Limnocharis flava (yellow bur-head)

Pictures

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Picture

Title

Caption

Copyright

Flower

Close-up of L. flava flower.

Azmi B. Man

Flowers

Flowers and fruits of L. flava.

Azmi B. Man

Habit

L. flava, habit.

Azmi B. Man

Line artwork

a. stamens; b. staminode; c. compound ovary; d. compound fruit of many follicles (fruitlets); e. follicle; f. seed.

SEAMEO-BIOTROP

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau

Preferred Common Name

yellow bur-head

Other Scientific Names

Alisma flava L.
Damasonium flavum (L.) Mill. Gard.
Limnocharis emarginata Humb. et Bonpl.
Limnocharis laforesti Duchas. Ex Griseb
Limnocharis mattogrossensis O. Ktze.
Limnocharis plumieri Rich., Mem.

International Common Names

English: hermit's waterlily; sawah lettuce; velvet leaf; yellow sawah lettuce; yellow velvetleaf
Spanish: cebolla de chucho
French: buchon

Local Common Names

Bangladesh: kalmi; kengkong
Brazil: barata
Cambodia: Trakiet
India: Manja payal
Indonesia: bangeng; eceng; Enceng, Berek, Gunda; genjer
Japan: Kibana omodaka
Laos: kaanz choong
Malaysia: jinjir; Paka Rawan; paku rawan
Malaysia/Sarawak: emparuk
Thailand: Bon cheen, Taalapat ruesee; bonchin; nangkwak; talapatrusi
Vietnam: k[ef]o n[ef]o; n[ee] th[ar]o

EPPO code

LMNFL (Limnocharis flava)

Summary of Invasiveness

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L. flava, commonly known as yellow bur head, is a perennial broad-leaved weed which behaves as an annual in certain habitats. It spreads throughout South-East Asia especially in rice crops, and also in South America and the USA. It prefers wet conditions such as lowland rice fields, shallow canals and ditches and reproduces both by seed and vegetatively. Heavy infestations of L. flava indicate a fertile soil. The effectiveness of drainage ditches and irrigation channels can be reduced through siltation caused by blockages of L. flava leaves and roots. Young leaves, petioles and flower stalks can be eaten as vegetables. Whole plants are used as fodder for pigs, cattle or fish and plant residues can be also be used for feed and as green manure. L. flava can be controlled by chemical such as 2,4-D herbicides and sulfonyl urea products such as bensulfuron and bensulfuron/metsulfuron. Bentazon/MCPA can be used to control multiple resistant biotype of L. flava.

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Monocotyledonae
Order: Hydrocharitales
Family: Limnocharitaceae
Genus: Limnocharis
Species: Limnocharis flava

Description

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L. flava is a perennial, robust, erect, lactiferous, marsh herb, 20-100 cm tall, rooting in mud and strongly tillering. Leaves basal, rosulate, glabrous, long-petioled, orbicular or ovate, 5-30 x 4-25 cm, entire, yellowish-green, curvinerved, transversely latticed-veined, underneath at apex with a purple-rimmed water pore, folded lengthwise in bud; with numerous air chambers, 5-75 cm long. Inflorescence axillary, long-peduncled, umbelliform, glabrous, 5-15-flowered, erect, recurved after fruiting until it reaches the water or mud; peduncles 10-90 cm long. Flowers rather large, in the axils of membranous bracts; pedicels 3-7 cm long; sepal 3, enlarged and clasping the fruit after anthesis, yellow-green, ovate-elliptic, 7-25 x 5-15 mm; petals 3, pale yellow, obovate, very thin, 1.5-3 x 0.7 x 2 cm, becoming a slimy mass after anthesis; apex rounded, base darker coloured. Stamens more than 15, surrounded by a whorl of staminodes. Ovaries numerous in one whorl, superior, laterally much compressed, simulating a single, deeply incised ovary; stigmas narrowly linear, sessile. Compound fruit 1.5-2 cm in diameter, enclosed by the sepals. Seeds numerous, minute, horseshoe-shaped, dark brown, 1-15 mm long, testa spongy with thin tranverse ridges.

