Australia, September 2001. Telopea, 10(1):477-485
Distribution References
Anon, 1997. Plant pathology section. Tri-ology Technical Report. 36 (1), 12-13.
Anwar AI, Azmi M, 1988. Rice field weeds (in Malay)., Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI). 168 pp.
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Ernest A, 2015. Diversity, distribution and control of aquatic macrophytes of southern Ghana with particular reference to the alien invasives. MPhil Thesis., Legon, Ghana: University of Ghana.
Contributors
Top of page20/05/2008 Updated by:
Azmi Man, MARDI Food and Industrial Crop Research Centre, Seberang Perai, PO Box 203, 13200 Kepala Batas, Penang, Malaysia
Distribution Maps
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