Jatropha gossypiifolia (bellyache bush)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Introductions
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Growth Stages
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Social Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
- References
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Jatropha gossypiifolia L., 1753
Preferred Common Name
- bellyache bush
Other Scientific Names
- Adenoropium elegans Pohl, 1827
- Adenoropium gossypiifolium (L.) (Pohl, 1827)
- Jatropha elegans (Pohl) Klotzsch, 1853
- Jatropha staphysagrifolia Miller, 1754
International Common Names
- English: American purging nut; bellyache bush; black physic nut; castor bean; cotton-leaf jatropha; cotton-leaf physic nut; cottonleaf physic nut (Australia); figus nut; purging nut; red physic nut; Spanish physic nut tree; wild cassava; wild physic nut
- Spanish: cimarrona; higuereta; higuereta cimarrona; jaquillo; pinon negro; purga delfraile; tautuba; tuatua; tua-tua
- French: faux manioc; jatrophe à feuilles de cotonnier; le leper; medicinier batard; medicinier noir; medicinier rouge
Local Common Names
- Africa: lapalapa pupa
- Latin America: frailecillo; pinon coarado; pinon negro; pinon rojo; purgue de fraile; quelite del fraile; tua tua
- Bolivia: pinon
- Brazil: chagas-velhas; erva-purgante; mamoninha; peao-roxo; piao-roxo; pinhao roxo; pinhao-roxo; pinon; pinon negro; raiz-de-tiu
- Caribbean: medicinier noir; medicinier rouge; purga del fraile
- Colombia: frailecillo; frailjon; higuerilla; jaquillo; purga de fraile; tua-tua
- Costa Rica: casaba marble; frailecillo
- Cuba: frailecillo; san juan del cobre; tuatua
- El Salvador: hierba del fraile
- French Polynesia/Marquesas: eitamohoi; eta mohoi; hohoi
- Ghana: aburokyi-raba; akandedua; babatsi; dkrakpoti; edmebii; gbomagboti; kaagya; kiti-gbleteo; kpitikpiteo
- Honduras: frailecillo; hierba de fraile; sube y baja
- India: badigaba; baigaba; benderi; lankajada; red fig-nut flower; red varendra; sibidigua; tua-tua
- Indonesia: dammar merah; jarak kling; jarak kosta merah; jarak ulung; kaleke bacu
- Laos: nhao luat
- Malaysia: jarak beremah; jarak hitam; jarak merah
- Nicaragua: frailecillo; purga del fraile; quelite de fraile
- Peru: pinon; pinon Colorado; pinon negro; pinon rojo
- Philippines: lansi-lansinaan; tagumbau-a-nalabaga; tuba-tuba
- Thailand: sabu lueat; sabuu daeng; salot daeng
- Venezuela: frailecillo; tua-tua
- Vietnam: daafu kai tias
EPPO code
- IATGO (Jatropha gossypifolia)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageThe current range of J. gossypiifolia includes Australia, Africa, Asia, North and South America. In Australia J. gossypiifolia is declared invasive in Queensland (2002), the Northern Territory (2001) and Western Australia (1976) (Queensland Government, 2003; Randall et al., 2009). The presence of several morphological, physiological and reproductive attributes including sympodial growth habit, a shallow root system, an abundance of extra-floral nectaries (provides more incentive for ant visitation), extreme adaptation to xeric (short stems) and non-xeric (temporary flooding) conditions coupled with high stem sugar reserves and sap content (physiological), prolific production of long-lived myrmecochorous seeds (ant-attractant substances) that have the ability to float in water, coupled with the ability to reproduce vegetatively and to prolifically flower and set seed all year, and absence of natural enemies, all combined together, contribute to its successful invasive strategy (Bebawi and Campbell, 2002a, b, c, d). J. gossypiifolia also appears to exhibit allelopathy, which in addition to its choking growth and ability to form dense monocultures imposes fundamental changes to fire regimes, community composition, structure, and function.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Euphorbiales
- Family: Euphorbiaceae
- Genus: Jatropha
- Species: Jatropha gossypiifolia
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageIn Australia, several biotypes have been noted based on morphological, phenological, and physiological differences (Pitt and Miller, 1991; Bebawi and Campbell, 2004; Bebawi et al., 2007e, 2009). Detailed taxonomic, genetic and ecological studies are now required to verify the differences which could have implications for management, particularly selection of biological control agents. Such studies would also help determine whether there is only one variety present or if some of the noted biotypes could in fact be different varieties. It has been suggested that two of the biotypes in Australia could potentially be J. gossypiifolia var. elegans and J. gossypiifolia var. staphysagrifolia (B Dehgan, University of Florida, USA, personal communication, 2008). A recent molecular genetic study identified that multiple introductions of diverse haplotypes from throughout the native range has occurred in Australia and may explain some of the considerable variation that is found between infestations (Prentis et al., 2008).
