Acrolepiopsis assectella
(leek moth)

Pictures

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Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

• Acrolepiopsis assectella Zeller

Preferred Common Name

• leek moth

Other Scientific Names

• Acrolepia assectella Zeller
• Acrolepia betulella Herrich-Schaffer
• Acrolepia vigieliella Duponchel
• Roeslerstammia betulella Herrich-Schaffer

International Common Names

• Spanish: barrenador de la cebolla; pollilla del puerro; tiña del puerro
• French: teigne du poireau

Local Common Names

• Denmark: porremollet
• Germany: Lauchmotte; Motte, Lauch-; Motte, Zwiebel-; Zwiebelmotte
• Iran: bide tareh
• Italy: tignola della cipolla
• Netherlands: Nienmot; Poreimot
• Norway: purremollet
• Sweden: lokmallen
• Turkey: sogan yaprak guvesi

EPPO code

• ACROAS (Acrolepiopsis assectella)

Summary of Invasiveness

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A. assectella is a moth present throughout Europe. It is also found in some Asian countries and has been introduced to parts of Canada. The larvae of A. assectella feed on cultivated Allium species, primarily leek (A. porrum) and onion (A. cepa), but also garlic (A. sativum) and chives (A. fistulosum and A. schoenoprasum).

Taxonomic Tree

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• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Metazoa
•         Phylum: Arthropoda
•             Subphylum: Uniramia
•                 Class: Insecta
•                     Order: Lepidoptera
•                         Family: Plutellidae
•                             Subfamily: Plutellinae
•                                 Genus: Acrolepiopsis
•                                     Species: Acrolepiopsis assectella

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Top of page A. assectella was first described by Zeller in 1839 and had many synonyms and generic combinations in the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century. The last taxonomic study was conducted by Gaedike (1970a).

Description

Top of page Eggs

Eggs were studied by electronic microscopy (Chauvin et al., 1974). They are white, elliptical, ca 0.3 x 0.2 mm, with fine reticulate surface sculpturing. They are laid singly, primarily on the leaf surface.

Larvae

The best description of the larvae of A. assectella, including chetotaxy, is given by Frediani (1954).

First instar larvae are ca 1 mm long but mature larvae are ca 10 mm. The cephalic capsule is brown, its width, characteristic for each instar, increases after each larval moulting. The body is yellowish-white. Larval development consists of five instars. The sexes can be distinguished on the 4th and 5th instars, the orange testicles being dorsally visible.

Pupae

Tullgren (1918) and Frediani (1954) published good descriptions of the leek moth pupa. It is enclosed with the larval exuvia in a 10-mm-long, cream-coloured, silk cocoon made of characteristic meshes, open at the two extremities. The cocoon is spun by the 5th instar larva generally on the same host plant, on the surface of the leaves or on the flower-stalk, or between the floral peduncles.

The pupa is 7-8 mm long, its colour varies from weak yellow after pupal moulting to brown before adult emergence. Male and female pupae can be distinguished by the presence of a medial groove on the ventral face of the 7th and 8th abdominal segments.

Adults

Spuler (1910) published an illustration of the leek moth adult and Frediani (1954) described them precisely. Males and females 8- 9 mm long, with a wing span reaching ca 15 to 16 mm, are similar although the females are generally a little bigger. The general colour is grey-brown with a typical white triangle in the middle of the posterior edge of the fore wings. The hind wings are uniformly grey. The filiform, 6-mm-long antennae are made of 36-40 antennomers.

Male and female genitalia of A. assectella and other species of Acrolepiopsis were described by Gaedike (1970a).

Olfactory and gustatory sensillae from the antennae and ovipositor were studied using electron microscopy by Faucheux (1988a, b).

Distribution

Top of page A. assectella seems to be present throughout Europe. It has occasionally been reported from Siberia and Japan, but these observations are generally old (Frenkel, 1931) and probably represent misidentifications of Acrolepiopsis sapporensis. The misidentification of assectella was noted by Semenov and Kuznetsov (1956) when they described the Siberian Acrolepiopsis alliella, now considered to be a synonym of A. sapporensis (Moriuti, 1972). The record of assectella from onion in Hawaii, USA (Zimmerman, 1978), is in all probability also a misidentification of A. sapporensis.

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Hosts/Species Affected

Top of page A. assectella is considered a specialist phytophagous species. Its host range is restricted to plants belonging to the genus Allium. The leek moth was only observed on cultivated Allium. Leek (A. porrum) and onion (A. cepa) are the main host plants but attacks are also observed on garlic (A. sativum) and chives (A. fistulosum and A. schoenoprasum). In 1910, Picard noted possible damage on cultivated ornamental Asphodelus and Hemerocalis.

