Jacaranda mimosifolia (jacaranda)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Social Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Wood Products
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Jacaranda mimosifolia D. Don
Preferred Common Name
- jacaranda
Other Scientific Names
- Jacaranda chelonia Griseb.
- Jacaranda ovalifolia R. Br.
International Common Names
- English: black poui; Brazilian rose wood; green ebony; jacaranda; mimosa-leaved jacaranda; mimosa-leaved jacaranda
- Spanish: Acacia celester; flamboyán azul; gualanolay; tarco
- French: flambouyant bleu
Local Common Names
- Brazil: carobaguaçu; caroba-guassú; jacarandá; jacarandá-caroba; jacarandá-mimoso; palissandra
- Eritrea: palasandro
- Ethiopia: yetebmenja
- French Guiana: flabwayan ble
- Germany: Mimosenblättrige
- Kenya: mucakaranda; omosaria
EPPO code
- IACMI (Jacaranda mimosifolia)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageJ. mimosifolia is a striking ornamental tree characteristic of many cities in tropical and sub-tropical countries, well-known for its clusters of striking bell-shaped, blue-violet flowers. Native to South America, like many ornamental trees, it was very widely introduced over the centuries. This species has naturalized in a number of countries and has been reported as invasive in a number of locations; Queensland, Australia, Hawaii, Chile’s Juan Fernandez Islands and in Kenya, Tanzania, South Africa and Zambia. J. mimosifolia is a fast growing tree that re-sprouts easily if damaged. It is deep-rooted and competitive and few plants or crops can grow beneath it once it has established. It can form thickets of seedlings beneath planted trees from which the species may expand and exclude other vegetation thereby decreasing biodiversity in an area.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Scrophulariales
- Family: Bignoniaceae
- Genus: Jacaranda
- Species: Jacaranda mimosifolia
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageJacaranda is a large genus, with 50 species included in the Plant List (2013) but only nine species are mentioned in USDA-ARS (2014). J. mimosifolia belongs to the Bignoniaceae family, which contains other genera containing some well-known species including Bignonia, Catalpa, Marrkamia, Spathodea, Tabebuia and Tecoma.
J. filicifolia D. Don is included as a synonym in some of the literature, but The Plant List (2013) accepts it as a synonym of J. obtusifolia Bonpl., which is followed in this datasheet.
Although known by several vernacular names, jacaranda is commonly used. However, in the timber trade, the name 'jacaranda' is not associated with J. mimosifolia, but with Dalbergia nigra instead. Furthermore, other vernacular names include Brazilian rose wood and green ebony, that both add to possible confusion with other species. In French and Spanish, a common vernacular name used is flambouyant bleu or flamboyán azul, respectively – ‘blue flamboyant’, not to be confused with the true ‘flamboyant’ (in French), another common ornamental tree with red/yellow flowers, Delonix regia.
Description
Top of pageJ. mimosifolia is a medium to large tree 5-15 m tall, up to 20-25 m on favourable sites, deciduous and with an attractive spreading crown. Bark is thin and grey-brown. Twigs are slender, somewhat zig-zag and light reddish-brown in colour. Leaves are bipinnately compound and 15-30(-40) cm long, with 13-31 pinnae, each with 10-41 sessile leaflets, (3-)5-10(-12) mm long and (1-)2-3.5(-4) mm wide, oblong, glabrous or slightly puberulent along the midrib and margins. Flowers are described variously to be blue-violet, lilac, lavender-blue or mauve in colour. They occur in open, terminal panicles, the branches puberulent, calyx reduced, broadly campanulate, 5-toothed, the teeth around 1 mm long; corolla purplish blue, the tube white within, 2.4-5.2 cm long, 0.7-1.2 cm wide at the mouth, pubescent externally and within at the level of the stamens. Capsules drying reddish brown, compressed-orbicular, 3.2-5.8 cm long, apex often shallowly emarginate, base truncate to subcordate. Seeds 0.9-1.2 cm long, each surrounded by a thin membrane acting as a wing, more or less surrounding the seed body (PIER, 2014).
