Ligustrum vulgare
(common privet)

Pictures

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Ligustrum vulgare L.

Preferred Common Name

• common privet

Other Scientific Names

• Ligustrum album Gueldenst. ex Ledeb.
• Ligustrum incipiens Gand.
• Ligustrum insulare Decne.
• Ligustrum insulense Decne.
• Ligustrum italicum Mill.
• Ligustrum lodense Glogau
• Ligustrum oviforme Gand.
• Ligustrum vicinum Gand.

International Common Names

• English: European privet; golden privet; wild privet
• Spanish: aligustre; aligustre comun
• French: troène; troene commun
• Portuguese: alfeneiro

Local Common Names

• Brazil: ligustro
• Germany: Gemeiner Liguster; Rainweide
• Italy: ligustro comune

EPPO code

• LIGVU (Ligustrum vulgare)

Summary of Invasiveness

L. vulgare is a shrub or small tree depending on climatic conditions, native to Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa. It has been introduced to many countries in different continents for ornamental use or for hedgerows. It is highly invasive, and although it prefers direct sunlight it is shade tolerant and will invade forest edges and other shady areas, as well as degraded areas. It is tolerant of most soil types and grows well in humid areas. It flowers abundantly and may produce more than 10,000 fruits per tree, with 1-4 seeds per fruit. Fruits are dispersed by birds and other animals, which facilitate invasion into vegetated areas. Control can be labour intensive as invasions advance and displace native plants. No biological control agents have been successfully identified so far. Pollen may cause allergies or asthma.

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Dicotyledonae
•                     Order: Oleales
•                         Family: Oleaceae
•                             Genus: Ligustrum
•                                 Species: Ligustrum vulgare

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

The genus Ligustrum contains around 40 species and is found throughout most of the temperate and tropical Old World except Africa and the coldest regions (Green, 1987), and is a member of the Oleaceae, a medium sized family consisting of around 600 species in 25 genera. Recent molecular studies have revealed that Ligustrum and Syringa are closely related and exist in the subtribe Ligustrinae within the tribe Oleeae (Wallander and Albert, 2000). The genus Ligustrum has been the subject of repeated reviews in the past (Green, 1985; Green, 1990; Green, 1995) and the current opinion is that the distinctions between species in Ligustrum are small.

The Plant List (2013) cites 11 synonyms of L. vulgare, 2 of which are invalid and one is illegitimate. There are also 14 varieties, 1 subspecies and 2 forms of L. vulgare listed. Plants from the warmer parts of the range show a stronger tendency to be fully evergreen; these have sometimes been treated as a separate variety, Ligustrum vulgare var. italicum (Bean, 1978) but others do not regard it as distinct.

The common name of ‘European privet’ reflects its native range. The species has been used commercially for hedging, and so a number of cultivars have been selected.

Description

Semi-evergreen shrub or small tree growing to 3 or 6m height, according to habitat and climatic characteristics. Trunks are formed by multiple stems with many long, leafy branches. Opposite, lanceolate leaves 2.5-6 cm long, 0.5-1.5 cm wide (Invasive.org, 2010). Leaves may be oval or elliptical, dark green, glossy, and waxy in appearance, turning purple in some countries in the autumn (GISD, 2015). The flowers have a strong fragrance and are produced in mid summer in panicles 3–6 cm long, each flower creamy-white, with a tubular base and a four-lobed corolla ('petals') 4–6 mm diameter; stamens 2, attached to the corolla tube; ovary superior, style single, stigmas 2. Spherical fruit, 1 to 1.3 cm in diameter, starting green and ripening to dark purple, almost black colour; contain 1-4 seeds. Smooth, grey-brown bark, spotted with small brown lenticels. Tends to stay evergreen in warmer climates (Natural Medicine Facts, 2015).

