Limnocharis flava
(yellow bur-head)

Pictures

Top of page

Identity

Top of page

Preferred Scientific Name

• Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau

Preferred Common Name

• yellow bur-head

Other Scientific Names

• Alisma flava L.
• Damasonium flavum (L.) Mill. Gard.
• Limnocharis emarginata Humb. et Bonpl.
• Limnocharis laforesti Duchas. Ex Griseb
• Limnocharis mattogrossensis O. Ktze.
• Limnocharis plumieri Rich., Mem.

International Common Names

• English: hermit's waterlily; sawah lettuce; velvet leaf; yellow sawah lettuce; yellow velvetleaf
• Spanish: cebolla de chucho
• French: buchon

Local Common Names

• Bangladesh: kalmi; kengkong
• Brazil: barata
• Cambodia: Trakiet
• India: Manja payal
• Indonesia: bangeng; eceng; Enceng, Berek, Gunda; genjer
• Japan: Kibana omodaka
• Laos: kaanz choong
• Malaysia: jinjir; Paka Rawan; paku rawan
• Malaysia/Sarawak: emparuk
• Thailand: Bon cheen, Taalapat ruesee; bonchin; nangkwak; talapatrusi
• Vietnam: k[ef]o n[ef]o; n[ee] th[ar]o

EPPO code

• LMNFL (Limnocharis flava)

Summary of Invasiveness

Top of page

L. flava, commonly known as yellow bur head, is a perennial broad-leaved weed which behaves as an annual in certain habitats. It spreads throughout South-East Asia especially in rice crops, and also in South America and the USA. It prefers wet conditions such as lowland rice fields, shallow canals and ditches and reproduces both by seed and vegetatively. Heavy infestations of L. flava indicate a fertile soil. The effectiveness of drainage ditches and irrigation channels can be reduced through siltation caused by blockages of L. flava leaves and roots. Young leaves, petioles and flower stalks can be eaten as vegetables. Whole plants are used as fodder for pigs, cattle or fish and plant residues can be also be used for feed and as green manure. L. flava can be controlled by chemical such as 2,4-D herbicides and sulfonyl urea products such as bensulfuron and bensulfuron/metsulfuron. Bentazon/MCPA can be used to control multiple resistant biotype of L. flava.

Taxonomic Tree

Top of page

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Monocotyledonae
•                     Order: Hydrocharitales
•                         Family: Limnocharitaceae
•                             Genus: Limnocharis
•                                 Species: Limnocharis flava

Description

Top of page L. flava is a perennial, robust, erect, lactiferous, marsh herb, 20-100 cm tall, rooting in mud and strongly tillering. Leaves basal, rosulate, glabrous, long-petioled, orbicular or ovate, 5-30 x 4-25 cm, entire, yellowish-green, curvinerved, transversely latticed-veined, underneath at apex with a purple-rimmed water pore, folded lengthwise in bud; with numerous air chambers, 5-75 cm long. Inflorescence axillary, long-peduncled, umbelliform, glabrous, 5-15-flowered, erect, recurved after fruiting until it reaches the water or mud; peduncles 10-90 cm long. Flowers rather large, in the axils of membranous bracts; pedicels 3-7 cm long; sepal 3, enlarged and clasping the fruit after anthesis, yellow-green, ovate-elliptic, 7-25 x 5-15 mm; petals 3, pale yellow, obovate, very thin, 1.5-3 x 0.7 x 2 cm, becoming a slimy mass after anthesis; apex rounded, base darker coloured. Stamens more than 15, surrounded by a whorl of staminodes. Ovaries numerous in one whorl, superior, laterally much compressed, simulating a single, deeply incised ovary; stigmas narrowly linear, sessile. Compound fruit 1.5-2 cm in diameter, enclosed by the sepals. Seeds numerous, minute, horseshoe-shaped, dark brown, 1-15 mm long, testa spongy with thin tranverse ridges.