The vegetative and flowering stages are most widely affected, but the seedling stage is sometimes affected in nurseries. Stored onions and garlic are also damaged.

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Growth Stages

Top of page Flowering stage, Seedling stage, Vegetative growing stage

Symptoms

Top of page On inflorescences, damage is characterized by the fall of the flowers where moth larvae have eaten the floral peduncles.

On leeks, larvae mine the central leaves which have long, longitudinal grooves when growing.

On onion leaves the larvae feed on the parenchyma inside the hollow leaves, forming white windows closed by the epidermis. When feeding takes place at the base of the hollow flower stalk, this can be broken easily.

List of Symptoms/Signs

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Biology and Ecology

Top of page The biology and ecology of A. assectella were analysed in detail by Labeyrie (1966). Other important studies have been published in France (Rahn, 1966), Italy (Frediani, 1954), the Netherlands (Maan, 1945), Sweden (Tullgren, 1918) and Switzerland (Siegrist, 1945). Reproductive behaviour and physiology were studied by Thibout (1972, 1974, 1978, 1979, 1981).

Adults emerge from pupae fixed on to Allium leaves by the cocoon. They are active at night and remain still during the day. The first night after emergence the female releases a sex pheromone that attracts males. The female sex pheromone was identified as Z-11-hexadecenal (Renou et al., 1981). In response to this pheromone, the males also release a sex pheromone that stimulates female receptivity. This male pheromone is made of 8 n-alkanes from C16 to C23 (Lecomte et al., 1998). Mating takes place in the second half of the night and lasts about 1 h. Females normally mate once only but males are able to mate two or three times during their lifespan, but only once a night.

Females do not start to lay eggs before the following night and then only if they find an Allium host. Host plant searching behaviour by female leek moths was studied by Lecomte et al. (1987). Sulfur volatiles emitted by leeks, including dimethyl and dipropyl disulfides and especially dipropyl thiosulfinate which are characteristic to Allium, attract the moths.

A female generally lays between 100 and 120 eggs during her 1-week life, a maximum of about 400 eggs has been observed. Eggs are laid singly on the leaves of Allium plants and, after a wandering period, first instar larvae penetrate into the green leaves where they bore galleries. Third, fourth and fifth instars bore into the central yellow leaves of the leek and produce the most severe damage.

Development time is temperature dependent. At 25°C, eggs hatch after 3-4 days. Larval development takes 2 weeks, pupal development 1 week and adults can survive 7-10 days.

Migration has not been observed in the leek moth. An adult diapause, which is initiated by low temperatures and short photoperiods during larval instars, allows the adults to overwinter and survive for 4-6 months (Abo-Ghalia and Thibout, 1982). This diapause decreases female fecundity.

According to latitude, A. assectella completes various generations a year. In northern and central Europe, only two generations were observed. In southern Europe four to five generations, and in Algeria up to eight overlapping generations, have been observed.

Natural enemies

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Notes on Natural Enemies

Top of page Ageniaspis fuscicolis was tentatively reared on the leek moth (Arambourg et al., 1971), but cannot be considered as a natural enemy.

Two hyperparasitoids were obtained from A. assectella: Eupteromalus nidulans (Chalcididae) described by Frediani (1957) in Italy; and a Gelis sp. (Ichneumonidae) found in France (E Thibout, personal comunication, 2000, IRBI, Université François Rabelais, Tours, France).

The following parasitoids have been observed on several occasions:
Diadegma fenestralis (Holm.) on larvae, England and Sweden (Noyes, 1974; E Thibout, personal comunication, 2000, IRBI, Université François Rabelais, Tours, France),
Diadegma semiclausum on larvae, France (E Thibout, personal communication, 2000, IRBI, Université François Rabelais, Tours, France),
Diadromus (Thyraeella) collaris on pupae, Algeria, France and Italy (Lecomte, 1977; Labeyrie, 1966; Frediani, 1957),
Diadromus pulchellus on pupae, England and France (Noyes, 1974; Labeyrie, 1960),
Itoplectis alternans on larvae, France and Italy (Labeyrie, 1966; Frediani, 1954),
Itoplectis europeator (tunetana) on larvae, France (Aubert, 1969),
Limnerium gracilis on larvae, France and Italy (Suire, 1926; Frediani, 1954),
Microgaster globata on larvae, France and Netherlands (Maan, 1945; Labeyrie and Pons, 1950).

With the exception of the last species which is in the Braconidae, the others are Ichneumonidae.

15 natural parasitoids observed on the leek moth, some of them require confirmation:
Four Ichneumonidae: in France Zaglyptus varipes (Labeyrie, 1966), Campoletis raptor, Pimpla spuria and Phaeogenes fuscicornis (E Thibout, personal communication, 2000, IRBI, Université François Rabelais, Tours, France);
Two Braconidae: Chelonus eleaphilus and Chelonus depressus (Labeyrie, 1966); and
One Syrphidae: Xanthandrus comtus (Labeyrie, 1966).

