Indigofera suffruticosa (Anil indigo)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Introductions
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Threatened Species
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Indigofera suffruticosa Mill.
Preferred Common Name
- Anil indigo
Other Scientific Names
- Anila tinctoria (L.) Kuntze
- Indigofera angolensis D. Dietr.
- Indigofera anil L.
- Indigofera argentea Sensu Baker
- Indigofera comezuelo DC.
- Indigofera divaricata Jacq.
- Indigofera drepanocarpa Bergman
- Indigofera guatimala Lunan
- Indigofera micrantha Desv.
- Indigofera oligophylla Lam.
- Indigofera tinctoria Lunan
- Indigofera uncinata G. Don
Local Common Names
- Chinese: ye qing shu
- English: Guatemala indigo
- French: indigotier sauvage
- Polynesia: aniles
- Spanish: anil; anil cimmaron; anil de pasto; azul auleiro; jiquelite
- Brazil: anil-dos-tintureiros; anileiro; caa-abi; caa-chica; guajan-timbe
- Cook Islands: 'initiko
- Fiji: vaivai
- Germany: mexikanischer indigostrauch; westindischer indigo
- India: vilaiti nit
- Indonesia: taem-taem; tagom-tagom; tom-janti
- Malaysia: sakebak; tarom
- Philippines: sangifaria; tayum; tina-tinaan
- Samoa: la'au failafo
- Sweden: vastindisk indigo
- Thailand: khram yaiuai; khram-thuan
- Tonga: 'akauveli
- USA/Hawaii: iniko; inikoa; kolu
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageI. suffruticosa, a perennial herb or woody shrub, is native to the Americas but has been widely introduced elsewhere as a source of dye and for medicinal purposes and has commonly become naturalized. It tolerates a range of soil types and may become dominant in disturbed habitats. It is now classed as invasive on many Pacific Islands including Hawaii, Samoa, Tonga, the Cook Islands and Fiji (Space and Flynn, 2000, 2001; PIER, 2013). Holm et al. (1979) classify it as a ‘principal’ weed in West Polynesia and common in Hawaii, Puerto Rico and Trinidad. It is not often a weed of crops but tends to replace native vegetation. In Hawaii it threatens the endangered species Panicum fauriei var. carteri, Spermolepis hawaiiensis and Wilkesia hobdyi (US Fish and Wildlife, 2010a, b; 2011).
Risk assessment index for Australia is 6 ('more information needed'); for the Pacific Islands it is 11 ('high') (PIER, 2013).
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Fabales
- Family: Fabaceae
- Subfamily: Faboideae
- Genus: Indigofera
- Species: Indigofera suffruticosa
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageLinnaeus named this species as Indigofera anil in 1771 and this synonym is occasionally used, but Miller had earlier named it Indigofera suffruticosa and this name is now widely accepted. Many other synonyms have been applied, including I. tinctoria Lunan, which is now described as a distinct species (Plant List, 2013).
Paulino et al. (2010) suggest that I. anil and I. suffruticosa should not be synonymized as they differ from one another in both fruit morphology and foliar anatomy. I. anil also has larger seeds and acuminate-margined cotyledons. However, this species distinction is not accepted by other authorities.
Two subspecies are recognized in I. suffruticosa: subsp. suffruticosa and subsp. guatemalensis and up to ten varieties of the plant exist (Plant List, 2013; Prota4U, 2013).
Description
Top of pageA perennial herb or woody shrub up to 2 m high, erect greyish green with 2-branched hairs. Leaves imparipinnate, with up to 19 leaflets on a 1.5 cm petiole; leaflets up to 4 cm long, about 1 cm wide narrowly elliptical to obovate with a mucronate tip, almost glabrous above, grey above, paler, pubescent below. Stipules narrowly triangular, about 4 mm long. Inflorescence an axillary raceme, 2-6 cm long; bracts narrowly triangular; pedicel up to 1 mm long; corolla 4-5 mm long, salmon pink to red; calyx campanulate, 1 mm long, teeth triangular, 1 mm long; standard petal ovate to orbicular, 4 mm x 3 mm, brown-hairy on the back; wings 3 mm x 1 mm, glabrous; keel 3-4 mm x 1-2 mm, hairy; stamens 10, 1 free, 9 connate into a staminal tube 3-4 mm long; ovary hairy, style with capitate stigma. Stamens 3-4 mm long. Fruit a 4-8-seeded pod, distinctly up-curved, sickle-shaped, about 1.5 cm long x 2 mm, hairy. Seed cubical, 1.5-2.0 mm x 1.5 mm, shiny brown.
