Kabatiella zeae (eyespot)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Taxonomic Tree
- Description
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Growth Stages
- Symptoms
- List of Symptoms/Signs
- Biology and Ecology
- Seedborne Aspects
- Plant Trade
- Impact Summary
- Impact
- Diagnosis
- Detection and Inspection
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Distribution Maps
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Generate reportPictures
Top of page| Picture | Title | Caption | Copyright |
|---|---|---|---|
| Early symptoms | Early symptoms of eyespot, appearing in June. | Agata Tekiela | |
| Early symptoms | Early symptoms of eyespot, appearing in July. | Agata Tekiela | |
| Symptoms | The total stroke - first symptoms. | Agata Tekiela | |
| Symptoms | The tissue at the centre of the spot later dies and turns tan coloured, with a brown or purple ring at the margin. | Agata Tekiela | |
| Symptoms | Eyespot, showing a yellow halo when backlit. | Agata Tekiela |
Identity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Kabatiella zeae Narita & Y. Hirats.
Preferred Common Name
- eyespot
Other Scientific Names
- Aureobasidium zeae (Narita & Y. Hirats.) Dingley
International Common Names
- English: eye spot: maize; maize eye spot
- Spanish: antracnosis del maiz
- French: brunissure du mais; kabatiellose du mais; kabatiellosis; taches oculaires du mais
Local Common Names
- Germany: Augenfleckenkrankheit: Mais
- Poland: drobna (oczkowa) plamistosc lisci kukurydzy; drobna plamistosc lisci kukurydzy
EPPO code
- KABAZE (Kabatiella zeae)
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Fungi
- Phylum: Ascomycota
- Subphylum: Pezizomycotina
- Class: Dothideomycetes
- Subclass: Dothideomycetidae
- Order: Dothideales
- Family: Dothioraceae
- Genus: Kabatiella
- Species: Kabatiella zeae
Description
Top of page Concentrations of conidiomata (acervuli) are produced on a dense mycelium layer (mat) on a small area of the infected plant organ. This is often covered with a skin or cuticle. The conidiomata are small, whitish, flat or convex. Unicellular, colourless, ellipsoidal, slightly curved conidia, 2.5-5.0 x 12-22 µm, are present on the apex (Reifschneider and Arny, 1980).Distribution
Top of page Eyespot disease was first identified and described in Japan in 1956. It was later found to be present in the USA (Arny et al., 1971), Canada (Gates and Mortimore, 1969) and in Europe.Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of page K. zeae is specific to maize.Growth Stages
Top of page Flowering stage, Fruiting stage, Vegetative growing stageSymptoms
Top of page The first symptoms of eyespot occur in June. Minor, light-coloured and somewhat translucent spots appear, surrounded by a red-brown ring with a chlorotic yellow halo, easily seen against the light. The leaf spots are circular to oval, 1-4 mm in diameter, and are called eyespots on account of their shape and colour. The spots gradually become darker and the centres, which become more brown, may fall out. The spots are arranged along the leaf vein and are most numerous along the leaf edges. Leaf spots are initially single, but rapidly spread to cover the entire leaf area. The disease is most commonly seen in patches on the leaves. Lesions are most common on older plants and are not commonly seen early in the season. In addition to the leaves, K. zeae attacks the leaf sheath and the leaves covering the ears. The disease can cause severe shrivelling of the ears. The leaves turn yellow and die at the site of infection. Necrotic areas spread causing premature drying of the leaves and thereby a decrease in grain yield (Reifschneider and Arny, 1983). K. zeae inhibits growth and can even cause plant death (Schneider and Kruger, 1972; Czaplinska and Przybysz, 1985). The highest eyespot intensity occurs in August, September and early October. Kabatiella infection on maize leaves remains visible even when the leaves die.List of Symptoms/Signs
Top of page| Sign | Life Stages | Type |
|---|---|---|
| Leaves / abnormal colours | ||
| Leaves / abnormal patterns | ||
| Leaves / fungal growth | ||
| Leaves / necrotic areas | ||
| Leaves / yellowed or dead | ||
| Stems / discoloration | ||
| Stems / discoloration of bark | ||
| Stems / internal red necrosis | ||
| Stems / necrosis | ||
| Whole plant / early senescence | ||
| Whole plant / plant dead; dieback |
Biology and Ecology
Top of page The most frequently reported source of eyespot infection is crop debris left over from the previous season (Arny et al., 1971; Reifschneider and Arny, 1983). K. zeae overwinters as stroma, which are formed on infected maize plants at the end of the season. In the spring these stroma produce conidia, which disperse by wind or light rain to the leaves of nearby young maize plants, where they germinate. Secondary spread of the eyespot disease is by wind and water splash of spores from one plant to another. The incubation period for the disease is about 4-10 days, depending on weather conditions. The production of conidia and the development of leaf eyespot are favoured by long periods of cool, wet weather during the growing season (Arny et al., 1971; Czaplinska and Przybysz, 1985; Lipps and Mills, 2005), so regions with cool, moist environments are most affected by the disease. Maize is most susceptible at 10-12°C (HYP3, 2005).Eyespot is most severe when crop residues are left on the soil at the end of the growing period and in fields where maize is grown continuously (Lipps and Mills, 2005). Careful cultivation and crop rotation can help to reduce early infection; however, cases of the disease have been encountered on carefully cultivated fields and on the fields where maize has never been grown (Arny et al., 1971).