Plant Type

Distribution

L. vulgare is native to much of Europe, extending as far north as southwest Sweden and southeast Norway (USDA-ARS, 2015). It is also native to northwestern Africa (Morocco), and extends as far east as western Asia (Turkey, northwestern Iran, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia)(Weeds of Australia, 2015). It is now also widely naturalized in south-eastern Australia, and naturalized in southern Africa, the Azores, New Zealand, the USA and southern Canada (Weeds of Australia, 2015). It is reported as invasive in North and South America (Canada, USA, Argentina and Brazil), South Africa, Australia and New Zealand.

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

L. vulgare has been introduced and widely established in southern Africa (Henderson, 2001), the Azores, Australia, New Zealand, the USA and southern Canada (Weeds of Australia, 2015). In New Zealand L. vulgare, along with other Ligustrum species, is found in both islands, particularly in Tauranga, Wellington, Canterbury and central Otago. L. vulgare is less important as an invasive in New Zealand than other species in the genus (L. sinense and L. lucidum), although it is considered the most abundant species in colder parts of the South Island (McGregor, 2000).

L. vulgare is widely established in southeastern Australia, more commonly in Victoria, Tasmania, and southeastern South Australia. Also present in New South Wales tablelands and in the cooler parts of southeastern Queensland. It is nvasive in Victoria, Tasmania, and South Australia and is considered a potential sleeper weed in other parts of southern Australia (Weeds of Australia, 2015).

In the USA, L. vulgare was introduced in the colonial period as a hedge plant (Cothran, 2003), and has since escaped from cultivation and is becoming naturalized in eastern North American (Zhao et al., 2013; USDA-NRCS, 2015). Haragan (1996) put the date of introduction to the USA as the early to mid-1800s. Its range is still expanding in the eastern and southern USA (Wang and Grant, 2012). Having escaped from cultivation in gardens and along highways, it is invasive mostly in temperate and eastern states and in southern Canada (Zhao, 2012).

In South America, it is widely distributed and invasive in Argentina (I3N-Argentina, 2014), while in Brazil it invades Mixed Ombrophilous Forest (Araucaria angustifolia formations) on the southern high plains (around 900 m altitude) (I3N-Brasil, 2015). 

Introductions

Risk of Introduction

This species is not likely to be accidentally introduced over very long distances, as the seeds do not have structures that adhere to physical vectors or are carried by wind. Deliberate introductions are more likely, as the species is part of the ornamental plant trade along with other species in the genus. Once introduced to a region, the seeds can be dispersed by birds.

Habitat

L. vulgare grows on sandy, loamy and clay soils, on disturbed and ruderal sites, as well as in scrub and shrublands, under shade or exposed to direct sunlight, on dry or moist soils. It tolerates drought and maritime exposure (GISD, 2015).

Zhao (2012) says that in North America it grows well in full sunlight and along stream banks but tolerates shade and drought, also tolerating almost any soil type. It is a frequent invader in riparian areas, forest edges, old fields, floodplains, mature and disturbed woodlands. The US Forest Service (2006) lists it in habitats including bottomlands, mesic and riparian forests, old fields, primary woodlands, closed canopy forests, calcareous glades and barrens, deciduous cove forests, grassland, roadsides, fence rows, windbreaks and other areas with disturbed soil. It grows well in high light, low nutrient soils, but will tolerate lower light levels if nutrients are increased.

The species is extremely tolerant to atmospheric pollution. It also tolerates drought, limey or chalky soils (Irish Gardeners, 2015).

Habitat List

Biology and Ecology

Genetics

The chromosome number is reported as 2n=46 in Bulgaria (Petrova et al., 2007).

A study in Ohio, USA, found ten haplotypes identified at cpDNA marker trnH and 11 haplotypes identified at trnS, while 16 haplotypes were identified at the combined cpDNA marker. Two haplotypes were dominant at trnH. High levels of genetic diversity were recorded between invasive plants in natural areas and cultivars in nurseries, so interspecific hybridization was considered as a possible explanation (Zhao, 2012).

Reproductive Biology

Flowers are hermaphroditic and pollinated by insects (GISD, 2015). Mature plants can produce hundreds of fruits per plant per year. Seeds are dispersed by birds and other wildlife that eat the fruits and excrete seeds undamaged (US Forest Service, 2006). The species also reproduces from root sprouts (Invasive.org, 2010).