Plant Type

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Aquatic
Broadleaved
Herbaceous
Perennial
Seed propagated
Vegetatively propagated

Distribution

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L. flava is spread throughout South-East Asia (Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, South Myanmar, Sri Lanka, India and Vietnam), especially in rice-growing areas, and in South America and the USA. It has recently been reported in northern Queensland, Australia, where it is the target of an eradication campaign (Waterhouse et al., 2003).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 17 Feb 2021

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Africa
Ghana	Present	Introduced		Invasive	CABI (Undated) Labrada and Fornasari (2002) Anning and Yeboah-Gyan (2007) Ernest (2015)	In Kumasi Metropolis, River Wiwi, Ejisu streams, Besease, Nobewam and Nkawkaw; Original citation: deGraft-Johnson and Akpabey (2015)
Asia
Cambodia	Present				Moody (1989) Waterhouse and Mitchell (1998)
India	Present				CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands	Present				Karthigeyan et al. (2004)
-Kerala	Present	Introduced	1960		Nayar and Sworupanandan (1978) Abhilash et al. (2008)
Indonesia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Soerjani et al. (1987) Moody (1989) Holm et al. (1991)	Ricefield weed
-Sumatra	Present				Mangoensoekarjo and Pancho (1975)
Laos	Present				Moody (1989)	Ricefield weed
Malaysia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Moody (1989) Holm et al. (1991) Waterhouse and Mitchell (1998) Hakim et al. (2013)
-Peninsular Malaysia	Present, Localized				Anwar and Azmi (1988) Hakim et al. (2013)	Ricefield weed
-Sarawak	Present				Saupi et al. (2009)
Myanmar	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Moody (1989)	Ricefield weed
Sri Lanka	Present	Introduced			Kotalawala (1976) Moody (1989) Holm et al. (1991)
Thailand	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Moody (1989) Holm et al. (1991) Waterhouse and Mitchell (1998)	Ricefield weed
Vietnam	Present				Moody (1989) Holm et al. (1991) Waterhouse and Mitchell (1998)	Ricefield weed
North America
Costa Rica	Present	Native			Ingold (1995)
Mexico	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2007)
Nicaragua	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2007)
Panama	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2007)
United States	Present				CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Florida	Present				Miller (1997)
Oceania
Australia	Present				CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Queensland	Present, Localized	Introduced	2001	Invasive	International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) (2010) Waterhouse (2003)
South America
Ecuador	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2007)
Paraguay	Present				Vera and Aldama (1983)
Peru	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2007)

History of Introduction and Spread

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L. flava is native to tropical and subtropical America (i.e. northwestern Mexico, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Cuba, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Windward Islands, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, West Indies, Peru and Brazil) and has been introduced to southern USA and parts of Asia. Abhilash et al. (2008) report that the earliest record of its introduction to Asia is as an ornamental in the Botanic Garders, Bogor, Indonesia in 1866, and that by 1870 it was mentioned as 'a newly introduced alien' on the banks of the river flowing through the Botanic Gardens. It now occurs throughout Indonesia and the rest of South-East Asia. Abhilash et al. (2008) describe its spread in Asia. In Sri Lanka it was introduced as an ornamental in 1998 and subsequently became naturalized and a serious weed in rice fields.

It propagates mainly by seeds. Sometimes they are also carried with the mud sticking to the feet of birds, by man and agricultural implements (Kotalawala, 1976). L. flava seeds throughout the year. A single fruit produces about 1,000 seeds and a single plant may produce as 1,000,000 seeds per year. Human agency is also responsible for the spread of this plant due to the popular belief that the leaves of this plant, when eaten as a partly cooked salad, cures rheumatism. Some have deliberately planted this weed without realizing the danger to rice fields when it gets out of control.

Habitat

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L. flava is a perennial herb that prefers wet conditions such as lowland ricefields, and shallow waters in canals, swamps, pools and ditches. In Kerala, India, the weed density decreases as water depth increases, as L. flava is a rooted emergent preferring shallow water bodies and marshy areas (Abhilash et al., 2008). Abandoned paddy fields and reclaimed coconut fields with marshy areas are the main habitat in Kerala. The soil is generally fertile in areas where the weed occurs.