Distribution
Top of pageJ. mimosifolia is considered to be native to a well-defined area in central and eastern South America, including Uruguay, parts of Argentina (Entre Rios, Jujuy, Salta, Tucuman), Paraguay (Alto Paraguay, Cordillera) and as far as Bolivia (USDA-ARS, 2014). According to the IUCN (2016) and their red list of threatened species, J. mimosifolia is recorded as vulnerable in its native range. It is threatened here as the forests in which it typically occurs are being converted for agriculture (IUCN, 2016).
J. mimosifolia has however been very widely introduced pantropically as an ornamental for its showy blue-violet flowers and is likely to be present in most tropical regions, i.e. many more countries than those indicated in the Distribution table. It has become naturalized in a number of countries, including elsewhere in South America, but is reported as invasive only in South Africa, Australia, Hawaii and Chile’s Juan Fernandez islands.
In Australia, J. mimosifolia is widespread in south-eastern Queensland, with isolated occurrences in most other states (Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria, 2014) though it is not yet a serious problem. J. mimosifolia has proved to be a significant and successful invader in northern and eastern South Africa and a current estimate is that is has “invaded about 1.8 million ha, but mainly at very low densities" (David Le Maitre, CSIR, South Africa, personal communication, 2014). It is present throughout east Africa (Dharani, 2005) and is naturalized there in parts, e.g. in Ngorongoro, Tanzania (Henderson, 2002).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 17 Dec 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Planted | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
||||||||
Angola | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Botswana | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Cabo Verde | Present | Planted | ||||||
Cameroon | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Congo, Democratic Republic of the | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Egypt | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Eritrea | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Eswatini | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Ethiopia | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Gabon | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Ghana | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Guinea | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Kenya | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Madagascar | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Malawi | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Mayotte | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Morocco | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Mozambique | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Nigeria | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Réunion | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Rwanda | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | ||||
South Africa | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Tanzania | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Uganda | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Zambia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Asia |
||||||||
Bhutan | Present | Introduced | 1982 | |||||
China | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Hong Kong | Present | Introduced | ||||||
India | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Israel | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Lebanon | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Nepal | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Pakistan | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Philippines | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Taiwan | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Turkey | Present | |||||||
Europe |
||||||||
Cyprus | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Italy | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | ||||||
-Sicily | Present | Native | ||||||
Portugal | Present | Introduced | ||||||
North America |
||||||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Bahamas | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Barbados | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Costa Rica | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Dominica | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
El Salvador | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Grenada | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Guadeloupe | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Guatemala | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Haiti | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Honduras | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Jamaica | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Martinique | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Mexico | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Montserrat | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Netherlands Antilles | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Nicaragua | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Panama | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Saint Kitts and Nevis | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Saint Lucia | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | ||||||
-California | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Oceania |
||||||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
-New South Wales | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Queensland | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-South Australia | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Victoria | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Cook Islands | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Fiji | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Guam | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Nauru | Present | Introduced | ||||||
New Caledonia | Present | Introduced | ||||||
New Zealand | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Niue | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Palau | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Solomon Islands | Present | Introduced | ||||||
South America |
||||||||
Argentina | Present | Native | ||||||
Bolivia | Present | Native | ||||||
Brazil | Present | Native | ||||||
-Rio Grande do Sul | Present | |||||||
Chile | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Invasive in Juan Fernandez Island | ||||
Colombia | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Ecuador | Present | Introduced | ||||||
French Guiana | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Guyana | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Paraguay | Present | Native | ||||||
Peru | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Suriname | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Uruguay | Present | Native | ||||||
Venezuela | Present | Introduced | Planted |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageThere is little information on the introduction of J. mimosifolia. Several unconfirmed reports suggest that J. mimosifolia was first introduced to South Africa in the 1880s. Kasrils (2001), states that “jacaranda first struck root in South African soil in 1888 when two trees were planted at a school in Arcadia. The first seed was imported by James Clarke and from the first batch of seedlings, trees were planted in Koch Street, now known as Bosman Street, Pretoria.”