Description
Top of pageLatex cells occur in the stem, leaf, petiole, flower parts, fruit, and in the seed coat (Rao and Malaviya, 1964). Latex from the shoot apex is transparent to nearly white changing to reddish brown on exposure to air (FF Bebawi, Biosecurity Queensland, Australia, personal communication, 2009). Dehgan and Webster (1979) also recognized four extra floral gland systems in the lamina, petiole, stipules and bracts in the genus Jatropha. The bark is green, succulent, and smooth.
Distribution
Top of pageIn Australia, J. gossypiifolia is found in the northern half of the continent (Ashley, 1995). In northern Queensland, it is present in riparian and sub-riparian habitats of the Burdekin, Walsh, Palmer, Flinders, and Gregory Rivers and the headwaters of Lake Eyre Basin. Small scattered infestations occur in central Queensland, particularly in the Fitzroy catchment (Csurhes, 1999; Barron, 2004). In the Northern Territory, J. gossypiifolia persists in several coastal areas, but is most prevalent further inland (Csurhes, 1999). Among the worst infestations in the Northern Territory are those in the Darwin area (Channel Island), the Daly River catchment, the Gulf of Carpentaria region and the Barkly Tablelands. Other infestations occur in the McArthur River, Roper River, and Victoria River catchments (Miller and Pitt, 1992). In Western Australia, widespread populations occur in the east Kimberley area, with larger infestations in the Lake Argyle catchment and near Halls Creek (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 2001; Anon., 2005). Small controlled infestations occur in the west Kimberly region at the De Grey River, Broome, and Fitzroy River and on the Drysdale River and Koolan Island in the north Kimberly (King and Wirf, 2005; Turpin et al., 2006). The potential range of J. gossypiifolia in Australia includes the entire tropical savannas (Thorp and Lynch, 2000).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 17 Dec 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Botswana | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Cabo Verde | Present | ||||||
Cameroon | Present | Introduced | |||||
Chad | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ghana | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
Kenya | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Madagascar | Present | Introduced | |||||
Malawi | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Mali | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mauritius | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mozambique | Present | Introduced | |||||
Nigeria | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
Réunion | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Senegal | Present | Introduced | |||||
South Africa | Present | Introduced | |||||
Sudan | Present | ||||||
Tanzania | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Uganda | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Zambia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Asia |
|||||||
Cambodia | Present | Introduced | |||||
India | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
-Andhra Pradesh | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Tamil Nadu | Present | ||||||
Indonesia | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Java | Present | Introduced | Original citation: Backer and van (1963) | ||||
Laos | Present | Introduced | |||||
Malaysia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Philippines | Present | Introduced | |||||
Singapore | Present | Introduced | |||||
Thailand | Present | Introduced | |||||
Vietnam | Present | Introduced | |||||
North America |
|||||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present | ||||||
Bahamas | Present | ||||||
Barbados | Present | ||||||
Belize | Present | ||||||
Costa Rica | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Cuba | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Curaçao | Present | ||||||
Dominica | Present | ||||||
Dominican Republic | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
El Salvador | Present | ||||||
Grenada | Present | ||||||
Guadeloupe | Present | ||||||
Guatemala | Present | ||||||
Haiti | Present | ||||||
Honduras | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Jamaica | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Martinique | Present | ||||||
Mexico | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
Netherlands Antilles | Present | ||||||
Nicaragua | Present | Native | |||||
Panama | Present | Native | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Saint Kitts and Nevis | Present | ||||||
Saint Lucia | Present | ||||||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Present | ||||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | ||||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Hawaii | Present, Widespread | Native | Invasive | ||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present, Widespread | Introduced | 1888 | Invasive | |||
-Northern Territory | Present, Widespread | Introduced | 1888 | Invasive | Alice Springs, Daly River Catchment, Gulf of Carpentaria, Barkly Tablelands, McArthur, Roper, Victoria River Catchments, Kakadu and Elsey National Park, Flora River Conservation Reserve, Leper Island, Channel Island, Tipperary Station, Katherine, Pine Creek, Timber Creek, Borroloola, Nhulunbuy, Elliot, Mataranka, Middle Point, Batchelor, Aroona Creek System | ||
-Queensland | Present, Widespread | Introduced | 1912 | Invasive |