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Managed	Protected agriculture (e.g. glasshouse production)	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed grasslands (grazing systems)	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Managed	Rail / roadsides	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Managed	Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural forests	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural grasslands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Riverbanks	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Wetlands	Present, no further details	Natural
Littoral		Coastal areas	Present, no further details
Freshwater			Present, no further details
Freshwater		Irrigation channels	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Freshwater		Lakes	Present, no further details	Natural
Freshwater		Reservoirs	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Freshwater		Rivers / streams	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Freshwater		Ponds	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Brackish		Estuaries	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Marine			Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)

Hosts/Species Affected

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In South and South-East Asia, L. flava is a serious weed in ricefields, where it thrives on the fertilizers applied for crop (rice) growth and multiplies rapidly.

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context	References
Oryza sativa (rice)	Poaceae	Other	Hakim et al. (2013)

Growth Stages

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Flowering stage, Fruiting stage, Seedling stage, Vegetative growing stage

Biology and Ecology

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L. flava is perennial but behaves as an annual in certain habitats. It reproduces by seed and vegetatively (by stolons). It is hydrochorous, and is a prolific seed-producing plant, with individual plants capable of yielding up to 1,000,000 seeds per year. The mechanism of seed dispersal is discussed in Nayar and Sworupanandan (1978).

L. flava flowers the whole year round. The flowers open in the morning and close after a few hours. There is no record of any pollinating agent. After anthesis, the sepals enlarge and surround the fruit whereas the petals become a slimy mass. When ripe, the fruit carpels fall into the water where they release the seeds, which sink to the bottom. The downturned inflorescence which rests on the water surface often produces a new plant (van den Bergh, 1993).

Climate

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Climate	Status	Description
A - Tropical/Megathermal climate	Preferred	Average temp. of coolest month > 18°C, > 1500mm precipitation annually
Af - Tropical rainforest climate	Preferred	> 60mm precipitation per month
Am - Tropical monsoon climate	Preferred	Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25]))
C - Temperate/Mesothermal climate	Tolerated	Average temp. of coldest month > 0°C and < 18°C, mean warmest month > 10°C

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

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Latitude North (°N)	Latitude South (°S)	Altitude Lower (m)	Altitude Upper (m)
			1300

Soil Tolerances

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Soil drainage

seasonally waterlogged

Soil reaction

acid
alkaline
neutral

Soil texture

heavy

Water Tolerances

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Parameter	Minimum Value	Maximum Value	Typical Value	Status	Life Stage	Notes
Water pH (pH)	4	6		Optimum
Water temperature (ºC temperature)	25	30		Optimum		30-35 tolerated

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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L. flavus produces large numbers of seeds, with a single plant capable of producing over 1,000,000 seeds a year. The fruitlets are carried by water, floating to new locations and dispersing seeds along the way. Seeds are also carried with the mud sticking to the feet of birds, by man and agricultural implements (Kotalawala, 1976), or with cereals from an infested field transported to an uninfected area.

Pathway Causes

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Cause	Long Distance	Local
Botanical gardens and zoos	Yes
Crop production		Yes
Digestion and excretion		Yes
Flooding and other natural disasters		Yes
Food		Yes
Forage		Yes
Landscape improvement		Yes
Medicinal use		Yes
Nursery trade		Yes
Ornamental purposes		Yes
Pet trade		Yes
Research		Yes
Seed trade		Yes

Pathway Vectors

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Vector	Long Distance	Local
Containers and packaging - wood	Yes
Floating vegetation and debris		Yes
Germplasm	Yes
Host and vector organisms		Yes
Land vehicles	Yes
Livestock		Yes
Pets and aquarium species		Yes
Plants or parts of plants		Yes
Soil, sand and gravel	Yes
Water		Yes
Wind		Yes

Plant Trade

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Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Bark
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx
Fruits (inc. pods)
Growing medium accompanying plants
Leaves
Roots
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches
True seeds (inc. grain)
Wood