Eyespot disease may also be seedborne, but this source of inoculum is negligible compared to the number of spores produced on infested crop residues (Lipps and Mills, 2005).
Seedborne Aspects
Top of pageK. zeae has not been detected in seeds, but husks may be infected (Cassini, 1971). Reifschneider and Arny (1979a) detected K. zeae in 2% of seeds from ears inoculated under the husk. Jones and Baker (2007) report that K. zeae entered the UK via imported maize seeds.
Plant Trade
Top of page| Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport | Pest stages | Borne internally | Borne externally | Visibility of pest or symptoms |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Leaves | spores | Yes | Yes | Pest or symptoms usually visible to the naked eye |
| Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches | spores | Yes | Yes | Pest or symptoms usually visible to the naked eye |
Impact Summary
Top of page| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Animal/plant collections | None |
| Animal/plant products | None |
| Biodiversity (generally) | None |
| Crop production | Negative |
| Environment (generally) | None |
| Fisheries / aquaculture | None |
| Forestry production | None |
| Human health | None |
| Livestock production | None |
| Native fauna | None |
| Native flora | None |
| Rare/protected species | None |
| Tourism | None |
| Trade/international relations | None |
| Transport/travel | None |
Impact
Top of page Economic losses to eyespot are uncommon (Walker Kirby, 1998); however, losses can occur when infection is severe; when much of the leaf area is blighted within 3-4 weeks after silking; when early and severe leaf blighting occurs on suceptible hybrids grown in no-till or reduced tillage fields; when defoliation from leaf blighting increases stalk rot (losses from lodged maize); and when the season is abnormally cool and the disease attacks maize earlier in the season (Lipps and Mills, 2005).Diagnosis
Top of page Leaf samples showing typical symptoms of eyespot should be collected and the pathogen isolated using a weighing method. Potato-glucose PDA medium can be used to re-isolate the fungus. Representative cultures are produced and uniembryonate cultures are obtained by a method of multiple dilutions. K. zeae grows best on 4% malt agar, and can be described to species level using monographs and identification keys.Detection and Inspection
Top of page The first symptoms of eyespot disease can be seen in June, but most often they appear at the beginning of July, depending on atmospheric conditions. When inspecting fields for eyespot, look for typical symptoms on the leaves. The degree of infection can be estimated by determining the leaf area affected using a 5-degree scale where: 1° = 0.1-5%, 2° = 5-15%, 3° = 15-30%, 4° = 30-50% and 5° => 50% of the leaf area has spots.Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of page Eyespot symptoms are easily confused with physiological changes caused by nutrient deficiency, particularly at the initial stages of the disease. Similar symptoms can also be produced by insect feeding (particularly by aphids) or the improper application of herbicides. Early spotting, caused by Curvularia, produces similar symptoms to eyespot.Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Thorough cultivation and crop rotation can reduce early infection by K. zeae. Arny et al. (1971) recommend using a 3-4-year interval for maize cultivation in the same field. The amount of infectious material can be reduced by a suitable crop rotation and thorough ploughing and destruction of after-harvest residues, particularly from seriously infected plants. Deep ploughing of crop debris prevents sporulation of the stromas and promotes decomposition (HYP3, 2005) thus limiting early season spread.Resistance to K. zeae is important in the control of eyespot and hybrids with some resistance to the disease should be planted. Susceptible hydrids include Julia, Heros, Agio and Aura; more resistant hybrids include Kosmo and Elsa. Even a known source of resistance such as the line Oh43 can be subject to infection in the case of epiphytosis (Reifschneider and Arny, 1983).
Fungicides registered for use against K. zeae include mancozeb, propiconazole, chlorothalonil and benomyl (Gay and Cassini, 1973; Pronczuk et al., 1996). For effective protection against K. zeae, seed dressings are recommended, followed by spraying the plants at the early stages of disease development when 1% or less of the leaf area is infected. More than one application may be necessary when conditions are favourable to the disease. The use of fungicides against eyespot can be prohibitively expensive, except on seed production fields (Lipps and Mills, 2005).
Pest control plays an important role in reducing the occurrence of eyespot, particularly the control of Aphididae and Thysanoptera, which feed on maize and can facilitate the penetration of conidia.
References
Top of pageArny DC; Smallej EB; Ullstrup AJ; Worf GL; Ahrens RW, 1971. Eyespot of maize, a disease new to North America. Phytopathology, 61:54-57.