| Cape York Peninsula, Walsh, Palmer, Flinders, Gregory Rivers, Lake Eyre Basin, Fitzroy Catchment, Corella River, Lake Corella, Greens Creek | |
-Western Australia | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | East Kimberley, Lake Argyle Catchment, Halls Creek, West Kimberley region, De Grey, Broome, Fitzroy, Drysdale Rivers, Turkey Creek, Bow River, Kununurra, Wyndham, Mabels Down Station, Derby, Koolan Island | |||
Federated States of Micronesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Fiji | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Guam | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
New Caledonia | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Northern Mariana Islands | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Palau | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Papua New Guinea | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Timor-Leste | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Bolivia | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Brazil | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Chile | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Colombia | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Ecuador | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
French Guiana | Present | ||||||
Guyana | Present | ||||||
Paraguay | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Peru | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Suriname | Present | ||||||
Venezuela | Present, Widespread | Native |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageJ. gossypiifolia was introduced to Australia in the latter part of the 1800s (Everist, 1974; Pitt and Miller, 1991; Parsons and Cuthbertson, 2001). It was introduced to the Northern Territory in 1888 along with other Jatropha species, probably for medicinal and ornamental purposes (Anon., 1888; Pitt and Miller, 1991; Pitt, 1997) and was listed as a naturalized component of Queensland’s flora in 1912 (Bailey, 1912).
Introductions
Top of pageIntroduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reason | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
Australia | South America | 1888 | Medicinal use (pathway cause); Ornamental purposes (pathway cause) | Yes | Anon (1888); Everist (1974); Everist (1979); Parsons and Cuthbertson (2001); Pitt and Miller (1991) | |||
Australian Northern Territory | 1888 | Medicinal use (pathway cause); Ornamental purposes (pathway cause) | Yes | Anon (1888); Pitt (1997); Pitt and Miller (1991) | ||||
Queensland | 1912 | Medicinal use (pathway cause); Ornamental purposes (pathway cause) | Yes | Bailey (1912) |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageThe potential for further spread of J. gossypiifolia in Australia and other countries in the Asia and Pacific region is very high particularly as global warming gathers momentum and more land is deforested for agricultural purposes coupled with the need for medicinal and bio-fuel plants. Global warming is expected to shift current favourable ecological latitudinal zones further south in Australia, Asia and South America. For example, higher temperatures and wetter conditions across central Australia will be the driving ecological factor that could promote successful establishment of J. gossypiifolia not only from seed spread but also from flood dislodged plants. Increases in land clearance for agricultural purposes could also facilitate quick establishment of J. gossypiifolia.
Habitat
Top of pageJ. gossypiifolia is intolerant of shade (Burkill, 1994). Although plants may survive for several seasons in moderate shade, they need full or nearly full sunlight for longer-term survival and fruiting (Burkill, 1994). J. gossypiifolia is very sensitive to frost, which damages the apices of stems (FF Bebawi, Biosecurity Queensland, Australia, personal communication, 2009). It may also suffer from water-logging in poorly drained soils (Dehgan, 1982) or as a result of flooding. In north Queensland, flooding of the Palmer River in March and April 2006 killed all plants that were growing in the riverbed (FF Bebawi, Biosecurity Queensland, Australia, personal communication, 2009).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Industrial / intensive livestock production systems | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Buildings | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Rocky areas / lava flows | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Arid regions | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Freshwater | Reservoirs | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Freshwater | Rivers / streams | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Growth Stages
Top of pageBiology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
Seed production of J. gossypiifolia is generally prolific, but many factors such as environmental conditions, plant biotype/variety, plant density and location may influence the quantity of seeds produced. Adult plants growing in Queensland (Australia) have been found to produce between 2000 and 12 000 seeds plant-1y-1 (Bebawi and Campbell, 2002a), which corresponds to around 170 kg ha-1. In Western Australia J. gossypiifolia is reported to produce between 1800 and 2400 seeds plant-1y-1 (APB Infonote, 1994). Annual seed production of J. gossypiifolia in the Indian sub-continent was estimated at 500 kg ha-1 (Raina and Gaikwad, 1987).