Plant Type

Top of page Aquatic
Broadleaved
Herbaceous
Perennial
Seed propagated
Vegetatively propagated

Distribution

Top of page

L. flava is spread throughout South-East Asia (Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, South Myanmar, Sri Lanka, India and Vietnam), especially in rice-growing areas, and in South America and the USA. It has recently been reported in northern Queensland, Australia, where it is the target of an eradication campaign (Waterhouse et al., 2003).

Distribution Table

Top of page

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

Top of page

L. flava is native to tropical and subtropical America (i.e. northwestern Mexico, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Cuba, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Windward Islands, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, West Indies, Peru and Brazil) and has been introduced to southern USA and parts of Asia. Abhilash et al. (2008) report that the earliest record of its introduction to Asia is as an ornamental in the Botanic Garders, Bogor, Indonesia in 1866, and that by 1870 it was mentioned as 'a newly introduced alien' on the banks of the river flowing through the Botanic Gardens. It now occurs throughout Indonesia and the rest of South-East Asia. Abhilash et al. (2008) describe its spread in Asia. In Sri Lanka it was introduced as an ornamental in 1998 and subsequently became naturalized and a serious weed in rice fields.

 

Habitat

Top of page

L. flava is a perennial herb that prefers wet conditions such as lowland ricefields, and shallow waters in canals, swamps, pools and ditches. In Kerala, India, the weed density decreases as water depth increases, as L. flava is a rooted emergent preferring shallow water bodies and marshy areas (Abhilash et al., 2008). Abandoned paddy fields and reclaimed coconut fields with marshy areas are the main habitat in Kerala. The soil is generally fertile in areas where the weed occurs.

 

Habitat List

Top of page

Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial
	Terrestrial – Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details
		Protected agriculture (e.g. glasshouse production)	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
		Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Present, no further details
		Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
		Managed grasslands (grazing systems)	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
		Disturbed areas	Present, no further details
		Rail / roadsides	Present, no further details
		Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
	Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural	Natural forests	Present, no further details
		Natural grasslands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
		Riverbanks	Present, no further details
		Wetlands	Present, no further details	Natural
Littoral
		Coastal areas	Present, no further details
Marine			Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Freshwater
			Present, no further details
		Irrigation channels	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
		Lakes	Present, no further details	Natural
		Reservoirs	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
		Rivers / streams	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
		Ponds	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Brackish
		Estuaries	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)

Hosts/Species Affected

Top of page In South and South-East Asia, L. flava is a serious weed in ricefields, where it thrives on the fertilizers applied for crop (rice) growth and multiplies rapidly.

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

Top of page

Growth Stages

Top of page Flowering stage, Fruiting stage, Seedling stage, Vegetative growing stage

Biology and Ecology

Top of page

L. flava is perennial but behaves as an annual in certain habitats. It reproduces by seed and vegetatively (by stolons). It is hydrochorous, and is a prolific seed-producing plant, with individual plants capable of yielding up to 1,000,000 seeds per year. The mechanism of seed dispersal is discussed in Nayar and Sworupanandan (1978).

L. flava flowers the whole year round. The flowers open in the morning and close after a few hours. There is no record of any pollinating agent. After anthesis, the sepals enlarge and surround the fruit whereas the petals become a slimy mass. When ripe, the fruit carpels fall into the water where they release the seeds, which sink to the bottom. The downturned inflorescence which rests on the water surface often produces a new plant (van den Bergh, 1993).

Climate

Top of page

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

Top of page

Soil Tolerances

Top of page

Soil drainage

• seasonally waterlogged

Soil reaction

• acid
• alkaline
• neutral

Soil texture

• heavy

Water Tolerances

Top of page

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Top of page

L. flavus produces large numbers of seeds, with a single plant capable of producing over 1,000,000 seeds a year. The fruitlets are carried by water, floating to new locations and dispersing seeds along the way. Seeds are also carried with the mud sticking to the feet of birds, by man and agricultural implements (Kotalawala, 1976), or with cereals from an infested field transported to an uninfected area.