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Animal/plant collections	Positive
Animal/plant products	Negative
Biodiversity (generally)	Positive
Crop production	Negative
Environment (generally)	Negative
Fisheries / aquaculture	Positive
Forestry production	Negative
Human health	Positive
Livestock production	Positive
Native fauna	Positive
Native flora	Positive
Rare/protected species	Negative
Tourism	Positive
Trade/international relations	Negative
Transport/travel	Negative

Economic Impact

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L. flava chokes irrigation and drainage channels, promotes silting, and reduces water discharge capacity (Kotalawala, 1976). The effectiveness of drainage ditches and irrigation channels can be reduced through siltation caused by blockage of water flow by L. flava leaves and root systems. In some situations, infestations of the weed are so severe that they have forced the abandonment of ricefields.

Environmental Impact

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Impact on Habitats

If allowed to grow unchecked, L. flava may become a very invasive weed of streams and wetlands. L. flava colonizes shallow wetlands and the margins of deeper waterways, where it can quickly grow to dominate native aquatic plants. The natural ecological balance may thus be altered to seriously impact native water-dwelling creatures.

It is thought that the introduction of L. flava into India may have been due to contaminated imports of rice from South-East Asia infested with the weed. As well as unintentional spread of the seed via agricultural imports its use and cultivation as a food source may result in intentional spread of the plant into new countries. The latter is thought to be the cause its spread from Java to Papua (Waterhouse et al., 2003).

Impact on Biodiversity

In the USA, L. flava is a threat to the biodiversity of a number of unique wetland areas including the Florida everglades. It could have similar impacts on Australia's wetlands, and has the potential to rapidly establish in suitable habitats.

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Invasive in its native range
Abundant in its native range
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Tolerant of shade
Highly mobile locally
Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
Fast growing
Has high reproductive potential
Gregarious
Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
Reproduces asexually

Impact outcomes

Damaged ecosystem services
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Host damage
Increases vulnerability to invasions
Infrastructure damage
Modification of hydrology
Modification of successional patterns
Monoculture formation
Negatively impacts agriculture
Negatively impacts cultural/traditional practices
Negatively impacts human health
Negatively impacts livelihoods
Negatively impacts aquaculture/fisheries
Negatively impacts tourism
Reduced amenity values
Reduced native biodiversity
Soil accretion
Threat to/ loss of endangered species
Threat to/ loss of native species
Transportation disruption

Impact mechanisms

Causes allergic responses
Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition - shading
Competition - smothering
Competition - strangling
Pest and disease transmission
Filtration
Fouling
Herbivory/grazing/browsing
Induces hypersensitivity
Interaction with other invasive species
Parasitism (incl. parasitoid)
Pathogenic
Rapid growth
Rooting
Trampling

Likelihood of entry/control

Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Highly likely to be transported internationally illegally
Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
Difficult/costly to control

Uses

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Heavy infestations of L. flava indicate a fertile soil. Young leaves, petioles and flower stalks are eaten as a vegetable in Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam and Bangladesh. Whole plants are given as fodder to pigs, cattle or fish and plant residues can be used for feed and as green manure. Slime from the plant can be used as soap. L. flava often serves as an ornamental plant in ponds and was introduced to the USA for use in water gardens. Abhilash et al. (2009) report that the plant has potential for phytofiltration of cadmium for low-level Cd-contaminated water.

Uses List

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Animal feed, fodder, forage

Fodder/animal feed
Forage

Environmental

Agroforestry
Host of pest
Ornamental

General

Botanical garden/zoo
Laboratory use
Pet/aquarium trade
Research model

Human food and beverage

Vegetable

Materials

Green manure
Manure

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

Traditional/folklore

Ornamental

Potted plant

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Control

Cultural control

L. flava may be controlled by frequent tillage (wet) during land preparation and manual weeding during the rice-growing period (Azmi, 2003).

Mechanical control

Hand-pushed rotary weeders may be used to control the weed in transplanted rice.