While the species can produce more than 10,000 fruits per plant with 1-4 seeds per fruit, neither fruit nor seed production are significantly affected by defoliation on flowering branches. Plants can regenerate from roots and stump sprouts (Zhao, 2012).

Physiology and Phenology

In North America, fruits ripen in the autumn, persist into spring, then seeds are dispersed by animals in winter (Zhao, 2012).

Flowering occurs in the summer, from June to July in Ireland. Fruits are ripe in September - October (Irish Gardeners, 2015).

Environmental Requirements

L. vulgare tolerates a wide range of soil types, and can grow in both sun and shade. It also tolerates drought and maritime exposure (GISD, 2015). Irish Gardeners (2015) states that it can tolerate “most locations and harsh treatments”.

Climate

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

Rainfall Regime

Soil Tolerances

Soil drainage

• free
• impeded

Soil reaction

• acid
• neutral

Soil texture

• heavy
• light
• medium

Special soil tolerances

• infertile

Natural enemies

Notes on Natural Enemies

Deer browse on sprouts (Miller, 2003).

In the United States, the species has been affected by twig blight anthracnose (Glomerella cingulata), which causes leaf yellowing (Zhao, 2012).

McGregor (2000) investigated pests and diseases associated with Ligastrum spp. in New Zealand to examine their potential for biological control. The fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides [Glomerella cingulata] was recorded as attacking L. vulgare. Both McGregor (2000) and Winks et al. (2012), however, found that while Ligastrum is attacked by a wide range of native and introduced invertebrates in New Zealand, overall damage appears to be minimal with none of the herbivore niches well utilized. Invertebrates reported are not specific to Ligastrum, and Winks et al. (2012) also report that no specialised plant pathogens were recovered from Ligastrum spp.

Means of Movement and Dispersal

L. vulgare produces large numbers of seeds, which can be dispersed by berry-eating birds and other animals in winter (Zhao et al., 2013). It has been intentionally introduced outside its native range for use as a hedging and ornamental plant.

Pathway Causes

Impact Summary

Economic Impact

In New Zealand, control costs of Ligastrum spp. can be high as control is labour intensive, especially because many of the preferred habitats are humid and preclude blanket spraying, making individual plants difficult to find (McGregor, 2000).

When flowering, Ligastrum spp. compete for bees; extensive infestations may reduce pollination of other crops like kiwifruit or honey production, as privet honey is not valued by beekeepers because it has a strong smell, and is too sweet. Privets may host pests and diseases such as the mite Brevipalpus odoratus, which is a potential pest for kiwifruit production, tomato spotted wilt virus Pythium debaryanum and Rosellinia necatrix, and tobacco mosaic virus (McGregor, 2000). The report by McGregor, however, suggests that Ligastrum lucidum and L. sinense are more important as pests and invasive species in New Zealand than L. vulgare.

Environmental Impact

The species forms dense thickets, therefore displacing native vegetation (GISD, 2015). It shades out and excludes native understory species, and might reduce tree recruitment (Invasives.org, 2010). Shannon et al. (2014) report that in Eastern Deciduous Forest, L. vulgare reduces arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi colonization of native forest understorey species. Shannon-Firestone et al. (2015), in the Eastern Deciduous Forest of Indiana, suggest that allelopathy of L. vulgare and Lonicera maakii could contribute to the decline of susceptible native species.

Social Impact

Pollen may cause allergic reactions in people (Batanero et al., 1996; Invasive.org, 2010). Berries can be poisonous to humans, although they are consumed by birds (Natural Medicine Facts, 2015).