Pathway Causes

Top of page

Pathway Vectors

Top of page

Plant Trade

Top of page

Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Bark
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx
Fruits (inc. pods)
Growing medium accompanying plants
Leaves
Roots
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches
True seeds (inc. grain)
Wood

Impact Summary

Top of page

Economic Impact

Top of page

L. flava chokes irrigation and drainage channels, promotes silting, and reduces water discharge capacity (Kotalawala, 1976). The effectiveness of drainage ditches and irrigation channels can be reduced through siltation caused by blockage of water flow by L. flava leaves and root systems. In some situations, infestations of the weed are so severe that they have forced the abandonment of ricefields.

Environmental Impact

Top of page

Impact on Habitats

If allowed to grow unchecked, L. flava may become a very invasive weed of streams and wetlands. L. flava colonizes shallow wetlands and the margins of deeper waterways, where it can quickly grow to dominate native aquatic plants.  The natural ecological balance may thus be altered to seriously impact native water-dwelling creatures.

Risk and Impact Factors

Top of page Invasiveness

• Invasive in its native range
• Abundant in its native range
• Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
• Pioneering in disturbed areas
• Tolerant of shade
• Highly mobile locally
• Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
• Fast growing
• Has high reproductive potential
• Gregarious
• Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
• Reproduces asexually

Impact outcomes

• Damaged ecosystem services
• Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
• Host damage
• Increases vulnerability to invasions
• Infrastructure damage
• Modification of hydrology
• Modification of successional patterns
• Monoculture formation
• Negatively impacts agriculture
• Negatively impacts cultural/traditional practices
• Negatively impacts human health
• Negatively impacts livelihoods
• Negatively impacts aquaculture/fisheries
• Negatively impacts tourism
• Reduced amenity values
• Reduced native biodiversity
• Soil accretion
• Threat to/ loss of endangered species
• Threat to/ loss of native species
• Transportation disruption

Impact mechanisms

• Causes allergic responses
• Competition - monopolizing resources
• Competition - shading
• Competition - smothering
• Competition - strangling
• Pest and disease transmission
• Filtration
• Fouling
• Herbivory/grazing/browsing
• Induces hypersensitivity
• Interaction with other invasive species
• Parasitism (incl. parasitoid)
• Pathogenic
• Rapid growth
• Rooting
• Trampling

Likelihood of entry/control

• Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
• Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
• Highly likely to be transported internationally illegally
• Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
• Difficult/costly to control

Uses

Top of page

Heavy infestations of L. flava indicate a fertile soil. Young leaves, petioles and flower stalks are eaten as a vegetable in Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam and Bangladesh. Whole plants are given as fodder to pigs, cattle or fish and plant residues can be used for feed and as green manure. Slime from the plant can be used as soap. L. flava often serves as an ornamental plant in ponds and was introduced to the USA for use in water gardens. Abhilash et al. (2009) report that the plant has potential for phytofiltration of cadmium for low-level Cd-contaminated water.

 

Uses List

Top of page

Animal feed, fodder, forage

• Fodder/animal feed
• Forage

Environmental

• Agroforestry
• Host of pest
• Ornamental

General

• Botanical garden/zoo
• Laboratory use
• Pet/aquarium trade
• Research model

Human food and beverage

• Vegetable

Materials

• Green manure
• Manure

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

• Traditional/folklore

Ornamental

• Potted plant

Prevention and Control

Top of page

Control

Cultural control

L. flava may be controlled by frequent tillage (wet) during land preparation and manual weeding during the rice-growing period (Azmi, 2003).