Germination
Fresh J. gossypiifolia seeds exhibit high viability, but low germinability (Bebawi and Campbell, 2004). For example, fresh intact seed collected in north Queensland was 88% viable but only 10% of these were readily germinable (Bebawi and Campbell, 2004). Similarly, germination of seeds from Puerto Rico averaged just 4% (Liogier, 1990). Innate (primary) dormancy has been reported for other Euphorbiaceae (Ellis et al., 1985).
In north Queensland, seedling densities can be very high under favourable environmental conditions. Averages of 247, 126, and 90 seedlings m-2 were measured within rocky, sub-riparian and riparian infestations of J. gossypiifolia, respectively (FF Bebawi, Biosecurity Queensland, Australia, personal communication, 2009). Even higher seedling densities (300–400 seedlings m-2) were recently recorded under dense canopies of J. gossypiifolia (Vogler and Keir, 2005).
J. gossypiifolia can readily regenerate from stem cuttings (e.g. dumped garden plant material) (Pitt and Miller, 1991; Parsons and Cuthbertson, 2001) and whole plants that may be removed during control activities or flood events. The shallow root system of J. gossypiifolia allows seedlings and mature plants to be easily dislodged (Pitt and Miller, 1991).
Physiology and Phenology
J. gossypiifolia utilizes the C3 photosynthetic pathway (Tezara et al., 1998; Fernandez et al., 1999; Bebawi and Campbell, 2002b). C3 plants are more efficient than C4 and CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) plants under cool and moist conditions and under normal light because they require fewer enzymes and no specialized anatomical adaptations (Rengifo et al., 2002).
Perennation
In Puerto Rico J. gossypiifolia is reported as an annual shrub (Ocampo and Balick, 2009). In other South American countries it is reported as a short-lived perennial shrub (Burkill, 1994). In north Queensland field trials indicated that plants can live for longer than 10 years (FF Bebawi, Biosecurity Queensland, Australia, personal communication, 2009), with anecdotal evidence suggesting greater than 20 years. However, there is a paucity of information on its longevity.
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
B - Dry (arid and semi-arid) | Preferred | < 860mm precipitation annually | |
BW - Desert climate | Preferred | < 430mm annual precipitation |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
- impeded
- seasonally waterlogged
Soil reaction
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- infertile
- other
- saline
- shallow
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Carpophilus marginellus | not specific | |||||
Carpophilus obsoletus | not specific | |||||
Epicephala | not specific | |||||
Lyphia australis | not specific | |||||
Nattrassia mangiferae | not specific | |||||
Paratrechina sp. | not specific | |||||
Platycotylus nitidulus | not specific |
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageSeed dispersal occurs initially via dehiscent capsules that are capable of catapulting seeds as far as 13 m (Bebawi and Campbell, 2002a); although in dense infestations most seeds fall close to the parent plant. Once on the ground, some ants (particularly native meat ants (Iridomyrmex spadius)) disperse J. gossypiifolia seeds (Bebawi and Campbell, 2002a). In one study, an average of 12 330 seeds were retrieved from the middens (refuse piles) of individual meat ant nests over 12 months, with highest numbers recorded between February and June (Bebawi and Campbell, 2004). Meat ants appear to feed on the caruncle and exotegmen of J. gossypiifolia seeds and when finished discard the seed in their middens. The middens provide an improved environment (e.g. high nutrient status and absence of fire) for germination and survival of seedlings.
