Lawsonia inermis (Egyptian privet)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Biology and Ecology
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Environmental Impact
- Social Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Wood Products
- References
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pageIdentity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Lawsonia inermis L.
Preferred Common Name
- Egyptian privet
Other Scientific Names
- Alcanna spinosa (L.) Gaertn.
- Casearia multiflora Spreng.
- Lawsonia alba Lam.
- Lawsonia purpurea Lam.
- Lawsonia speciosa L.
- Lawsonia spinosa L.
- Rotantha combretoides Baker
International Common Names
- English: camphire; henna; henna tree; mignonette tree
- Spanish: alcana; alhena; jenna; reseda
- French: henne; henné
- Arabic: hinná; yoranna
- Portuguese: alfeneiro; hena; hésia
Local Common Names
- Cambodia: krâpéén
- Dominican Republic: resedón
- Germany: Hennastrauch
- India: hena; marithoni; maruthani; mehedi; mendhi; mendi
- Indonesia: inai
- Indonesia/Java: pacar kuku
- Italy: alcanna vera; arbusto della henna
- Laos: kaaw
- Lesser Antilles: copiae
- Malaysia: hinna; inai; pacar kuku
- Myanmar: dan
- Pakistan: hena; mendhi
- Philippines: cinamomo
- Vietnam: lá mòn; nhuôm móng
EPPO code
- LAWIN (Lawsonia inermis)
Trade name
- henna
- mendhi
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageL. inermis is a shrub or small tree widely cultivated as an ornamental and hedge plant and for the commercial production of henna, a dye extracted from its leaves (Oyen, 1991; Orwa et al., 2009; PROTA, 2017; USDA-ARS, 2017). This species has often become naturalized, particularly on alluvial soils along rivers. In some African regions (e.g., Madagascar) this species has become so common that there is no need for cultivation (PROTA, 2017). It is listed as invasive in Cuba (Oviedo Prieto et al., 2012) and Singapore (Chong et al., 2009).
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Myrtales
- Family: Lythraceae
- Genus: Lawsonia - (Withdrawn)
- Species: Lawsonia inermis
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageThe family Lythraceae comprises 31 genera and 620 species of herbs, shrubs and trees that are recognizable by their flaky bark; opposite, entire leaves that lack gland dots; ovary is more or less superior. The fruit is usually a capsule; the testa of about half the genera has distinctive, initially inverted mucilaginous hairs (Stevens, 2012). Lawsonia is a small genus of just two species: Lawsonia inermis and Lawsonia odorata (The Plant List, 2013). The specific epithet inermis means unarmed or without spines (Orwa et al., 2009).
Description
Top of pageL. inermis is a much-branched, glabrous shrub or small tree, 2-6 m tall, with greyish-brown bark, unarmed when young, older plants with spine-tipped branchlets. Young branches quadrangular. Leaves opposite, entire and sub-sessile, elliptic to broadly lanceolate, 1.5-5 cm x 0.5-2 cm. Flowers numerous in large, pyramidal, terminal cymes, fragrant, 1 cm across and 4-merous, calyx with 2 mm long tube, and 3 mm long spreading lobes; petals orbicular or obovate, white or red; stamens 8, inserted in pairs on the rim of the calyx tube; ovary 4-celled, style up to 5 mm long, erect. Fruit a globose capsule, 4-8 mm in diameter, many-seeded, opening irregularly. Seeds 3 mm long, angular, with thick coat (Oyen, 1991).