Chemical control

Chemicals such as 2,4-D amine and metsulfuron are effective against L. flava. Biotypes resistant to 2,4-D and ALS-inhibiting herbicide have been found in Indonesia (Edison, 1996) and Malaysia (Nakayama et al., 1999), respectively. A combination of bentazon and MCPA can be used to control the herbicide-resistant biotype (R biotype) (Azmi, 2003). Bentazon sodium/MCPA dimethyl at 0.74 kg a.i./ha can be used to control the R biotype in L. flava resistant areas (Erwan et al., 2006).

References

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Abhilash PC, Nandita Singh, Sylas VP, Kumar BA, Mathew JC, Satheesh R, Thomas AP, 2008. Eco-distribution mapping of invasive weed Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau using Geographical Information System: implications for containment and integrated weed management for ecosystem conservation. Taiwania, 53(1):30-41. http://tai2.ntu.edu.tw/taiwania

Abhilash PC, Pandey VC, Pankaj Srivastava, Rakesh PS, Smitha Chandran, Nandita Singh, Thomas AP, 2009. Phytofiltration of cadmium from water by Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau grown in free-floating culture system. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 170(2/3):791-797. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TGF-4W9XBHJ-C&_user=10&_coverDate=10%2F30%2F2009&_rdoc=38&_fmt=high&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%235253%232009%23998299997%231468097%23FLA%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=5253&_sort=d&_docanchor=&_ct=105&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=1e79d45f7969eb165ba045e3e92ec690

AICAF, 1996. Weeds in the Tropics. Tokyo, Japan: Association for International Cooperation of Agriculture and Forestry, 304 pp

Anning AK, Yeboah-Gyan K, 2007. Diversity and distribution of invasive weeds in Ashanti Region, Ghana. African Journal of Ecology, 45(3):355-360. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/118510994/PDFSTART

Anwar AI, Azmi M, 1988. Rice field weeds (in Malay). Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI), 168 pp

Azmi M, 1988. Weed competition in rice production. Proceedings of the National Seminar and Workshop on Rice Field Weed Management, 141-152

Azmi M, 2003. Control of herbicide resistance biotype of Limnocharis flava in direct-seeded rice. Paper presented at the 6th International Conference on Plant Protection in the Tropics. 11-14 th August, 2003, Pan Pacific Hotel, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Azmi M, Baki BB, Mashor M, 1992. Weed communities in rice granary areas in Peninsular Malaysia. Proceedings of the 1st International Weed Control Congress. Melbourne, Australia: Weed Science Society of Victoria, Vol. 2:57-60

deGraft-Johnson KAA, Akpabey FJ, 2015. Aquatic plant management in Ghana. Accra, Ghana: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and Water Research Institute.

Edison P, 1996. A biotype of Limnocharis flava resistant to 2,4-D. Paper presented to IMTGT Conference on Environment, Penang, Malaysia, 3 pp

Ernest A, 2015. Diversity, distribution and control of aquatic macrophytes of southern Ghana with particular reference to the alien invasives. MPhil Thesis. Legon, Ghana: University of Ghana.

Erwan S, Abdul Shukur J, Azmi M, 2006. Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau control with herbicide mixtures of bensulfuron-methyl and bentazon sodium/MCPA dimethyl. In: Agriculture Congress 2006. 261-263

Gall S, Wilson C, 2000. Yellow sawah lettuce: (Limnocharis flava). Agnote - Northern Territory of Australia, No. 609:2 pp

Hakim, M. A., Juraimi, A. S., Ismail, M. R., Hanafi, M. M., Selamat, A., 2013. A survey on weed diversity in coastal rice fields of Sebarang Perak in Peninsular Malaysia. JAPS, Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences, 23(2), 534-542. http://www.thejaps.org.pk/docs/v-23-2/33.pdf

Hare CJ, Chong WC, Ooi GT, Bhandhufalck A, Nawsaran S, Chanprasit P, 1989. Sofit Super: broad spectrum weed management for wet sown rice in S.E. Asia. Proceedings, 12th Asian-Pacific Weed Science Society Conference Taipei, Taiwan; Asian-Pacific Weed Science Society, No. 1:165-170

Haynes RR, Holm-Nielsen LB, 1992. Flora neotropica: the Limnocharitaceae. Flora neotropica: the Limnocharitaceae., 34 pp.; [Monography 56 of ISSN 0071-5794]

Holm LG, Pancho JV, Herberger JP, Plucknett DL, 1991. A Geographical Atlas of World Weeds. New York, USA: John Wiley and Sons

Ingold CT, 1995. An unusual smut fungus: Doassansiopsis limnocharidis. Mycologist, 9(2):58-59

IPPC, 2010. Limnocharis flava in northern Queensland. IPPC Official Pest Report, No. AUS-35/1. Rome, Italy: FAO. https://www.ippc

Karthigeyan K, Sumathi R, Jayanthi J, Diwakar PG, Lakra GS, 2004.