Risk and Impact Factors

• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Has a broad native range
• Highly adaptable to different environments
• Tolerant of shade
• Highly mobile locally
• Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
• Has high reproductive potential
• Reproduces asexually

• Damaged ecosystem services
• Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
• Modification of successional patterns
• Monoculture formation
• Negatively impacts agriculture
• Negatively impacts human health
• Reduced amenity values
• Reduced native biodiversity
• Threat to/ loss of endangered species
• Threat to/ loss of native species

• Allelopathic
• Causes allergic responses
• Competition - monopolizing resources
• Competition - shading
• Competition - smothering
• Pest and disease transmission
• Hybridization
• Poisoning
• Pollen swamping

• Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
• Highly likely to be transported internationally illegally
• Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
• Difficult to identify/detect in the field
• Difficult/costly to control

Uses

Widely planted as hedges (Brickel, 1996; US Forest Service, 2006). Was planted by homeowners in home landscapes in North America from at least 1920, and by state transportation departments along highways, until it lost favour to other species because of the leaf yellowing caused by infection from Glomerella cingulata (Dirr, 2009).

L. vulgare has been used in folk medicine in southern Europe, particularly as an anti-inflammatory agent (Czerwin´ska et al, 2013).

Uses List

Environmental

• Agroforestry
• Amenity
• Boundary, barrier or support
• Graft stock

General

• Ornamental

Materials

• Poisonous to mammals

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

• Traditional/folklore

Ornamental

• Seed trade

Detection and Inspection

Plants are often found dispersed in the landscape in native vegetation that can be woody, which makes them difficult to detect, especially in early stages (Zhao, 2012). This is a common problem with forest invaders. Zhao et al. (2013) suggest that identifying favourable habitats for initial patches can assist in early detection of plants such as privet before the population undergoes rapid expansion, but acknowledges that small populations during this phase can be hard to detect. It is suggested that scouting edge habitats where bird dispersed seeds may be initially introduced is probably the most effective means for detecting early invasion.

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

Other species in the genus are invasive and quite similar to L. vulgare. Related species include Ligustrum japonicum, Ligustrum lucidum, Ligustrum obtusifolium, Ligastrum ovalifolium, and Ligastrum sinense. It is difficult to separate Ligustrum species once they escape into the wild, as identification depends on flowers. Even then identification can be questionable, as there are many lower taxa (Invasive Plant Atlas of New England, 2015). Maddox et al. (2010) give a key to Ligustrum spp. present in the middle southern USA.

L. japonicum is similar but has larger leaves (Miller, 2003). L. vulgare also resembles Forestiera ligustrina which occurs mainly on rocky sites and has sparse twigs, flowers, and fruit (Miller, 2003).

Symphoricarpos orbiculatus has similar leaves (Bugwood, 2014). S. orbiculatus is distinguished by its very slender twigs, deciduous leaves, red berries borne in axillary clusters, and the lack of a terminal bud.

Prevention and Control

Physical/Mechanical Control

While plants are small they may be pulled or dug out and uprooted. As this causes soil disturbance, a new invasion may be facilitated, and requires follow up, as it is difficult to remove 100% of roots. Stems must be cut once per growing season or more as close to the ground as possible to contain spread (US Forest Service, 2006).

Biological Control

McGregor (2000) reports a survey of pests and pathogens associated with Ligastrum spp. in New Zealand, and discusses the potential for biological control. While McGregor says that none of the invertebrates listed in published literature as being associated with Ligustrum spp. appear promising as potential biological control agents for privet, some fungal pathogens, particularly rusts, deserve further investigations. It is also suggested that preliminary surveys in southeast Asia found a lepidopteran caterpillar and some fungi that may be useful for biological control of privet in New Zealand. Subsequent work by Winks et al. (2012) in New Zealand found the larvae of a moth, thought to be Trichophysetis cretacea, feeding within privet berries. Recommendations for further studies on this moth, and for proceeding with a classical biological control programme for privet in New Zealand, are made.

Chemical Control

The US Forest Service (2006) suggests that control can be carried out with general use herbicides such as glyphosate or triclopyr. GISD (2015) says that larger L. vulgare plants need to be cut and glyphosate applied to the stump. Metsulphuron methyl (Maddox et al., 2010) has also been suggested for application both to foliage and to cut stumps. Other herbicides listed by Maddox et al. (2010) for Ligastrum  spp. include 2,4-D + 2,4-DP, and imazapyr. Stem injections can also be used for trees that are difficult to cut down.