Mechanical control

References

Top of page

Abhilash PC, Nandita Singh, Sylas VP, Kumar BA, Mathew JC, Satheesh R, Thomas AP, 2008. Eco-distribution mapping of invasive weed Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau using Geographical Information System: implications for containment and integrated weed management for ecosystem conservation. Taiwania, 53(1):30-41. http://tai2.ntu.edu.tw/taiwania

Abhilash PC, Pandey VC, Pankaj Srivastava, Rakesh PS, Smitha Chandran, Nandita Singh, Thomas AP, 2009. Phytofiltration of cadmium from water by Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau grown in free-floating culture system. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 170(2/3):791-797. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TGF-4W9XBHJ-C&_user=10&_coverDate=10%2F30%2F2009&_rdoc=38&_fmt=high&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%235253%232009%23998299997%231468097%23FLA%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=5253&_sort=d&_docanchor=&_ct=105&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=1e79d45f7969eb165ba045e3e92ec690

AICAF, 1996. Weeds in the Tropics. Tokyo, Japan: Association for International Cooperation of Agriculture and Forestry, 304 pp

Anning AK, Yeboah-Gyan K, 2007. Diversity and distribution of invasive weeds in Ashanti Region, Ghana. African Journal of Ecology, 45(3):355-360. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/118510994/PDFSTART

Anwar AI, Azmi M, 1988. Rice field weeds (in Malay). Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI), 168 pp

Azmi M, 1988. Weed competition in rice production. Proceedings of the National Seminar and Workshop on Rice Field Weed Management, 141-152

Azmi M, 2003. Control of herbicide resistance biotype of Limnocharis flava in direct-seeded rice. Paper presented at the 6th International Conference on Plant Protection in the Tropics. 11-14 th August, 2003, Pan Pacific Hotel, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Azmi M, Baki BB, Mashor M, 1992. Weed communities in rice granary areas in Peninsular Malaysia. Proceedings of the 1st International Weed Control Congress. Melbourne, Australia: Weed Science Society of Victoria, Vol. 2:57-60

deGraft-Johnson KAA, Akpabey FJ, 2015. Aquatic plant management in Ghana. Accra, Ghana: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and Water Research Institute.

Edison P, 1996. A biotype of Limnocharis flava resistant to 2,4-D. Paper presented to IMTGT Conference on Environment, Penang, Malaysia, 3 pp

Ernest A, 2015. Diversity, distribution and control of aquatic macrophytes of southern Ghana with particular reference to the alien invasives. MPhil Thesis. Legon, Ghana: University of Ghana.

Erwan S, Abdul Shukur J, Azmi M, 2006. Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau control with herbicide mixtures of bensulfuron-methyl and bentazon sodium/MCPA dimethyl. In: Agriculture Congress 2006. 261-263

Gall S, Wilson C, 2000. Yellow sawah lettuce: (Limnocharis flava). Agnote - Northern Territory of Australia, No. 609:2 pp

Hare CJ, Chong WC, Ooi GT, Bhandhufalck A, Nawsaran S, Chanprasit P, 1989. Sofit Super: broad spectrum weed management for wet sown rice in S.E. Asia. Proceedings, 12th Asian-Pacific Weed Science Society Conference Taipei, Taiwan; Asian-Pacific Weed Science Society, No. 1:165-170

Haynes RR, Holm-Nielsen LB, 1992. Flora neotropica: the Limnocharitaceae. Flora neotropica: the Limnocharitaceae., 34 pp.; [Monography 56 of ISSN 0071-5794]

Holm LG, Pancho JV, Herberger JP, Plucknett DL, 1991. A Geographical Atlas of World Weeds. New York, USA: John Wiley and Sons

Ingold CT, 1995. An unusual smut fungus: Doassansiopsis limnocharidis. Mycologist, 9(2):58-59

IPPC, 2010. Limnocharis flava in northern Queensland. IPPC Official Pest Report, No. AUS-35/1. Rome, Italy: FAO. https://www.ippc

Karthigeyan K, Sumathi R, Jayanthi J, Diwakar PG, Lakra GS, 2004.