Kotalawala J, 1976. Noxious water vegetation in Sri Lanka: the extent and impact of existing infestations. Aquatic weeds in S.E. Asia. Proceedings of a Regional Seminar on Noxious Aquatic Vegetation, New Delhi, 1973. The Hague, Netherlands: W. Junk, 51-58

Labrada R, Fornasari L, 2002. Management of problematic aquatic weeds in Africa: FAO efforts and achievements during the period 1991-2001. Rome, Italy: FAO. ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/005/y4270E/y4270E00.pdf

Mangoensoekarjo S, Pancho JV, 1975. Current status of weed problems in rubber, oil palm, cocoa, tea and rice and their control. Bulletin Balai Penelitian Perkebunan Medan, 6(1):3, 13-27

Mansor P, 1988. Traditional salad vegetables of Malaysia. Ulam-ulam tradisional Malaysia. Teknologi Sayur Sayuran, 4:1-5

Miller JW, 1997. Plant pathology section. Tri-ology Technical Report, 36(1):12-13

Moody K, 1989. Weeds reported in Rice in South and Southeast Asia. Manila, Philippines: International Rice Research Institute

Nakayama S, Azmi M, Ruslan AG, 1999. Limnocharis flava resistant to 2,4-D and bensulfuron methyl. The Management of Biotic Agents in Direct Seeded Rice Culture in Malaysia - Some experience in the Muda area. MARDI/MADA/JIRCAS Integrated Study Report (1992-1999), 129-140

Nayar BK, Sworupanandan K, 1978. Morphology of the fruit and mechanism of seed dispersal of the freshwater weed Limnocharis flava. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Section B, 87(2):49-53

Noda K, 1979. Present status and future challenge of weed problems in southeast Asian countries - based on a survey carried out in Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. Nekken Shiryo, No. 41:60 pp

Noda K, Teerawatsakul M, Prakongvongs C, Chaiwiratnukul L, 1985. Major Weeds in Thailand. Bangkok, Thailand: Department of Agriculture

Pancho JV, Soerjani M, 1978. Aquatic weeds of Southeast Asia. A systematic account of common Southeast Asian aquatic weeds. Aquatic weeds of Southeast Asia. A systematic account of common Southeast Asian aquatic weeds., 130 pp.; [260 X 180 mm]

Saupi N, Zakaria MH, Bujang JS, 2009. Analytic chemical composition and mineral content of yellow velvetleaf (Limnocharis flava L. Buchenau)'s edible parts. Journal of Applied Sciences, 9(16):2969-2974. http://scialert.net/qredirect.php?doi=jas.2009.2969.2974&linkid=pdf

Soerjani M, Kostermans AJGH, Tjitrosoepomo G, 1987. Weeds of Indonesia. Jakarta, Indonesia: Balai Pustaka, 716 pp

USDA-ARS, 2007. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx

Van den Bergh MH, 1993. Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau. In: Siemonsma JS, Piluek K, eds. Plant Resources of South-East Asia 8. Vegetables. Wageningen, Netherlands: Pudoc Scientific Publishers, 192-194

Vera PA, Aldama JR, 1983. Rice production in Paraguay. Arroz, 32(322):26-28

Waterhouse BM, Everett-J, Wilson PG, 2003. Know your enemy: recent records of potentially serious weeds in northern Australia, Papua New Guinea and Papua (Indonesia). Proceedings of the 5th International Flora Malesiana Symposium, Sydney, Australia, September 2001. Telopea, 10(1):477-485

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Distribution References

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