Ward et al. (1999) suggested that gel pruning might also be an effective method for killing privet in New Zealand. In this method, a gel containing herbicide is applied to the cut surface as stems are pruned.

Sources cited by McGregor et al. (2000) list chemical control methods for Ligustrum spp. including spraying with glyphosate with an adjuvant in spring, and application of picloram mixed with 2,4-D, and picloram mixed with triclopyr ester to cut stumps.

Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs

Further research on biological control is highly desirable, especially given that the species is difficult to trace in shrubland or forests in the initial stages of invasion.

References

Batanero Gonzalez Peña E;MAde la; Villalba M; Monsalve RI; Martin-Esteban M; Rodriguez R, 1996. Isolation, cDNA cloning and expression of Lig v 1, the major allergen from privet pollen. Clinical and Experimental Allergy, 26(12):1401-1410.

Bean WJ, 1978. Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles, vol 2.

Brickel C, 1996. The Royal Horticultural Society A-Z Encyclopedia of Garden Plants. London, UK: Dorling-Kindersley.

Bugwood, 2014. Ligustrum vulgare. http://wiki.bugwood.org/Ligustrum_vulgare

Cothran JR, 2003. Gardens and Historic Plants of the Antebellum South., USA: The University of South Carolina Press, 217 pp.

Czerwinska ME; Granica S; Kiss AK, 2013. Effects of an aqueous extract from leaves of Ligustrum vulgare on mediators of inflammation in a human neutrophils model. Planta Medica, 79(11):924-932. https://www.thieme-connect.com/ejournals/abstract/10.1055/s-0032-1328718

Dirr MA, 2009. Manual of Woody Landscape Plants: Their Identification, Ornamental Characteristics, Culture, Propagation and Uses [ed. by 6th]. Champaign, IL, USA: Stipes, 641 pp.

GISD, 2015. Global Invasive Species Database (GISD). IUCN. http://www.issg.org/database/welcome/

Green PS, 1985. Ligustrum robustum subsp. walkeri (Oleaceae). Kew Bulletin, 40:130.

Green PS, 1987. The Oleaceae. In: Dassanayake MDF, ed. Flora of Ceylon, Vol VI. New Delhi, India: Amerind Publishing.

Green PS, 1990. Ligustrum (Oleaceae) in Southern India. Kew Bulletin, 45:693-696.

Green PS, 1995. Taxonomic notes relating to Ligustrum (Oleaceae). Kew Bulletin, 50:379-386.

Haragan PD, 1996. Privet (Ligustrum vulgare, L. sinense, L. japonicum). In: Invasive Plants: Weeds of the Global Garden [ed. by Randall, J. M. \Marinelli, J.]. Brooklyn, NY, USA: Brooklyn Botanic Garden, 58-59.

Henderson L, 2001. Alien weeds and invasive plants: a complete guide to declared weeds and invaders in South Africa. Plant Protection Research Institute, Handbook 12.

I3N Brasil, 2015. Invasives information network. Florianópolis - SC, Brazil: Horus Institute for Environmental Conservation and Development. http://i3n.institutohorus.org.br

I3N Uruguay, 2015. National invasive species database., Uruguay: Universidad de la República, Facultad de Ciencias. http://inbuy.fcien.edu.uy

I3N-Argentina, 2014. Invasive alien species database, I3N Argentina. Bahía Blanca, Argentina: I3N Argentina - Universidad Nacional del Sur. www.inbiar.org.ar

Invasive Plant Atlas of New England, 2015. Ligustrum vulgare datasheet. http://www.eddmaps.org/ipane/ipanespecies/shrubs/Ligustrum_vulgare.htm

Invasiveorg, 2010. Ligustrum vulgare datasheet. http://www.invasive.org/browse/subinfo.cfm?sub=3036

Irish Gardeners, 2015. Ligustrum vulgare datasheet. http://www.gardenplansireland.com/forum/about1048.html

McGregor PG, 2000. Prospects for biological control of privet (Ligustrum spp.) (Oleaceae). 16 pp. [Landcare Research Contract Report LC9900/127.] http://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/77693/Pospects_Biological_Control_Privet.pdf

Miller JH, 2003. Nonnative invasive plants of southern forests: a field guide for identification and control. General Technical Report - Southern Research Station, USDA Forest Service, No.SRS-62:iv + 93 pp.