In Allium fields, A. assectella larvae and pupae in the cocoon are also preyed upon by various predatory insects. In Russia, Velitchkevitch (1924) indicated that Staphilinidae and Coccinellidae are predators of the leek moth. In France, Thibout (not published) observed predation by Formicidae, Arachnida, Chrysopa carnea (Chrysopidae) and Orius sp. (Nabidae). In the UK, Noyes (1974) noted that Forficula auricularia (Dermaptera), Philonthus sp. (Staphilinidae), and three Carabidae, Pterostichus niger, Harpalus rufipes and an Amara sp. are also predators of the leek moth.

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Top of page Natural dispersal of the leek moth is limited. The adults appear to be poor flyers.

Seedborne Aspects

Top of page A. assectella does not cause direct damage on seeds which are chemically protected against specialist phytophagous insects (Arnault and Mauchamp, 1985). In inflorescences, the moth can cause seed loss by feeding on the floral peduncles. Attacks by the leek moth can also have positive consequences. For example, moderate defoliation in leek results in a greater level of sexual reproduction than in control plants (Boscher, 1979).

Pathway Vectors

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Plant Trade

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Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Bark
Fruits (inc. pods)
Growing medium accompanying plants
Roots
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants
True seeds (inc. grain)
Wood

Impact

Top of page Cultivated Allium plants, particularly leek and onion, from the south of Norway and Sweden to Italy, Spain and Algeria, are frequently attacked by A. assectella. After hatching, the young larva explores the surface and mines the green leaves. On reaching the third instar, the larva penetrates the young leaves, the flower stalk or the inflorescence of the host plant. Feeding on the parenchyma by the moth larva causes a reduction in plant growth; if larvae are numerous, weakening or withering of the plant can occur. On old leaves, open galleries can be seen which decrease the economic value of the plant. Without control, moth populations can reach so high a level at the third generation that 100% of the plants are damaged (Bouchet, 1964).

Very important damage also occurs on inflorescences in plants cultivated for seed production where serious seed loss can occur. In France, damage can reach >70% in Brittany (Rahn, 1982b), and 60-80% on leek and 40-50% on onion in Vaucluse (Nepveu and Hoffman, 1950).

The number of leek moths in a population depends on climatic conditions. The population increases with successive generations and damage is more important in summer and at the beginning of autumn than in the spring.

Sometimes moth galleries are colonized by maggots of Drosophilidae or of the onion fly, Delia antiqua, which introduce fungal and bacterial pathogens.

Detection and Inspection

Top of page In Allium fields, it is difficult to detect moth attacks. Damage by 4th and 5th instar larvae can be observed in central yellow growing leaves. In summer, when plants grow very quickly, longitudinal open mines can be seen on the green leaves, but by this time, insect development has finished.

Sexual trapping of the leek moth with the synthetic pheromone Z-11-Hexadecenal (Z 11 HDAL) can be used for providing early warning against various populations of the moth with standard INRA traps (Rahn, 1982a).

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

Top of page A. assectella can be confused with Acrolepiopsis ursinella (betulella) which develops on wild Allium ursinum, however the genitalia of the two species can be compared and are described by Gaedike (1970b).

Prevention and Control

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Cultural Control

Some cultural methods may influence leek moth damage on annual Allium plants (Rahn, 1982b). They have less activity on biennial plants such as leek.

Biological Control

Work on the specialist solitary endoparasitoid Diadromus pulchellus has been undertaken in the laboratory (Lecomte and Thibout, 1983, 1986, 1993; Thibout et al., 1988, 1993). No field studies have been undertaken.

Host-Plant Resistance

Some Allium varieties are considered more resistant than others to the leek moth. However, leeks and onions are selected according to flower stalk length, leaf colour, taste, winter hardiness or tendency to bulbiness (Brewster, 1994) and not on resistance to insects.

Chemical Control

Chemical control of the leek moth is very efficient when applied at the most appropriate time. Sexual trapping by means of the synthetic female pheromone (Z 11 HDAL) can be used to predict potential damage and dates of egg laying. However, some abnormally low captures have shown that this technique is not entirely reliable (Rahn, 1982a). The use of five pyrethrinoids and two organophosphorous insecticides, and of Bacillus thuringiensis toxin is possible in France under certain conditions (ACTA, 2000). No resistance of the leek moth to these insecticide treatments has been indicated. Film-coating leek seeds with fipronil and imidacloprid provided protection against A. assectella at low population densities (Ester and Huiting, 2001).

References

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