Details of floral development of I. suffruticiosa and related species are provided by Paulino et al. (2011).
Distribution
Top of pageThe native distribution of I. suffruticosa extends across the Americas from the southern USA to Argentina, with heaviest occurrence in the tropical Caribbean and Central America. Largely as a result of deliberate introduction as a dye-plant it now occurs widely in Africa, Asia and the Pacific, and also Australia.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Feb 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Angola | Present | Introduced | |||||
Benin | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cabo Verde | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cameroon | Present | Introduced | |||||
Comoros | Present | Introduced | |||||
Congo, Democratic Republic of the | Present | Introduced | |||||
Côte d'Ivoire | Present | Introduced | |||||
Equatorial Guinea | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ethiopia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Gabon | Present | Introduced | |||||
Gambia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guinea-Bissau | Present | Introduced | Original citation: Hutchinson et al. (1958) | ||||
Liberia | Present | Introduced | Original citation: Hutchinson et al. (1958) | ||||
Madagascar | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mali | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mauritius | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mayotte | Present | Introduced | |||||
Namibia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Nigeria | Present | Introduced | Original citation: Hutchinson et al. (1958) | ||||
Réunion | Present | Introduced | |||||
São Tomé and Príncipe | Present | Introduced | |||||
Senegal | Present | Introduced | Original citation: Hutchinson et al. (1958) | ||||
Seychelles | Present | Introduced | |||||
Sierra Leone | Present | Introduced | Original citation: Hutchinson et al. (1958) | ||||
South Africa | Present | Introduced | |||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Introduced | |||||
Asia |
|||||||
Cambodia | Present | Introduced | |||||
China | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Fujian | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Guangdong | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Guangxi | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Jiangsu | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Yunnan | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Zhejiang | Present | Introduced | |||||
Hong Kong | Present | Introduced | 1860 | ||||
India | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Andhra Pradesh | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Arunachal Pradesh | Present | Introduced | As lndigofera anil | ||||
Indonesia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Java | Present | Introduced | |||||
Japan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Malaysia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Sarawak | Present | Introduced | |||||
Philippines | Present | Introduced | |||||
Singapore | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Taiwan | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Thailand | Present | Introduced | |||||
Vietnam | Present | Introduced | |||||
Europe |
|||||||
Spain | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | As Indigofera anmil or Indigofera tictoria | ||||
North America |
|||||||
Anguilla | Present | Native | |||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present | Native | |||||
Aruba | Present | Native | |||||
Bahamas | Present | Native | |||||
Barbados | Present | Native | |||||
Belize | Present | Native | |||||
British Virgin Islands | Present | Native | |||||
Cayman Islands | Present | Native | |||||
Costa Rica | Present | Native | |||||
Cuba | Present | Native | |||||
Dominica | Present | Native | |||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Native | |||||
El Salvador | Present | Native | |||||
Grenada | Present | Native | |||||
Guadeloupe | Present | Native | |||||
Guatemala | Present | Native | |||||
Haiti | Present | Native | |||||
Honduras | Present | Native | |||||
Jamaica | Present | Native | |||||
Martinique | Present | Native | |||||
Mexico | Present | Native | |||||
Montserrat | Present | Native | |||||
Nicaragua | Present | Native | |||||
Panama | Present | Native | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Native | |||||
Saint Lucia | Present | Native | |||||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Present | Native | |||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Native | |||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Florida | Present | Native | |||||