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageThe majority of records of J. mimosifolia being introduced into a new area come as the plant is intentionally introduced for its ornamental purposes. As such a risk assessment in the Pacific scored J. mimosifolia 1, indicating that it posed only a very low risk of future invasion (PIER, 2014). Nevertheless J. mimosifolia has been listed as a Category 3 invader in South Africa (Henderson, 2001), meaning that no further planting or trade in propagative material is allowed, except with special permission and existing plants must be prevented from spreading.
Habitat
Top of pageJ. mimosifolia has been observed as becoming naturalized mainly in drier or mesic areas (PIER, 2014), in savanna and other grasslands, riparian woodland and other riverside habitats, also in forests and in sheltered situations such as in wooded ravines.
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Arid regions | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Arid regions | Present, no further details | Natural |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome number of J. mimosifolia is recorded as 2n=36 by Piazzano (1998).
Reproductive Biology
J. mimosifolia is self-incompatible and depends on a range of insects for pollination, including bees of medium or large size (Alves et al., 2010). The pattern of anthesis and stigma receptivity of J. mimosifolia was reported in India (Battacharjee and Sareen, 1991). Pods dry on the tree and split after about a year, releasing the seeds. Fresh seed has a germination capacity of 50-92% and generally no seed pre-treatment is required. The optimum temperature for germination is 25°C and there is a slightly higher rate of germination in light than in dark (Socolowski andTakaki, 2004). Seeds remain viable for at least 12 months in dry storage (Useful Tropical plants, 2016). It is also possible for J. mimosifolia to become established from cuttings.
Physiology and Phenology
For intentional planting, seedlings need considerable care during the first two years, requiring weeding, regular watering and staking until well established. They can be fast growing on good sites achieving 3 m per year during the first two years and 1 m per year in subsequent years. Established trees respond well to light coppicing. If used as an ornamental, an open environment or large spacing is required for this light-demanding species with its wide canopy. Trees flower from September to November in South Africa.
Environmental Requirements
J. mimosifolia is native to areas having a temperate mesothermal climate with a marked dry season. In tropical regions it grows best in highland areas up to 2400 m with an annual rainfall of 900-1300 mm, but will also tolerate rainfall up to 2000 mm. It does not tolerate frost. This species grows well on well-drained sandy loam soils, although it will survive on poorer shallow soils. The species does not tolerate waterlogged or clay soils.
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
A - Tropical/Megathermal climate | Tolerated | Average temp. of coolest month > 18°C, > 1500mm precipitation annually | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
B - Dry (arid and semi-arid) | Tolerated | < 860mm precipitation annually | |
BW - Desert climate | Tolerated | < 430mm annual precipitation | |
C - Temperate/Mesothermal climate | Preferred | Average temp. of coldest month > 0°C and < 18°C, mean warmest month > 10°C | |
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Preferred | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
25 | -40 | 500 | 2400 |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) | 5 | |
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 16 | 24 |
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC) | 24 | 34 |
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC) | 10 | 20 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Dry season duration | 2 | 6 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
Mean annual rainfall | 600 | 2000 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
Soil reaction
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
Special soil tolerances
- infertile
- shallow
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Armillaria heimii | Pathogen | |||||
Cuscuta cassytoides | Parasite | |||||
Erianthemum schelei | Parasite | |||||
Insignorthezia insignis | Herbivore | |||||
Mundulla yellows | Pathogen | |||||
Nipaecoccus viridis | Herbivore | |||||
Phytoliriomyza jacarandae | Herbivore | |||||
Planococcus kenyae | Herbivore |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageA number of diseases have been reported on J. mimosifolia, including the honey fungus Armillaria heimii (Paterson and Mwangi, 1996) and Mundulla yellows (Mundulla Yellows dieback).