Water, humans and other animals, particularly the great bowerbird (Chlamydera nuchalis) are identified as potential long-distance dispersers of J. gossypiifolia seeds (APB Infonote, 1994; Ashley, 1995; Smith, 1995; FF Bebawi, Biosecurity Queensland, Australia, personal communication, 2009). Of these, floodwater is considered most important within catchments and humans are recognized as the main dispersers of J. gossypiifolia at a national and global scale (Csurhes, 1999).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Animal production | Yes | |||
Botanical gardens and zoos | Yes | |||
Crop production | Yes | |||
Disturbance | Yes | |||
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Yes | |||
Flooding and other natural disasters | Yes | |||
Garden waste disposal | Yes | |||
Hedges and windbreaks | Yes | |||
Hitchhiker | Yes | |||
Horticulture | Yes | |||
Hunting, angling, sport or racing | Yes | |||
Interconnected waterways | Yes | |||
Internet sales | Yes | |||
Live food or feed trade | Yes | |||
Medicinal use | Yes | |||
Military movements | Yes | |||
Nursery trade | Yes | |||
Ornamental purposes | Yes | |||
People sharing resources | Yes | |||
Self-propelled | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Aircraft | Seed | Yes | ||
Clothing, footwear and possessions | Seed | Yes | ||
Debris and waste associated with human activities | Sand mining | Yes | ||
Floating vegetation and debris | Yes | |||
Host and vector organisms | Native ants | Yes | ||
Land vehicles | Yes | |||
Livestock | Yes | |||
Machinery and equipment | Yes | |||
Plants or parts of plants | Yes | |||
Soil, sand and gravel | Sand mining | Yes | ||
Water | Yes | |||
Wind | Cyclones | Yes |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Negative |
Economic/livelihood | Negative |
Environment (generally) | Negative |
Human health | Negative |
Economic Impact
Top of pageCattle grazing is one of the main economic land uses of tropical savannas in northern Australia. J. gossypiifolia is a vigorous invader of grazing lands where it can incur additional expenditure and threaten the viability of grazing enterprises. The economic impact of J. gossypiifolia on the livestock industry has been reported in Australia (Tothill et al., 1982), particularly in north Queensland, where direct losses to the pastoral industry occurred during drought due to poisoning of cattle, horses and goats (Csurhes, 1999). All cases of poisoning occurred in the dry season when pasture quality and quantity was at its lowest. Two landholders alone have spent approximately $56 240 on control of J. gossypiifolia in the Burdekin Catchment, north Queensland (Csurhes, 1999). A property owner within the Burdekin Catchment spent more than $50 000 over 10 years in an attempt to prevent J. gossypiifolia spreading along 17 km of river frontage (Bowen Independent, 1996). In the long term, J. gossypiifolia restricts the growth of native and introduced grasses, ultimately displacing pasture species, making any land colonised by the weed entirely unproductive (King and Wirf, 2005).
In the Northern Territory, J. gossypiifolia has spread into pastoral land, forming dense thickets with little or no grass underneath, and making land unsuitable for grazing (Miller, 1982). In Papua New Guinea, sown pastures have become non-viable due to encroachment of several weeds including J. gossypiifolia (Chandhokar, 1978).
Environmental Impact
Top of pageBecause of its dense canopy, shallow root system and allelopathic qualities, J. gossypiifolia invasion results in a loss of biodiversity, wildlife habitat, changed fire regimes, increased soil erosion and destabilization of creek and river banks. Monospecific stands of J. gossypiifolia inhibit establishment of native plants (Csurhes, 1999). The impenetrable thickets of dense J. gossypiifolia infestations may also be used as refuges by feral animals such as feral pigs, hindering control of these environmentally damaging pest species (King and Wirf, 2005).
An aqueous extract of J. gossypiifolia latex is known to kill freshwater fish (Singh and Singh, 2002). The methanol and n-butanol extracts of unripened seeds of J. gossypiifolia have also killed two species of freshwater snails (Lymnaea luteola and Indoplanorbis exustus) in India (Amin et al., 1972; Adewunmi and Marquis, 1980; Singh and Agarwal, 1988; Sukumaran et al., 1995).
Social Impact
Top of pageMost parts of the J. gossypiifolia plant contain toxins of various concentrations, posing a serious human health risk. Detrimental effects on human health include seed poisoning (Kingsbury, 1964), dermatitis (Souder, 1963) and sneezing (Irvine, 1961). Whilst numerous cases of severe poisoning have been reported from the plant’s native range, no human deaths were recorded (Begg and Gaskin, 1994).