Natural Medicine Facts, 2015. Ligustrum vulgare. http://www.naturalmedicinefacts.info/plant/ligustrum-vulgare.html

Parsons WT; Cuthbertson EG, 1992. Noxious Weeds of Australia. Melbourne, Australia: Inkata Press, 692 pp.

Petrova A; Zielinski J; Natcheva R, 2007. Chromosome numbers of woody plants from Bulgaria. Phytologia Balcanica, 13(3):371-378.

Pisula NL; Meiners SJ, 2010. Allelopathic potential of woody non-natives in a young forest community. The Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society, 137(1):81-87.

Shannon SM; Bauer JT; Anderson WE; Reynolds HL, 2014. Plant-soil feedbacks between invasive shrubs and native forest understory species lead to shifts in the abundance of mycorrhizal fungi. Plant and Soil, 382(1/2):317-328. http://rd.springer.com/journal/11104

Shannon-Firestone S; Firestone J, 2015. Allelopathic potential of invasive species is determined by plant and soil community context. Plant Ecology, 216(3):491-502. http://rd.springer.com/journal/11258

Texas Invasives, 2008. Invasives Database: Ligustrum vulgare. http://www.texasinvasives.org/plant_database/detail.php?symbol=LIVU

The Plant List, 2013. The Plant List: a working list of all plant species. Version 1.1. London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://www.theplantlist.org

US Forest Service, 2006. Weed of the week: European privet. http://www.na.fs.fed.us/fhp/invasive_plants/weeds/european-privet.pdf

USDA-ARS, 2015. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx

USDA-NRCS, 2015. The PLANTS Database. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov/

Wallander E; Albert VA, 2000. Phylogeny and Classification of Oleaceae Based on RPS16 and TRNL-F sequence data. American Journal of Botany, 87(12):1827-1841.

Wang HH; Grant WE, 2012. Determinants of Chinese and European privet (Ligustrum sinense and Ligustrum vulgare) invasion and likelihood of Further invasion in southern U.S. forestlands. Invasive Plant Science and Management, 5(4):454-463. http://wssajournals.org/loi/ipsm

Ward BG; Henzell RF; Holland PT; Spiers AG, 1999. Non-spray methods to control invasive weeds in urban areas. Proceedings of the Fifty Second New Zealand Plant Protection Conference, Auckland Airport Centra, Auckland, New Zealand, 10-12 August, 1999 [Proceedings of the Fifty Second New Zealand Plant Protection Conference, Auckland Airport Centra, Auckland, New Zealand, 10-12 August, 1999.]:1-5.

Weber E, 2003. Invasive Plant Species of the World. A Reference Guide to Environmental Weeds. Wallingford, UK: CABI Publishing.

Weeds of Australia, 2015. Weeds of Australia, Biosecurity Queensland Edition. http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/03030800-0b07-490a-8d04-0605030c0f01/media/Html/search.html?zoom_query=

Winks CJ; Than DJ; Anand N; Bellgard SE; Toft RJ, 2012. Invertebrates and fungi associated with privet, Ligustrum spp. (Oleaceae), in New Zealand. Auckland, New Zealand: Landcare Research. http://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/77692/Invertebrates_fungi_associated_privet.pdf

Zhao W, 2012. Genetic, Age, and Spatial Structure to Improve Management of Common Privet (Ligustrum vulgare)., USA: Ohio State University, 85 pp.

Zhao WY; Goebel C; Cardina J, 2013. Temporal and spatial pattern of a privet (Ligustrum vulgare) invasion. Invasive Plant Science and Management, 6(2):310-319. http://wssajournals.org/loi/ipsm

Links to Websites

Contributors

10/06/15 Original text by:

Dr Silvia Ziller, Society for Wildlife Research and Environmental Education, Curitiba, PR, Brazil

Distribution Maps