Distribution
Top of pageThe native distribution range of L. inermis is uncertain, but this species probably originates in Asia (USDA-ARS, 2017). Linguistic and biogeographic evidence supports an origin in the area of Baluchistan (Iran/Pakistan) to western India, where it can still be found growing in the wild (PROTA, 2017). From there it would have spread to the rest of India, Indonesia, the Sahel, Central Africa, and the Middle East. L. inermis is now distributed throughout tropical and subtropical regions (Oyen, 1991; Orwa et al., 2009; PROTA, 2017). Both USDA-ARS (2017) and PROTA (2017) suggest that the origin is likely to be South Asia, but also include much of Africa and parts of Asia and the Middle East in the listed native distribution.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Feb 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Planted | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
||||||||
Algeria | Present | Native | ||||||
Benin | Present | Native | ||||||
Burkina Faso | Present | Native | ||||||
Cameroon | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Central African Republic | Present | Native | ||||||
Chad | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Comoros | Present | Native | ||||||
Congo, Democratic Republic of the | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Congo, Republic of the | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Côte d'Ivoire | Present | Native | ||||||
Egypt | Present | Uncertain origin | ||||||
Ethiopia | Present | Native | ||||||
Gabon | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Gambia | Present | Native | ||||||
Ghana | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Guinea | Present | Native | ||||||
Guinea-Bissau | Present | Native | ||||||
Kenya | Present | Planted | ||||||
Liberia | Present | Native | ||||||
Libya | Present | Cultivated | ||||||
Madagascar | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | ||||
Mali | Present | Native | ||||||
Mauritania | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Mauritius | Present | Planted | ||||||
Morocco | Present | Native | ||||||
Mozambique | Present | |||||||
Niger | Present | Native | ||||||
Nigeria | Present | Native | ||||||
Senegal | Present | Native | ||||||
Seychelles | Present | Native | ||||||
Sierra Leone | Present | Native | ||||||
Somalia | Present | Native | ||||||
South Africa | Present | Native | ||||||
Sudan | Present | Native | ||||||
Tanzania | Present | Introduced | Zanzibar | |||||
-Zanzibar Island | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Togo | Present | Native | ||||||
Tunisia | Present | Native | ||||||
Asia |
||||||||
Afghanistan | Present | Planted | ||||||
Bangladesh | Present | Planted | ||||||
Bhutan | Present | Planted | ||||||
Cambodia | Present | Planted | ||||||
China | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Fujian | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Guangdong | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Jiangsu | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Yunnan | Present | Introduced | ||||||
India | Present | Native | ||||||
-Gujarat | Present | Planted | ||||||
-Haryana | Present | Planted | ||||||
-Maharashtra | Present | Planted | ||||||
-Punjab | Present | Planted | ||||||
-Tamil Nadu | Present | |||||||
-Uttar Pradesh | Present | Planted | ||||||
-West Bengal | Present | Planted | ||||||
Indonesia | Present | Native | ||||||
-Java | Present | Planted | ||||||
Iran | Present | Native | ||||||
Iraq | Present | Native | ||||||
Japan | Present | Planted | ||||||
Jordan | Present | Native | ||||||
Kuwait | Present | Native | ||||||
Laos | Present | Planted | ||||||
Lebanon | Present | Native | ||||||
Malaysia | Present | Native | ||||||
Myanmar | Present | Planted | ||||||
Oman | Present | Native | ||||||
Pakistan | Present | Native | ||||||
Philippines | Present | Native | ||||||
Qatar | Present | Native | ||||||
Saudi Arabia | Present | Native | ||||||
Singapore | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Native | ||||||
Syria | Present | Native | ||||||
Turkey | Present | Native | ||||||
United Arab Emirates | Present | Planted | ||||||
Vietnam | Present | Planted | ||||||
Yemen | Present | Native | ||||||
-Socotra | Present | Introduced | 2003 | |||||
Europe |
||||||||
Cyprus | Present | Native | ||||||
Russia | Present | Planted | ||||||
Spain | Present | Planted | ||||||
North America |
||||||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Aruba | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Bahamas | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Barbados | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Belize | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Bonaire, Saint Eustatius and Saba | ||||||||
-Saba | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Sint Eustatius | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Cayman Islands | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Costa Rica | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | ||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Curaçao | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Dominica | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | ||||||
El Salvador | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | ||||
Guadeloupe | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Guatemala | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | ||||
Haiti | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Honduras | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | ||||
Jamaica | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Martinique | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Mexico | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | ||||
Montserrat | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Netherlands Antilles | Present | Introduced | St Barthelemy | |||||
Nicaragua | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | ||||
Panama | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | ||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Saint Kitts and Nevis | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Saint Lucia | Present | Introduced | ||||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | St Croix, St Thomas | |||||
United States | Present | Planted | ||||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Oceania |
||||||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | 1843 | |||||
Cook Islands | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Fiji | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Northern Mariana Islands | Present | Introduced | ||||||
South America |
||||||||
Bolivia | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Ecuador | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Galapagos Islands | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Guyana | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Suriname | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Venezuela | Present | Introduced |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageL. inermis occurs wild from Iran and Pakistan to western India. From there it would have spread eastward to the rest of India and Indonesia, and westward to the Middle East where it became one of the important plants of Islam. Aronson et al. (2017) suggest that it was introduced to the Middle East 1500-2500 years ago. Later, Islamic armies and traders from Arabia introduced this species in areas as far as Spain, northern Africa, Madagascar, the Moluccas, Indo-China and Japan (PROTA, 2017). Currently, this species can be found throughout the tropics and subtropics. It is often grown in home gardens and commercial production is limited to a few places in India, Pakistan, Iran, Egypt, Libya, Niger and Sudan (Oyen, 1991; PROTA, 2017).