For Aboriginal people of Australia, J. gossypiifolia can reduce the availability of traditional foods (bush tucker) and other resources by displacing native plants and animals (King and Wirf, 2005). Dense infestations of J. gossypiifolia can also disrupt spiritual and physical connections to the country, for example by restricting access to sacred sites (Gardner 2005, King and Wirf, 2005). Impenetrable infestations of J. gossypiifolia restrict hunting, camping and bushwalking activities and the general physical movement of people (Gardner, 2005; King and Wirf, 2005). J. gossypiifolia is unpleasant to touch because it is sticky and leaves permanent reddish-brown stains on garments. Furthermore, J. gossypiifolia infestations appear dramatically different to the surrounding natural environment and are highly noticeable, diminishing the aesthetic values of the natural landscape (King and Wirf, 2005).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Tolerant of shade
- Capable of securing and ingesting a wide range of food
- Highly mobile locally
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Gregarious
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Reproduces asexually
- Has high genetic variability
- Altered trophic level
- Damaged ecosystem services
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Increases vulnerability to invasions
- Infrastructure damage
- Loss of medicinal resources
- Modification of fire regime
- Modification of hydrology
- Modification of nutrient regime
- Modification of successional patterns
- Monoculture formation
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Negatively impacts cultural/traditional practices
- Negatively impacts forestry
- Negatively impacts human health
- Negatively impacts animal health
- Negatively impacts livelihoods
- Negatively impacts aquaculture/fisheries
- Negatively impacts tourism
- Reduced amenity values
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of endangered species
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Transportation disruption
- Negatively impacts animal/plant collections
- Damages animal/plant products
- Negatively impacts trade/international relations
- Allelopathic
- Antagonistic (micro-organisms)
- Causes allergic responses
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - shading
- Competition - smothering
- Competition - strangling
- Competition (unspecified)
- Herbivory/grazing/browsing
- Induces hypersensitivity
- Interaction with other invasive species
- Poisoning
- Rapid growth
- Rooting
- Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
- Highly likely to be transported internationally illegally
Uses
Top of pageThe major benefits of J. gossypiifolia are associated with its medicinal attributes. Various parts have been studied as sources of novel pharmaceuticals, including potential anticancer drugs (Biehl and Hecker, 1985; de Padua et al., 1999). Roots, stems, leaves, seeds, and fruits have been widely used in traditional folk medicine in many parts of western Africa (de Padua et al., 1999; IPCS INCHEM, 2004). Extracts from the plant have been used to treat a number of human ailments, ranging from anaemia, vertigo, worms, leprosy, leukaemia, dysphonia, urinary complaints, ulcers, itches, conjunctivitis, dermatitis, gout, snakebite and venereal diseases (Irvine, 1961; Kupchan et al., 1976; Morton, 1981; Liogier, 1990; Das and Das, 1994; Horsten et al., 1996; de Padua et al., 1999).
In drier regions of West Africa, J. gossypiifolia is used as a hedge around villages to protect them against bush fires (Irvine, 1961; Ogbobe and Akano, 1993). Some West Africans also believe that J. gossypiifolia has magical powers that protect against snakes, lightning, and violence (Burkill, 1994).
Uses List
Top of pageEnvironmental
- Boundary, barrier or support
- Firebreak
Fuels
- Biofuels
- Fuelwood
General
- Botanical garden/zoo
Materials
- Alcohol
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageThe closest relatives of J. gossypiifolia from karyotype studies were J. multifida and J. curcas, which were also noted as very similar morphologically (Soontornchainaksaeng and Jenjittikul, 2003). J. gossypiifolia confusion with castor oil or the castor bean Ricinus communis may occur in the field as both species may be found in the same habitat. The two species are easily distinguished by the shape of their leaves and fruits. Castor oil or castor bean has considerably larger leaves which grow 15-30 cm across (sometimes larger) with 7 to 9 pointed lobes with serrated edges compared with 3-5 deeply divided lobes with sticky denticulate edges covered with extra-floral nectaries of J. gossypiifolia. The fruit of castor oil or castor bean are also considerably larger (2.5 cm across) and spinescent compared with the glabrous or pubescent J. gossypiifolia pods which may grow to 1.2 cm long and 1 cm wide.
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Chemical Control
Fire
Burning is an effective control technique against J. gossypiifolia where there is sufficient fuel to carry a fire (Bebawi and Campbell, 2002a, b, c; Guterres et al., 2008). In a field trial in northern Australia, 76% mortality occurred following burning of a riparian infestation. A second burn a year later increased the mortality rate to 92% (Bebawi and Campbell, 2002c), with temperatures of up to 640°C recorded at ground level (Bebawi and Campbell, 2002c). Exposure of J. gossypiifolia to such high temperatures caused them to ooze caramelized latex and blister profusely due to the high sugar concentration of the latex (Bebawi and Campbell, 2002b). Despite the average fuel load being relatively high, there was significant variation across the site and mortality tended to vary accordingly. Nevertheless, juvenile plants were more susceptible to fire than mature plants, with old plants being the most tolerant (Bebawi and Campbell, 2002c).