Pests of J. mimosifolia include Planococcus kenyae (coffee mealybug), Nipaecoccus viridis (spherical mealybug) and Orthezia insignis [Insignorthezia insignis] (greenhouse orthezia) the latter reported to have killed a quarter of all J. mimosifolia seedlings in a nursery in India (Siddappaji et al., 1986). Additionally, Cuscuta cassytoides caused high mortality in a nursery in Tanzania (Hocking, 1966) and the Jacaranda leaf-miner, Phytoliriomyza jacarandae, was reported as a recent arrival in South Africa in 1997 (Neser, 1997). The African mistletoe Erianthemum ulugurense [Erianthemum schelei] has also been reported on J. mimosifolia in Kenya (Omunyin and Wabule, 1996).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageNatural Dispersal
Dehiscent pods and light seeds each with its own feathery, circular wing, appears to make the seeds best suited for wind dispersal. However, it is likely that seeds, individually or still encased in whole pods, can also be transported by water.
Intentional Introduction
J. mimosifolia has been widely introduced intentionally as an ornamental species into many countries for its showy blue-violet flowers.
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Yes | |||
Landscape improvement | Yes | Yes | ||
Nursery trade | Yes | Yes | ||
Ornamental purposes | Yes | Yes |
Economic Impact
Top of pageEconomic Impact
J. mimosifolia has some value through its use as a fuel plant and a source of wood for fences, tools and carvings. The economic value of this is unknown.
Environmental Impact
Top of pageEnvironmental Impact
The spreading growth habit of J. mimosifolia and the dense foliage it produces tends to shade out native plants and prevent their regeneration (PIER, 2014). J. mimosifolia is a deep-rooted competitive tree and very few plants or crops can grow beneath it. It can form thickets of seedlings beneath planted trees from which the species may expand and exclude other vegetation. It can form especially dense thickets along watercourse. This decreases biodiversity in an area and can alter ecosystems.
Social Impact
Top of pageAs an ornamental species, introduced because of its showy flowers, J. mimosifolia has a very positive social impact.
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Highly mobile locally
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Modification of successional patterns
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - shading
- Rapid growth
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Top of pageEconomic Value
The timber of J. mimosifolia is yellowish-white, hard, moderately heavy and easy to work. It is used for interior carpentry and poles and to make small items such as tool handles and carvings. It is also used for fuel (Dharani, 2005). The economic value of this is unknown.
Social Benefit
J. mimosifolia provides pleasant open shade and is an effective windbreak, but is most widely planted as an ornamental. The bark and roots of this species are used to treat syphilis (Useful Tropical Plants, 2016) and infusions of the flowers are used to treat amoebic dysentery in Guatemala and Mexico (Magnez et al., 1996). Bark extracts are also used to suppress the hatching of larval soil nematodes.
Environmental Services
J. mimosifolia is used as bee forage and is an excellent source of nectar for African honey bees in Ethiopia (Thakur, 2006).
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Invertebrate food
Environmental
- Amenity
- Landscape improvement
- Ornamental
- Windbreak
Fuels
- Fuelwood
General
- Ornamental
Human food and beverage
- Honey/honey flora
Materials
- Carved material
- Pesticide
- Wood/timber
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Wood Products
Top of pageRoundwood
- Building poles
- Posts
Sawn or hewn building timbers
- Carpentry/joinery (exterior/interior)
- For light construction
Woodware
- Industrial and domestic woodware
- Tool handles
- Wood carvings
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageBased on foliage, young plants of J. mimosifolia could be confused with a variety of other species. However, the characteristic flowers mean that mature trees cannot be mistaken and even after flowering, the round, flat pods make the tree stand out. The similarity of foliage and form and use as a common ornamental street tree means that J. mimosifolia and Delonix regia can sometimes be confused when there are no flowers or fruit. However, both are highly distinct, with mauve-blue-violet flows and round pods in J. mimosifolia compared to red-yellow flowers are long pods (often 50 cm or more) in D. regia.