-Georgia | Present | Native | |||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Louisiana | Present | Native | |||||
-Mississippi | Present | Native | |||||
-North Carolina | Present | Native | |||||
-South Carolina | Present | Native | |||||
-Texas | Present | Native | |||||
Oceania |
|||||||
American Samoa | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Ta'u, Tutuila Islands | |||
Australia | Present | Introduced | 1914 | ||||
Cook Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Federated States of Micronesia | Present | Introduced | Yap | ||||
Fiji | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Lakemba, Viti Levu, Vanua Levu Islands | |||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Hiva Oa, Nuku Hiva, Tahuatu, Ua Huka, Ua Pou, Moorea Raiatea, Tahiti, Tubuai Islands | |||
Guam | Present | Introduced | |||||
New Caledonia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Niue | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Norfolk Island | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Northern Mariana Islands | Present | Introduced | Saipan, Tinian Islands | ||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Samoa | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Savai'l, Upolo Islands | |||
Solomon Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Tonga | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Ha'ano, Lifuka, Foa, 'Eua, Tongatapu, Niafa'ou, Vav'u Islands | |||
Vanuatu | Present | Introduced | Efate Island | ||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | Native | |||||
Bolivia | Present | Native | |||||
Brazil | Present | Native | |||||
-Alagoas | Present | Native | |||||
-Ceara | Present | Native | |||||
-Goias | Present | Native | |||||
-Maranhao | Present | Native | |||||
-Mato Grosso do Sul | Present | Native | |||||
-Minas Gerais | Present | Native | |||||
-Para | Present | Native | |||||
-Paraiba | Present | Native | |||||
-Parana | Present | Native | |||||
-Pernambuco | Present | Native | |||||
-Rio de Janeiro | Present | Native | |||||
-Rio Grande do Sul | Present | Native | |||||
-Santa Catarina | Present | Native | |||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | Native | |||||
-Sergipe | Present | Native | |||||
-Tocantins | Present | Native | |||||
Chile | Present | Native | |||||
-Easter Island | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Colombia | Present | Native | |||||
Ecuador | Present | Native | |||||
-Galapagos Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
French Guiana | Present | Native | |||||
Paraguay | Present | Native | |||||
Peru | Present | Native | |||||
Suriname | Present | Native | |||||
Venezuela | Present | Native |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageThe species was deliberately introduced to many countries, largely as a result of its common use as a source of indigo dye or for its medicinal properties. Introduction of Indigofera occurred into Europe many centuries ago; Luarca (1999) refers to documents indicating introduction of Indigofera anil or Indigofera tinctoria into Spain in 1565 or 1566. Other exact dates are lacking, but herbarium records indicate occurrences in Japan by 1915, Hawaii by 1916 and Australia by 1953.
Introductions
Top of pageIntroduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reason | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
Australia | 1953 | No | No | GBIF (2013) | Earliest herbarium specimen | |||
Hawaii | 1916 | No | No | GBIF (2013) | Earleist herbarium specimen | |||
Japan | 1915 | No | No | GBIF (2013) | Earliest herbarium specimen | |||
Spain | 1565-6 | No | No | Luarca LRLMde (1999) | As Indigofera anil or Indigofera tinctoria |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageThe risk of further introduction is low but not insignificant, as deliberate introduction could still be of interest. It may also occur as a contaminant of forage crops seeds.
Habitat
Top of pageThe plant can be found on roadsides, bush fallow, pastures, clearings, and other disturbed areas in the tropics, sub-tropics and warm temperate conditions. It occurs in a wide variety of soils including those of low fertility, and will grow in areas of full sunlight or partial shade. However, it will not tolerate full shade. It can occasionally be found in wetlands (USDA-NRCS, 2013).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Principal habitat | Natural |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageVarious grassland species may be affected by the presence of I. suffruticosa. There are few records of occurrence in annual crops, though it may occur as a minor component of the weed population in young forest or plantation crops. PROSEA (2013) record that it may occasionally overgrow young tea plants but it can be easily removed.
