Hemiberlesia lataniae (latania scale)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- Risk of Introduction
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Growth Stages
- Symptoms
- List of Symptoms/Signs
- Biology and Ecology
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Impact
- Detection and Inspection
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Distribution Maps
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Generate reportIdentity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Hemiberlesia lataniae (Signoret)
Preferred Common Name
- latania scale
Other Scientific Names
- Aspidiotus askleniae Sasaki
- Aspidiotus aspleniae Ferris
- Aspidiotus crawii Cockerell
- Aspidiotus cydoniae Cockerell
- Aspidiotus greenii Cockerll
- Aspidiotus lataniae Signoret
- Aspidiotus punicae Cockerell
- Aspidiotus tectus Ferris
- Diaspidiotus lataniae
- Euaspidiotus lataniae
- Hemiberlesia cydoniae
- Hemiberlesia greenii
International Common Names
- English: grape vine Aspidiotus; palm scale; scale, latania; scale, palm
Local Common Names
- Czechoslovakia (former): quince scale
- South Africa: palm dopluis (South Africa)
EPPO code
- HEBELA (Hemiberlesia lataniae)
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Metazoa
- Phylum: Arthropoda
- Subphylum: Uniramia
- Class: Insecta
- Order: Hemiptera
- Suborder: Sternorrhyncha
- Unknown: Coccoidea
- Family: Diaspididae
- Genus: Hemiberlesia
- Species: Hemiberlesia lataniae
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageDescription
Top of pageThe eggs are yellow in colour, elongate and 0.15 mm long.
Larvae
The first instar, or crawler, is yellowish in colour and is 0.15 mm long. It moults after approximately 14 days. The second instar exhibits the same colour as the adult female.
Adults
Adult females are variable in colour and shape, measuring 1-2 mm in diameter. On leaves they are grey to white in colour, circular and convex; on stems, they are brown and slightly convex. Exuviae are subcentral and yellow-brown (Davidson and Miller, 1990).
Male scale covers are oval-shaped and elongate, similar in colour to those of the females, but are not always present. Exuviae are subterminal and yellow (Davidson and Miller, 1990). The adult male is a tiny insect with one pair of wings and no mouthparts, and which lives for 24 to 48 hours.
Distribution
Top of pageDistribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 21 Jul 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Algeria | Present | ||||||
Angola | Present | ||||||
Benin | Present | ||||||
Cabo Verde | Present | ||||||
Cameroon | Present | ||||||
Congo, Democratic Republic of the | Present | ||||||
Côte d'Ivoire | Present | ||||||
Egypt | Present | ||||||
Eritrea | Present | ||||||
Ethiopia | Present | ||||||
Ghana | Present | ||||||
Guinea | Present | ||||||
Kenya | Present | ||||||
Libya | Present | ||||||
Madagascar | Present | ||||||
Malawi | Present | ||||||
Mali | Present | ||||||
Mauritius | Present | ||||||
Morocco | Present | ||||||
Mozambique | Present | ||||||
Nigeria | Present | ||||||
Réunion | Present | ||||||
Saint Helena | Present | ||||||
-Ascension | Present | ||||||
São Tomé and Príncipe | Present | ||||||
Seychelles | Present | ||||||
Sierra Leone | Present | ||||||
Somalia | Present | ||||||
South Africa | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Sudan | Present | ||||||
Tanzania | Present | ||||||
-Zanzibar Island | Present | Original citation: Quayle (1938) | |||||
Tunisia | Present | ||||||
Uganda | Present | ||||||
Zambia | Present | ||||||
Zimbabwe | Present | ||||||
Asia |
|||||||
Bangladesh | Present | ||||||
British Indian Ocean Territory | Present | ||||||
Brunei | Present | ||||||
China | Present | ||||||
Hong Kong | Present | ||||||
India | Present | ||||||
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands | Present | ||||||
-Andhra Pradesh | Present | ||||||
-Himachal Pradesh | Present | ||||||
-Karnataka | Present | ||||||
-Kerala | Present | ||||||
-Maharashtra | Present | ||||||
-Tamil Nadu | Present | ||||||
Indonesia | Present | ||||||
-Irian Jaya | Present | ||||||
Iran | Present | ||||||
Iraq | Present | ||||||
Israel | Present | ||||||
Japan | Present | ||||||
Malaysia | Present | ||||||
Maldives | Present | ||||||
Oman | Present | ||||||
Pakistan | Present | Introduced | Not established | ||||
Philippines | Present | ||||||
Saudi Arabia | Present | Introduced | Not established | ||||
Sri Lanka | Present | ||||||
Taiwan | Present | ||||||
Thailand | Present | ||||||
Turkey | Present | ||||||
Europe |
|||||||
Austria | Present | Introduced | Establishment uncertain | ||||
Belgium | Present | Introduced | Not established | ||||
Bulgaria | Present | Introduced | 1964 | ||||
Croatia | Present | ||||||
Cyprus | Present | ||||||
Czechia | Present | Introduced | Not established | ||||
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia | Present | ||||||
France | Present | Introduced | Not established | ||||
-Corsica | Present | Introduced | 2003 | ||||
Germany | Present | Introduced | Not established | ||||
Greece | Present | ||||||
-Crete | Present | ||||||
Italy | Present | ||||||
-Sicily | Present | ||||||
Malta | Present | ||||||
Portugal | Present | ||||||
-Madeira | Present | ||||||
Romania | Present | Introduced | Not established | ||||
Russia | Present | ||||||
Spain | Present | ||||||
-Canary Islands | Present | ||||||
United Kingdom | Present | Introduced | Not established | ||||
-Channel Islands | Present | Introduced | Not established | ||||
North America |
|||||||
Bahamas | Present | ||||||
Barbados | Present | ||||||
Bermuda | Present | ||||||
Costa Rica | Present | ||||||
Cuba | Present | ||||||
Dominica | Present | ||||||
Guatemala | Present | ||||||
Haiti | Present | ||||||
Honduras | Present | ||||||
Jamaica | Present | ||||||
Mexico | Present | ||||||
Nicaragua | Present | ||||||
Panama | Present | ||||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | ||||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | ||||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-California | Present | ||||||