Mechanical Control
Pasture Management
Preliminary results from a field trial in north Queensland investigating the impact of five simulated grazing regimes on four J. gossypiifolia population densities suggest that J. gossypiifolia grows best in areas void of pasture. Where there is grass cover, seedling recruitment is reduced and plants grow more slowly (Bebawi et al., 2006, 2007c). Over four years, buffel grass-dominated (Cenchrus ciliaris) plots reduced flowering of J. gossypiifolia plants by 89% and seed production incidence by 95% compared with plots void of pasture (Bebawi et al., 2007c). Furthermore, after seven years, minimal mortality (4%) has occurred in areas devoid of pasture. In contrast, an average of 53% and 68% mortality occurred after four and seven years in pastured plots, respectively (Bebawi et al., 2006; DEEDI, 2009). These findings suggest that J. gossypiifolia is likely to dominate areas faster if they are void of pasture (Bebawi et al., 2006) and that maintenance of a competitive pasture will help greatly in the management of this weed. Nevertheless, as for most tropical weeds, there are very few data on how J. gossypiifolia can be managed using grazing or pasture management.
Jatropha spp. generally have few phytophagous insects or pathogens in their native range (Dehgan, 1982). In India, J. gossypiifolia was reported completely free of any visible fungal or insect damage (Raina and Gaikwad, 1987). However, in Australia, the leaf-mining moth, Epicephala sp. (Wilson, 1997) and the castor oil looper, Achaea janata cause minor defoliation of J. gossypiifolia. The tenebrionids beetles, Lyphia australis and Platycotylus nitidulus, and the nitidulid beetles, Carpophilus marginellus and C. obsoletus, have also been observed attacking the stems in the Northern Territory (FF Bebawi, Biosecurity Queensland, Australia, personal communication, 2009).
Integrated Management
No single control method provides effective management of J. gossypiifolia at a reasonable cost (Vitelli, 2000). Results from a trial of integrated control methods have shown that high kill rates of J. gossypiifolia can be obtained with a single application of techniques such as foliar spraying, slashing, fire and stickraking (Bebawi et al., 2004). However, follow-up control will generally be needed for several years to control remaining plants and seedling regrowth. Selective foliar spraying appears to be one of the most effective options for follow-up as it allows the maintenance of a grass cover to compete with seedlings that emerge afterwards. In the integrated control trial, for every plant killed by a single foliar spray treatment, 20 plants were recruited from the seed bank, much less than in slashing, mechanical and fire treatments which averaged 97, 74 and 69 plants, respectively (Bebawi et al., 2004). Furthermore, of all the treatment combinations implemented, repeated foliar spraying on an annual basis was the only one to reduce the density of bellyache bush to zero. This was achieved after two follow-ups following the initial primary application. Foliar spraying as a follow-up to slashing, stick-raking and burning also proved effective (average 99% reduction) but did not remove all bellyache bush plants within the study period. Slashing as a follow-up caused an average population reduction of 97% after being undertaken threes times (on an annual basis), irrespective of the initial primary treatment. Similarly, burning following foliar spraying resulted in a 97% decline in the bellyache bush population (FF Bebawi, Biosecurity Queensland, Australia, personal communication, 2009).
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
Top of pageA recent molecular genetic study identified that multiple introductions of diverse haplotypes from throughout the native range has occurred in Australia and may explain some of the considerable variation that is found between infestations (Prentis et al., 2008). Several biotypes have also been noted based on morphological, phenological, and physiological differences (Pitt and Miller, 1991; Bebawi and Campbell, 2004; Bebawi et al., 2007e, 2009). Detailed taxonomic, genetic and ecological studies are now required to verify the differences which could have implications for management, particularly selection of biological control agents. Such studies would also help determine whether there is only one variety present or if some of the noted biotypes could in fact be different varieties. It has been suggested that two of the biotypes in Australia could potentially be J. gossypiifolia var. elegans and J. gossypiifolia var. staphysagrifolia (B Dehgan, University of Florida, USA, personal communication, 2008).
References
Top of pageAmin MA, Daffala AA, El Moneim OA, 1972.