Kotalawala J, 1976. Noxious water vegetation in Sri Lanka: the extent and impact of existing infestations. Aquatic weeds in S.E. Asia. Proceedings of a Regional Seminar on Noxious Aquatic Vegetation, New Delhi, 1973. The Hague, Netherlands: W. Junk, 51-58

Labrada R, Fornasari L, 2002. Management of problematic aquatic weeds in Africa: FAO efforts and achievements during the period 1991-2001. Rome, Italy: FAO. ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/005/y4270E/y4270E00.pdf

Mangoensoekarjo S, Pancho JV, 1975. Current status of weed problems in rubber, oil palm, cocoa, tea and rice and their control. Bulletin Balai Penelitian Perkebunan Medan, 6(1):3, 13-27

Mansor P, 1988. Traditional salad vegetables of Malaysia. Ulam-ulam tradisional Malaysia. Teknologi Sayur Sayuran, 4:1-5

Miller JW, 1997. Plant pathology section. Tri-ology Technical Report, 36(1):12-13

Moody K, 1989. Weeds reported in Rice in South and Southeast Asia. Manila, Philippines: International Rice Research Institute

Nakayama S, Azmi M, Ruslan AG, 1999. Limnocharis flava resistant to 2,4-D and bensulfuron methyl. The Management of Biotic Agents in Direct Seeded Rice Culture in Malaysia - Some experience in the Muda area. MARDI/MADA/JIRCAS Integrated Study Report (1992-1999), 129-140

Nayar BK, Sworupanandan K, 1978. Morphology of the fruit and mechanism of seed dispersal of the freshwater weed Limnocharis flava. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Section B, 87(2):49-53

Noda K, 1979. Present status and future challenge of weed problems in southeast Asian countries - based on a survey carried out in Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. Nekken Shiryo, No. 41:60 pp

Noda K, Teerawatsakul M, Prakongvongs C, Chaiwiratnukul L, 1985. Major Weeds in Thailand. Bangkok, Thailand: Department of Agriculture

Pancho JV, Soerjani M, 1978. Aquatic weeds of Southeast Asia. A systematic account of common Southeast Asian aquatic weeds. Aquatic weeds of Southeast Asia. A systematic account of common Southeast Asian aquatic weeds., 130 pp.; [260 X 180 mm]

Saupi N, Zakaria MH, Bujang JS, 2009. Analytic chemical composition and mineral content of yellow velvetleaf (Limnocharis flava L. Buchenau)'s edible parts. Journal of Applied Sciences, 9(16):2969-2974. http://scialert.net/qredirect.php?doi=jas.2009.2969.2974&linkid=pdf

Soerjani M, Kostermans AJGH, Tjitrosoepomo G, 1987. Weeds of Indonesia. Jakarta, Indonesia: Balai Pustaka, 716 pp

USDA-ARS, 2007. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx

Van den Bergh MH, 1993. Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau. In: Siemonsma JS, Piluek K, eds. Plant Resources of South-East Asia 8. Vegetables. Wageningen, Netherlands: Pudoc Scientific Publishers, 192-194

Vera PA, Aldama JR, 1983. Rice production in Paraguay. Arroz, 32(322):26-28

Waterhouse BM, Everett-J, Wilson PG, 2003. Know your enemy: recent records of potentially serious weeds in northern Australia, Papua New Guinea and Papua (Indonesia). Proceedings of the 5th International Flora Malesiana Symposium, Sydney, Australia, September 2001. Telopea, 10(1):477-485

Waterhouse BM, Mitchell AA, 1998. Northern Australia Quarantine Strategy: weeds target list. Australian Quarantine & Inspection Service, 110 pp. [Miscellaneous Publication No. 6/98.]

Links to Websites

Top of page

Contributors

Top of page

20/05/2008 Updated by:

Azmi Man, MARDI Food and Industrial Crop Research Centre, Seberang Perai, PO Box 203, 13200 Kepala Batas, Penang, Malaysia

Distribution Maps

Top of page