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Mechanical Control
It is possible for young seedlings of J. mimosifolia and small plants to be hand pulled (PIER, 2014).
Chemical Control
For larger J. mimosifolia trees, they should be cut and herbicide should be applied to the stumps (PIER, 2014). Henderson (2001) reports that J. mimosifolia is very difficult to control once it is established and that large tree must be ring-barked or cut down below ground level and any regrowth treated with herbicide. Effective herbicides include imazapyr or glyphosate.
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
Top of pageLittle is known about the ecology of J. mimosifolia, especially regarding its reproduction and seed dispersal and more work is required to assess the impacts of invasion and means for effective control of the species.
References
Top of pageBekele-Tesemma A, Birnie A, Tengnas B, 1993. Useful trees and shrubs for Ethiopia. Regional Soil Conservation Unit (RSCU), Ethiopia: Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA)
Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria, 2014. Australia's virtual herbarium, Australia. http://avh.ala.org.au
Dharani N, 2005. Field guide to common trees and shrubs of East Africa., South Africa: Struik Nature, 384 pp
GBIF, 2014. GBIF data portal. Copenhagen, Denmark: Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF). http://data.gbif.org
Henderson L, 2002. Problem plants in Ngorongoro Conservation Area. Final Report to the NCAA. Pretoria, South Africa: Agricultural Research Council - Plant Protection Research Institute
Hong TD, Linington S, Ellis RH, 1996. Seed storage behaviour: a compendium. Handbooks for Genebanks No. 4. Rome, Italy: IPGRI
IUCN, 2016. The IUCN (the International Union for Conservation of Nature) Red List of Threatened Species. http://www.iucnredlist.org/
Kasrils R, 2001. Jacaranda - Xenophobia in the name of Environment Management?: Green & Gold. http://www.coolforest.org.za/pretoria%20fights%20for%20jacarandas.htm
Luna RK, 1996. Plantation trees. Delhi, India: International Book Distributors
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2014. Tropicos database. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/
Orwa C, Mutua A, Kindt R, Jamnadass R, Simons A, 2009. Agroforestree Database: a tree reference and selection guide version 4.0. World Agroforestry Centre. http://www.worldagroforestry.org/af/treedb/
Paterson RT, Mwangi LM, 1996. Honey fungus in agroforestry. Agroforestry Today, 8(1):19-20
PIER, 2014. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Streets RJ, 1962. Exotic forest trees in the British Commonwealth. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press
The Plant List, 2013. The Plant List: a working list of all plant species. Version 1.1. London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://www.theplantlist.org
USDA-ARS, 2014. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
USDA-NRCS, 2014. The PLANTS Database. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov/
Useful Tropical Plants, 2016. Useful tropical plants database. http://tropical.theferns.info/
Wyk B van, Wyk P van, Wyk P-E van, 2011. Photo Guide to Trees of Southern Africa. Pretoria, South Africa: Briza Publications, 360 pp
Distribution References
CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria, 2014. Australia's virtual herbarium., Australia: http://avh.ala.org.au
Dharani N, 2005. Field guide to common trees and shrubs of East Africa., South Africa: Struik Nature. 384 pp.
GBIF, 2014. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. http://www.gbif.org/species
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2014. Tropicos database., St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/
Orwa C, Mutua A, Kindt R, Jamnadass R, Simons A, 2009. Agroforestree Database: a tree reference and selection guide version 4.0. In: World Agroforestry Centre, http://www.worldagroforestry.org/af/treedb/
PIER, 2014. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
USDA-ARS, 2014. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
USDA-NRCS, 2014. The PLANTS Database. Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: National Plant Data Team. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov
Wyk B van, Wyk P van, Wyk PE van, 2011. Photo Guide to Trees of Southern Africa., Pretoria, South Africa: Briza Publications. 360 pp.
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Contributors
Top of page09/06/2014 Original text by:
Nick Pasiecznik, Agroforestry Enterprises, France
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