Backer CA, Brink RCB van den, 1963. Flora of Java. Vol. 1. Groningen, Netherlands: NVP Noordhoff
Baxter P, 2000. Deadly weeds on Leper Island. Northern Territory News, November 8:19
BoDD, 2004. Euphorbiaceae. Botanical Dermatology Database. unpaginated. http://bodd.cf.ac.uk
CHIPPENDALE GM, MURRAY LR, 1963. Ext. Artic. 2 north. Territory Admin. Anim. Ind. Brch. 116 pp
CSIRO, 1998. Biological control of Northern Territory weeds. unpaginated
Dalziel AA, 1955. The useful plants of west tropical Africa. London: Crown Agents
Datta N, 1967. In IOPB chromosome number reports XII. Taxon, 16:341-50
Everist SL, 1974. Poisonous Plants of Australia. Sydney, Australia: Angus & Robertson
Everist SL, 1974. Poisonous plants of Australia. Sydney, Australia; Angus and Robertson
Gardner C, Bennetts H, 1956. The Toxic Plants of Western Australia. Perth, Australia: Periodicals Division, West Australian Newspaper
Henty EE, 1980. Harmful plants in Papua New Guinea. Botany Bulletin No. 12:unpaginated
Hickman JC, 1974. Pollination by ants - a low-energy system. Science, USA, 184(4143):1290-1292
Hnatiuk RJ, 1990. Census of Australian Vascular Plants. Australian Flora and Fauna Series Number 11. Canberra, Australia: Australian Government Publishing Service
Holm LG, Pancho JV, Herberger JP, Plucknett DL, 1979. A Geographical Atlas of World Weeds. New York, USA: Wiley
Klotzsch JF, 1853. Jatropha elegans (Pohl) Klotzsch, in Seeman. Botanical Voyage Herald:102
Liogier HA, 1990. Descriptive flora of Puerto Rico and adjacent islands. Spermatophyta, 2:481
Matchacheep S, 1995. Weeds of Thailand., Thailand: Thai Publication, unpaginated
Miller P, 1754. The Gardener's Dictionary, Vol. II. London, UK: John and James Rivington
Parrotta JA, 2001. Healing Plants of Pennisular India. Wallingford, UK: CAB International
Pitt JL, 1999. Bellyache Bush (Jatropha gossypifolia). Agnote No. 480. Darwin, Australia: Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Northern Territory of Australia
Pittier H, 1942. Geobotanica de Venezuela. Caracas: Monte Avila Editores
Randall RP, 2002. A Global Compendium of Weeds. Melbourne, Australia: RG & FJ Richardson
Ridley HN, 1924. The Flora of the Malay Peninsula Vol. III. Covent Garden, UK: L. Reeve & Co
Smith AC, 1981. Flora Vitiensis Nova: A new flora of Fiji. Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. National Tropical Botanical Garden, 2:290
Stone BC, 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesia, 6:1-659
Swarbrick JT, 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper No. 209. Noumea, New Caledonia: South Pacific Commission
Distribution References
Anon, 1888. Government Resident's Report on Northern Territory for the Year 1887. 33-40.
Baxter P, 2000. Deadly weeds on Leper Island. Northern Territory News. 19.
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Chippendale G M, Murray L R, 1963. Ext. Artic. 2 north. Territory Admin. Anim. Ind. Brch. 116 pp.
CSIRO, 1998. Biological control of Northern Territory weeds. unpaginated.
Gardner C, Bennetts H, 1956. The Toxic Plants of Western Australia., Perth, Australia: Periodicals Division, West Australian Newspaper.
Hickman J C, 1974. Pollination by ants - a low-energy system. Science, USA. 184 (4143), 1290-1292.
Liogier H A, 1990. Descriptive flora of Puerto Rico and adjacent islands. Spermatophyta. 481.
Martin R, Pol C, 2009. Weeds of upland crops in Cambodia. Australia: ACIAR. 81 pp.
Matchacheep S, 1995. Weeds of Thailand. Thailand: Ratchamongkul Technology Institute. unpaginated.
Pitt JL, 1999. Bellyache Bush (Jatropha gossypifolia). Agnote No. 480., Darwin, Australia: Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Northern Territory of Australia.
Pittier H, 1972. Geobotanica de Venezuela. Caracas, Venezuela: Monte Avila Editores. 129 pp.
Randall RP, 2002. A Global Compendium of Weeds., Melbourne, Australia: RG & FJ Richardson.
Ridley H N, 1924. The Flora of the Malay Peninsula, Vol. III. Covent Garden, UK: L. Reeve & Co.
Swarbrick JT, 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands., 209 Noumea, New Caledonia, South Pacific Commission.
Contributors
Top of page12/05/10 Original text by:
Faiz Bebawi, Tropical Weeds Research Centre, Invasive Plants & Animal Science, Biosecurity Queensland, PO Box 187, Charters Towers QLD 4820, Australia
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