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
Chromosome number is usually given as 2n = 16, but there can be sporadic tetraploidy with 2n = 32 (Missouri Botanic Garden, 2013; Prota4U, 2013).
Reproductive Biology
Flowering occurs after 4-5 months. Some seeds may germinate spontaneously within a few months but I. suffruticosa has hard seeds which need alternating temperatures with or without wet-dry cycles (Moreno-Casasola, et al., 1994; Francis, 2013; Kew Royal Botanic Gardens, 2013). Germination of scarified seeds is high at temperatures from 15°C to 33°C (Kew Royal Botanic Gardens, 2013).
Physiology and Phenology
Seedlings show epigeal germination and the first leaves to be formed are simple. Flowering occurs within 4-5 months. Nodulation allows it to thrive in low-fertility soils.
Longevity
Kew Royal Botanic Gardens (2013) records long survival of seeds in dry storage and it is assumed they may also persist for many years in the field. The established plants persist for a few seasons but die out if regularly cut or grazed.
Nutrition
I. suffruticosa fixes nitrogen and does not need fertile soils.
Environmental Requirements
The plant thrives in tropical and sub-tropical conditions and is able to tolerate a range of soil conditions, provided they are well-drained and not too shaded.
US hardiness zones are given as 5-9 (eHOW, 2013).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
BS - Steppe climate | Tolerated | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation | |
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Tolerated | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
36 | 30 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 700 | 4000 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Anticarsia gemmatalis | Predator | not specific | Panizzi et al. (2004) | |||
Gesta gesta | Predator | to genus | Francis (2013) | |||
Parodiella hedysari | Pathogen | not specific | Cannon (1999) |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageNo serious diseases or pests have ever been reported to attack I. suffruticosa. In humid conditions Corticium salmonicolor sometimes affects the stems after slashing (PROSEA, 2013) and Cannon (1999) reports susceptibility to the fungus Parodiella hedysari.
Predation by the lepidopteran Anticarsia gemmatalis occurs in Brazil (Panizzi et al., 2004), while another, Gesta gesta, is believed to predate specifically on species of Indigofera (Francis, 2013).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageNatural Dispersal (Non-Biotic)
I. suffruticosa has no specialized dispersal mechanism. The seeds are not even shed from the pods at maturity so the plant may depend on wind or water for dispersal.
Vector Transmission (Biotic)
No certain agents have been identified but the hard seeds may presumably survive passage through livestock or wild animals.
Accidental Introduction
Accidental introduction of the species is possible by introduction of contaminated forage crop seeds.
Intentional Introduction
Deliberate introduction is much less likely than in the past, as it is no longer widely used as a source of dye, but it is still a possible pathway if new medicinal uses are confirmed.
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Negative |
Economic Impact
Top of pageI. suffruticosa rarely occurs as a competitive weed, but when it forms dense thickets, pastures can be severely shaded and thus weakened. Problems usually arise following prolonged over-stocking during the dry season and domination by this weed from the next wet season onwards. Its dominance in pastures is assisted by the unpalatability of its foliage, causing livestock to avoid it (Oakes and Butcher, 1962).
Economic loss may also arise from its toxic properties. It can cause anaemia in cattle, sheep and goats (Figueiredo et al., 2012) and, despite spontaneous recovery by most cattle, death of some affected animals can occur by acute haemolytic anaemia (Salvador et al., 2010).
Environmental Impact
Top of pageImpact on Biodiversity
Holm et al. (1979) classify it as a ‘principal’ weed in West Polynesia and common in Hawaii, Puerto Rico and Trinidad. It is recognised as invasive on many Pacific Islands, including Samoa, Hawaii, Tonga, the Cook Islands and Fiji (Space and Flynn, 2000, 2001; PIER, 2013). The plant may compete with native vegetation for space and light and may even replace some native species. It may also compete with some grassland species. In Hawaii, I. suffruticosa is among a number of introduced species which threaten the endangered species Panicum fauriei var. carteri, Spermolepis hawaiiensis and Wilkesia hobdyi (US Fish and Wildlife, 2010a, b; 2011).