The earliest known use of the dye (henna) prepared from L. inermis dated to the Ancient Egypt. Egyptians used this plant to stain mummies and mummy’s wrappings. Later, between 1400-1500 BC, Greeks probably moved this species from the Middle East and North Africa to the Mediterranean islands and Europe. In classical Greece, henna was well known as a medicinal and cosmetic plant (Zavada, 1993).
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageThe likelihood of continued introduction of L. inermis is moderate to high. This species has been widely introduced across tropical and subtropical regions to be used as an ornamental and for henna dye production (USDA-ARS, 2017). The international demand for henna dye is still growing, and consequently new introductions are highly likely to occur (Oyen, 1991).
Habitat
Top of pageL. inermis is well adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions. It grows in dry and semi-arid habitats, in coastal secondary scrubs, along watercourses and in temporarily flooded riverbeds and riverine thickets (Orwa et al., 2009; PROTA, 2017). In Africa it has often become naturalized, particularly on alluvial soils along rivers and in areas near villages (PROTA, 2017). In Central America and Mexico, it can also be naturalized in secondary vegetation (Davidse et al., 2009).
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome number reported for L. inermis is 2n = 30 (Oyen, 1991; Hanson et al., 2001).
Reproductive Biology
L. inermis is listed as a “self-pollinated” plant (Phirke and Saha, 2013).
Physiology and Phenology
L. inermis produces flowers all year round (PROTA, 2017).
Longevity
L. inermis is a perennial shrub or small tree. In cultivation, while highest yields occur at 4-8 years after planting, plants are often left in the field for 12-25 (max. 40) years (Orwa et al., 2009).
Activity Patterns
L. inermis requires high temperatures (~25°C) for germination, growth and establishment (PROTA, 2017).
Environmental Requirements
L. inermis grows best in areas where mean annual temperatures are within the range 19-27°C (but can tolerate 13-33°C) and mean annual rainfall ranging from 500 mm to 1500 mm, but can tolerate ranges varies form 200 mm to 4200 mm. It can grow on poor, stony, and sandy soils, but it is also adapted to heavy, fertile clay soils with pH ranging from 4.3 to 8. This species requires high temperatures (optimum daily average about 25°C) for germination, growth and development. L. inermis tolerates drought and semiarid conditions. It often grows in temporarily flooded, riverbeds and riverine thickets at elevations up to 2000 m (Oyen, 1991; Orwa et al., 2009; FAO, 2017; PROTA, 2017).
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
32 | 13 | 0 | 1500 |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) | 0 | |
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 17 | 25 |
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC) | 28 | 36 |
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC) | 6 | 13 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Dry season duration | 3 | 6 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
Mean annual rainfall | 200 | 4200 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
- impeded
Soil reaction
- acid
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- infertile
- saline
- shallow
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alternaria alternata | Pathogen | Plants|Whole plant | not specific | |||
Alternaria tenuissima | Pathogen | Plants|Whole plant | not specific | |||
Corticium koleroga | Pathogen | Plants|Whole plant | not specific | |||
Pachnoda interrupta | Herbivore | Plants|Whole plant | not specific | |||
Phenacoccus solenopsis | Pathogen | Plants|Whole plant | not specific | |||
Sarucallis kahawaluokalani | Plants|Whole plant | not specific | ||||
Xanthomonas campestris pv. lawsoniae | Pathogen | Plants|Whole plant | not specific |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pagePests and diseases have been reported attacking L. inermis including: Alternaria alternata, Alternaria tenuissima, the beetle Pachnoda interrupta, Phenacoccus solenopsis (cotton mealybug), the aphid Sarucallis kahawaluokalani and Corticium koleroga. In India, a black root rot caused by Corticium koleroga and a bacterial leaf spot caused by Xanthomonas lawsoniae have been reported on this species (Orwa et al., 2009).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageBirds feed on the fruits of L. inermis and probably disperse the seeds (Orwa et al., 2009).