Bohm H; Glaeser G, 1979. Report on the occurrence of important diseases and pests on cultivated plants in Austria in 1976. Pflanzenschutzberichte, 1976-1979, 45:7-12; 145-151.
Borecki Z, 1996. Polskie nazwy chorób roslin uprawnych. Polskie Towarzystwo Fitopatologiczne, 108-109.
Carson ML, 1985. First report of eyespot (Kabatiella zeae) of corn in South Dakota. Plant Disease, 69(2):177
Cassini R, 1971. Helminthosporium maydis, race T and Kabatiella zeae, two new pathogens of maize in France. Bull. Tech. Inf., 264/265:1067-1072.
Cassini R, 1973. Present state of maize diseases in France. Possibilities of control. ibid., No.1:4
Cassini R, 1975. Some pathological problems in cereal crop rotations. EPPO Bulletin, 5(2):141-151
Cassini R; Gay JP; Cassini R, 1972. Observations on the development cycle and survival structures of Kabatiella zeae. Annales de Phytopathologie. 4(4):367-371.
Chez D; Hudon M, 1975. Kabatiella zeae, a new maize pathogen in Quebec. Phytoprotection, 56(2):90-95
Cross HZ; Wanner DW; Carena MJ, 2003. Registration of ND291 inbred line of maize. Crop Science, 43(4):1568.
Czaplinska S, 1981. Drobna plamistosc lisci (eyespot) - Kabatiella zeae Narita et Hiratsuka, nowa choroba kukurydzy w Polsce. Hodowla Roslin, 3:18-19.
Czaplinska S; Przybysz M, 1985. Niektóre aspekty biologii grzyba Kabatiella zeae Narita et fleckenkrankheit an Mais in Deutschland. Phytopathologische Zeitschrift. 74: 3, 457-482.
Dingley JM, 1973. ’Eye spot’ disease of maize in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research. 16: 3, 325-328.
Gates LF; Mortimore CG, 1969. Three diseases of corn (Zea mays), new to Ontario: crazytop, a Phyllosticta leaf spot and eyespot. Canadian Plant Disease Survey, 49:128-131.
Gay JP; Cassini R, 1973. Possibilities of control of maize diseases by fungicide treatments during growth. Phytiatrie Phytopharmacie, 22(1):19-26.
Glaeser G, 1979. Report on the occurrence of important diseases and pests on cultivated plants in Austria in the year 1977. Pflanzenschutzberichte, 45(7-12):153-164.
HYP3, 2005. Eyespot of maize. HYP3 on line. http://www.inra.fr/Internet/Produits/HYP3/pathogene/6kabzea.htm Istitut National de la Recherche Agronomique.
Kashama M, 1979. Resistance to Kabatiella zeae in corn (Zea mays L.). Proceedings of the thirty-fourth northeastern corn improvement conference, New York, USA, 9-10 February, 22-23.
Levic J, 1987. Inheritance of resistance of the leaves of maize (Zea mays L.) to Kabatiella zeae Narita et Hiratsuka and identifying sources of resistance. Arhiv za Poljoprivredne Nauke. 48:170, 173-203.
Lipps PE; Mills DR, 2005. Eyespot disease of corn. Ohio State University Extension. http://ohioline.osu.edu/ac-fact/0021.html.
Lisowicz F, 1995. The most important maize diseases in Malopolska. Ochrona RoSlin, 39(2):10-11.
Nanbo B; Thierry J, 1999. The return of Kabatiellosis. Phytoma, No. 513:24-25; 4 ref.
Narita T; Hiratsuka Y, 1959. Studies on Kabatiella zeae n.sp., the causal fungus of a new leafspot disease of corn. Ann. Phytopathological Society Japan, 24:147-153.
Pencic V; Smiljakovic H, 1971. Investigations of the resistance of self-pollinating lines and hybrids of corn to Kabatiella zeae Narita et Hiratsuka. Plant Protection, Yugoslavia. Publikation, 22:115-116.
Pronczuk M; Bojanowski J, 1993. Effect of Kabatiella zeae on fusarium stalk rot prevalence in maize. Hodowla Roslin, Aklimatyzacja i Nasiennictwo, 37(4):103-109.
Pronczuk M; Bojanowski J; Warzecha R, 1994. Eyespot: a new foliage disease of maize in Poland. Genetica Polonica, 35B:361-366; 10 ref.
Shurtleff MC; Edwards DI; Noel GR; Pedersen WL; White DG, 2000. Primary collators (last update 4/3/93). The International Society for Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions. Common Names of Plant Diseases. Diseases of Corn or Maize (Zea mays L.) IS-MPMI net.
Walker Kirby H, 1998. Eyespot of corn. Pest Management and Crop Development Bulletin. http://www.ag.uiuc.edu/cespubs/pest/articles/v9817g.html. Cooperative Extension Service, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Links to Websites
Top of page| Website | URL | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Distribution Maps
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