Threatened Species
Top of pageThreatened Species | Conservation Status | Where Threatened | Mechanism | References | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Spermolepis hawaiiensis (Hawaii scaleseed) | USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources; Competition - smothering | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010b) | |
Wilkesia hobdyi (dwarf iliau) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - smothering; Competition (unspecified) | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010a) | |
Panicum fauriei (Carter's panicgrass) | NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - smothering; Competition (unspecified) | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2011) |
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Negatively impacts animal health
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of endangered species
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - shading
- Competition - smothering
- Competition (unspecified)
- Poisoning
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
- Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
Uses
Top of pageEconomic Value
Originally, the species was used as an indigo producing dye plant in many tropical countries but now it is only cultivated for this purpose very locally in Java, India, Africa and Central America. Currently, I. suffruticosa is more important as a cover crop and green manure plant for coffee and tea in South and South East Asia, America and Africa. It is also used for contour hedges and in folk medicine (Mansfeld's World Database of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops, 2013).
Sandoval-Salas et al. (2006) studied production of the dye in Mexico and concluded maximum yield was obtained 150 days after sowing.
I. suffruticosa, used as mulch can suppress nematodes in USA (Morris et al., 2002)
It is rated as a good nitrogen-fixer in Venezuela (Izaguirre-Mayoral et al., 1996).
Social Benefit
In Brazilian folk-medicine it is used for gastric disorders, infection and inflammation, acting as a gastro-protective agent, stimulating prostaglandin, mucus and HSP70 (Luiz-Ferreira et al., 2011). A small extract of I. suffruticosa was effective in controlling head-lice in Cuba (Garcia Calixto et al., 2011).
Aqueous extracts of the leaves of I. suffruticosa, obtained by infusion, can be used in the treatment of skin diseases caused by dermatophytes (Leite et al., 2006); also against stomach-ache, fever and diarrhoea in Malaysia (PROSEA, 2013). Francis (2013) refers to uses for fever, headaches, haemorrhage, convulsions, coughs, skin parasites and boils.
In China, a mixture of leaves of Indigofera tinctoria or I. suffruticosa, the bark of Phellodendron chinense and pig bile is used to treat scrofula (tuberculosis of the cervical lymph nodes) (Liu and He, 1991). Carli et al. (2010) also suggest that I. suffruticosa extracts may have an important immunological role in the control of tuberculosis once macrophage activity has been induced by them.
The immuno-stimulatory and cytotoxic activity of I. suffruticosa, enhances macrophage function and contributes to host defences against tumours (Lopes et al., 2011) and Vieira et al. (2007) found it highly effective in inhibiting the growth of solid tumours (sarcoma) in mice.
However, Leite et al. (2004) warn that the plant can have damaging effects on the foetus in rats and could be hazardous in humans. The alkaloid fraction of I. suffruticosa contains indigo and indirubin, and indigo has been found responsible for the mutagenic activity in a Salmonella/microsome assay (Calvo et al., 2011).
I. suffruticosa has been found to negatively affect the early development of mosquitoes. Vieira et al. (2011) found that extracts of the plant showed repellent activity, specific embryotoxicity, and general growth retardation in the mosquito Aedes aegypti.
Environmental Services
USDA-ARS (2013) refers to its use for erosion control and a soil improver.
Uses List
Top of pageEnvironmental
- Erosion control or dune stabilization
- Soil conservation
Materials
- Dyestuffs
- Green manure
- Mulches
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageThe closely related species Indigofera tinctoria, which has also been used as a source of indigo dye, is distinguished by its larger and less numerous leaflets and its pods being somewhat straighter and longer (2.5-3.0 cm with 5-8 seeds), and stamens longer (4-5 mm) than those of I. suffruticosa. Another similar species, Indigofera arrecta, has straight pods with no more than 6 seeds.
Leite et al. (2009) describe how I. suffruticosa can be distinguished from other species in Brazil, including Indigofera truxillensis, by its fruit characters; similarly, on the basis of trichome characters (Marquiafável et al., 2009).