Intentional Introduction
L. inermis has been widely introduced to be used as ornamental and hedge plants, and for the commercial production of henna, a dye extracted from its leaves (Oyen, 1991; Orwa et al., 2009; PROTA, 2017; USDA-ARS, 2017).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Botanical gardens and zoos | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2017) | |
Crop production | Commercial production of henna dye | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2017) |
Disturbance | Naturalized in disturbed sites and near villages | Yes | Yes | PROTA (2017) |
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Yes | Yes | Oyen (1991) | |
Forage | Browsed by livestock | Yes | Yes | Orwa et al. (2009) |
Habitat restoration and improvement | Planted for soil conservation | Yes | Yes | Orwa et al. (2009) |
Hedges and windbreaks | Live fence | Yes | Yes | Orwa et al. (2009) |
Industrial purposes | Henna dye production | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2017) |
Medicinal use | Used in traditional Asian and African medicine | Yes | Yes | Orwa et al. (2009) |
Ornamental purposes | Yes | Yes | Orwa et al. (2009) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Debris and waste associated with human activities | Seeds | Yes | Yes | Orwa et al. (2009) |
Environmental Impact
Top of pageImpact on habitats
L. inermis removes a large quantity of nutrients from the soil. For example, a yield of 1000 kg dry leaves removes about 180-190 kg of nitrogen, 100-150 kg of potassium and 10-30 kg of phosphate (Orwa et al., 2009).
Impact on biodiversity
L. inermis can grow forming dense thickets which are able to cause environmental degradation by out-competing and replacing native vegetation, mostly native vegetation on alluvial soils and in riparian zones (PROTA, 2017).
Social Impact
Top of pageThe henna dye is known to be dangerous to people with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency and may cause allergic reaction and injuries to the skin (FDA, 2017).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Gregarious
- Altered trophic level
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Monoculture formation
- Negatively impacts human health
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Causes allergic responses
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - smothering
- Herbivory/grazing/browsing
- Rapid growth
- Rooting
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Top of pageEconomic Value
L. inermis is widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. It is often planted as ornamental for its fragrant flowers. It is also cultivated for the production of henna: an orange-red dye obtained from macerated, triturated or powdered leaves. Henna dye is used for dyeing cloth and hair, for staining nails, palms and soles, and in traditional medicine. Leaves are browsed by livestock and the wood is used to make tent pegs and tool handles (Oyen, 1991; Orwa et al., 2009; PROTA, 2017; USDA-ARS, 2017).
Environmental Services
L. inermis has been successfully planted in soil conservation projects (Orwa et al., 2009). It can also be grown as a live fence.
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Fodder/animal feed
Environmental
- Amenity
- Boundary, barrier or support
- Erosion control or dune stabilization
- Revegetation
- Shade and shelter
Fuels
- Fuelwood
Human food and beverage
- Food additive
Materials
- Baskets
- Carved material
- Dye/tanning
- Dyestuffs
- Essential oils
- Fibre
- Pesticide
- Wood/timber
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Ornamental
- Christmas tree
- Cut flower
- garden plant
- Potted plant
- Propagation material
- Seed trade
References
Top of pageAcevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, no. 98. Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, Washington DC, 1192 pp. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
Aronson I, Aronson TB, Patzelt A, Knees SG, Lewis GP, Lupton D, Taifour H, Gardner MF, Thompson H, Al-Hatmi S, Al-Khulaidi AW, 2017. Paleorelicts or archaeophytes: enigmatic trees in the Middle East. Journal of Arid Environments, 137: 69-82
Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html
Charles Darwin Foundation, 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Galapagos, Ecuador: Charles Darwin Foundation
Chong KY, Tan HTW, Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Singapore: Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore, 273 pp. http://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/nus/pdf/PUBLICATION/LKCNH%20Museum%20Books/LKCNHM%20Books/flora_of_singapore_tc.pdf
Davidse G, Sousa Sánchez M, Knapp S, Chiang Cabrera F, 2009. Flora Mesoamericana. St. Louis, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden
FAO, 2017. Ecocrop Website. http://ecocrop.fao.org/ecocrop/srv/en/home
FDA, 2007. Temporary Tattoos, Henna/Mehndi, and "Black Henna": Fact Sheet. http://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/ProductsandMedicalProcedures/HomeHealthandConsumer/ConsumerProducts/ContactLenses/ucm108569.htm
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2013. Flora of China. Beijing & St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden Press
Funk VA, Berry PE, Alexander S, Hollowell TH, Kelloff CL, 2007. Checklist of the plants of the Guiana Shield. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, 55: 1–584
Hanson L, McMahon KA, Johnson MAT, Bennett MD, 2001. First nuclear DNA C-values for 25 angiosperm families. Annals of Botany, 87: 251–258
Hokche O, Berry PE, Huber O, 2008. Nuevo Catálogo de la Flora Vascular de Venezuela. 1–859. Caracas, Venezuela: Fundación Instituto Botánico de Venezuela
Jørgensen PM, León-Yánez S, 1999. Catalogue of the vascular plants of Ecuador. Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden. 75:1-1182
Jørgensen PM, Nee MH, Beck SG, 2014. Catalago de las plantas vasculares de Bolivia. Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden, 127: 1-1744
Kolarkar AS, Singh N, Shankarnarayan Ka, 1981. Note on Mehendi (Lawsonia inermis L.) cultivation in normal and degraded lands of Western Rajastan. Indian Journal of Soil Conservation, 9:71-74.
McCormack G, 2013. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database, Version 2007. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database. Rarotonga, Cook Islands: Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust. http://cookislands.bishopmuseum.org/search.asp
Mohammed-Ali, 1996. Chemical and medical evaluation of Lawsonia inermia (henna). Hamard Medicus, 39(4):43-48; 100 ref.
Orwa C, Mutua A, Kindt R, Jamnadass R, Anthony S, 2009. Agroforestree Database:a tree reference and selection guide version 4.0 (http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sites/treedbs/treedatabases.asp
Oviedo Prieto R, Herrera Oliver P, Caluff MG, et al., 2012. National list of invasive and potentially invasive plants in the Republic of Cuba - 2011. (Lista nacional de especies de plantas invasoras y potencialmente invasoras en la República de Cuba - 2011). Bissea: Boletín sobre Conservación de Plantas del Jardín Botánico Nacional de Cuba, 6 (Special Issue 1):22-96
Oyen LPA, 1991. Lawsonia inermis L. Record from Proseabase. In: Lemmens RHMJ, Wulijarni-Soetjipto N, Eds. Bogor, Indonesia: PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation. http://www.proseanet.org
Parker RN, 1956. A forest flora for the Punjab with Hazara and Delhi. Lahore, Pakistan: Government Printing Press.
Phirke SS, Saha M, 2013. Lawsonia inermis: A rainfed ratoon crop. National Conference on Biodiversity: Status and Challenges in Conservation–FAVEO, pp. 189-193
PIER, 2017. Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
PROTA, 2017. Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp
Smith AC, 1985. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 3. 758 pp.
Stevens PF, 2012. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
The Plant List, 2013. The Plant List: a working list of all plant species. Version 1.1. London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://www.theplantlist.org
USDA-ARS, 2017. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, USA. http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl
Zavada MS, 1993. The historical use of Henna (Lawsonia inermis L.) in the Balkans. Thaiszia Journal of Botany, 3: 97-100
Distribution References
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Davidse G, Sousa Sánchez M, Knapp S, Chiang Cabrera F, 2009. (Flora Mesoamericana). In: Flora Mesoamericana, St. Louis, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden.
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2013. Flora of China., Beijing & St. Louis, Missouri Botanical Garden Press.
Jørgensen PM, León-Yánez S, 1999. Catalogue of the vascular plants of Ecuador. In: Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden, 75 1-1181.
Jørgensen PM, Nee MH, Beck SG, 2014. (Catalago de las plantas vasculares de Bolivia). In: Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden, 127 1-1744.
PROTA, 2017. Plant Resources of Tropical Africa., http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp
Contributors
Top of page11/03/17 Original text by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
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