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Physical/Mechanical Control
Seedlings are readily controlled by hoeing. Established plants have a deep root system but do not regenerate from below ground so may be controlled by suitable cultivation.
Biological Control
No known attempts have been made at biological control.
Chemical Control
In Vanuatu, a triclopyr/picloram mixture is recommended to be applied to young growth after slashing to 30-40 cm height and wetting of foliage is important. However, spraying is pointless where there is not an adequate under-storey of native or improved grass and legume, and if not, recommended pastures should be sown (FAO, 2013).
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
Top of pageThere is a general lack of detailed information on the biology and control of this species, especially its germination, longevity and its response to herbicides.
References
Top of pageFAO, 2013. Common weeds in Vanuatu. FAO. http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/AGPC/doc/Publicat/FAOBUL2/B201.htm
Flora of China, 2013. Flora of China. http://www.efloras.org/
Francis (ed) JK, 2013. Wildland Shrubs of the United States and its Territories: Thamnic Descriptions: Indigofera suffruticosa. Washington D.C, USA: USDA, US Forest Service. http://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/pdf/shrubs/Indigofera%20suffruticosa.pdf
GBIF, 2013. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF). http://data.gbif.org/species/
Hutchinson J, Dalziel JM, Keay RWJ, 1958. Flora of West Tropical Africa. Volume I part II. London and Tonbridge, UK: Whitefriar Press, Ltd.
Izaguirre-Mayoral JL, Vivas AI, 1996. Symbiotic N2-fixation in tropical legume species growing at high geographic elevation. Symbiosis (Rehovot), 21(1):49-60.
Kew Royal Botanic Gardens, 2013. Seed Information Database. London, UK: Kew Royal Botanic Gardens
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Lorenzi H, 1982. Plantas Daninhas do Brasil. Sao Paulo, Brazil: H. Lorenzi, 425 pp.
Luarca LRLMde, 1999. The American plants in Charles de l'Ecluse's works: first records in Juan de Castaneda's letters. Anales del Jardin Botanico de Madrid, 57(1):97-107.
Mansfeld's World Database of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops, 2013. Mansfeld's World Database of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops. Gatersleben, Germany: IPK Gatersleben. http://mansfeld.ipk-gatersleben.de/pls/htmldb_pgrc/f?p=185:3:795423984268501
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2013. Tropicos database. St Louis, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/
PIER, 2013. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Prota4U, 2013. PROTA4U web database. Grubben GJH, Denton OA, eds. Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp
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Space JC, Flynn T, 2001. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 78 pp.
Sunarno B, 2013. Indigofera suffruticosa Miller [Internet] Record from Proseabase [ed. by Faridah Hanum I, Maesen LJG] Bogor, Indonesia: PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation. http://proseanet.org/prosea/e-prosea_detail.php?frt=e&id=3019
The Plant List, 2013. The Plant List: a working list of all plant species. Version 1.1. London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://www.theplantlist.org
USDA-ARS, 2013. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
USDA-NRCS, 2013. Plants Database. USA: United States Department of Agriculture-Natural Resources Conservation Office. http://plants.usda.gov/java/
Vieira JRC, Leite RMP, Lima IR, Navarro DAF, Bianco EM, Leite SP, 2011. Oviposition and embryotoxicity of Indigofera suffruticosa on early development of Aedes aegypti. Evidence- Based Complement Alternative Medicine.
Distribution References
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Flora of China, 2013. Flora of China., http://www.efloras.org/
GBIF, 2013. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. http://www.gbif.org/species
Luarca LRLMde, 1999. The American plants in Charles de l'Ecluse's works: first records in Juan de Castaneda's letters. In: Anales del Jardin Botanico de Madrid, 57 (1) 97-107.
PIER, 2013. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
PROTA, 2013. PROTA4U web database., [ed. by Grubben GJH, Denton OA]. Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp
USDA-ARS, 2013. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
USDA-NRCS, 2013. The PLANTS Database. Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: National Plant Data Team. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
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