-Florida | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Georgia | Present | ||||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | 1898 | ||||
-Kansas | Present | Introduced | Not established | ||||
-Louisiana | Present | ||||||
-Maryland | Present | ||||||
-Missouri | Present | ||||||
-New Mexico | Present | ||||||
-Ohio | Present | Introduced | Not established | ||||
-Virginia | Present | ||||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | 1897 | ||||
-Queensland | Present | ||||||
Cook Islands | Present | ||||||
Fiji | Present | ||||||
French Polynesia | Present | ||||||
Kiribati | Present | ||||||
New Caledonia | Present | ||||||
New Zealand | Present | Introduced | 1977 | ||||
Niue | Present | ||||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | ||||||
Samoa | Present | ||||||
Solomon Islands | Present | ||||||
Tokelau | Present | ||||||
Tonga | Present | ||||||
Tuvalu | Present | ||||||
Vanuatu | Present | ||||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | ||||||
Brazil | Present | ||||||
-Espirito Santo | Present | ||||||
-Minas Gerais | Present | ||||||
-Para | Present | ||||||
-Rio Grande do Sul | Present | ||||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | ||||||
Chile | Present | ||||||
Colombia | Present | ||||||
Ecuador | Present | ||||||
Guyana | Present | ||||||
Peru | Present | ||||||
Venezuela | Present |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageHosts/Species Affected
Top of pageHost Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pageSymptoms
Top of pageAccording to Ebeling (1959), the rostralis of H. lataniae irritates the flesh of avocado cultivar Fuerte and possibly other thin-skinned cultivars. This is indicated by nodules adhering to the inside of the peel with corresponding depressions in the flesh of ripe fruit.
List of Symptoms/Signs
Top of pageSign | Life Stages | Type |
---|---|---|
Fruit / abnormal patterns | ||
Fruit / discoloration | ||
Fruit / external feeding | ||
Leaves / abnormal forms | ||
Leaves / abnormal patterns | ||
Leaves / external feeding | ||
Stems / discoloration | ||
Stems / external feeding |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageH. lataniae is bisexual in Maryland, USA (Stoetzel and Davidson, 1974), and unisexual in Israel (Gerson and Zor, 1973) and southern California, USA (McKenzie, 1935).
Annually, H. lataniae completes two generations in Maryland, USA (Stoetzel and Davidson, 1974), three generations in Egypt (El-Minshway et al., 1971) and four generations in Israel (Gerson and Zor, 1973). From the egg to egg-laying female takes 56 to 65 days in southern California, USA (McKenzie, 1935).
Dispersal is by the active crawling of the first instar, and passive transport by wind and animal agents, including man. Dry weather favours dispersal and establishment; heavy rain causes high mortality of crawlers.
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Amblyseius citrifolius | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Anabrolepis bifasciata | Parasite | |||||
Aphytis | Predator/parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Aphytis aonidiae | Parasite | |||||
Aphytis chilensis | Predator/parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Aphytis coheni | Parasite | |||||
Aphytis diaspidis | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Aphytis lingnanensis | Parasite | |||||
Aphytis melinus | Predator/parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Aphytis mytilaspidis | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Aphytis paramaculicornis | Parasite | |||||
Aphytis philippinensis | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | India; Karnataka | Albizia chinensis; Solanum torvum | ||
Cheilomenes sexmaculata | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Cheletogenes ornatus | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Cheletomimus berlesei | Predator/parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Chilocorus nigrita | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Chilocorus orbus | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Chilocorus quadrimaculatus | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Coccobius comperei | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Comperiella bifasciata | Parasite | |||||
Comperiella lemniscata | Predator/parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Cosmospora aurantiicola | Pathogen | Tyson et al. (2005) | ||||
Encarsia aurantii | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Encarsia citrina | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Encarsia lounsburyi | Parasite | |||||
Habrolepis aspidioti | Parasite | Egypt | figs; olives | |||
Hemisarcoptes coccophagus | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Marietta leopardina | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Nectria flammea | Pathogen | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Pharoscymnus flexibilis | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Pharoscymnus horni | Predator | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Plagiomerus bangaloriensis | Parasite | |||||
Pteroptrix chinensis | Parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Saniosulus nudus | ||||||
Signiphora fax | Predator/parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Signiphora flavella | Predator/parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Signiphora perpauca | Predator/parasite | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Thomsonisca amathus | Parasite |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageThe parasitoids of H. lataniae belong to the Aphelinidae (Aphytis spp.) the Encyrtidae (Habrolepis obscura and Comperiella lemniscata) and the Signiphoridae (Signiphora spp.).
The predatory mites, Cheletomimus berlesei (Cheyletidae) and the Hemisarcoptes spp. (Hemisarcoptidae) feed on diaspidid crawlers, such as those of H. lataniae (Gerson et al., 1990). Coccinellids, such as Rhyzobius lophanthae and Chilocorus sp., are considered to be high-density feeders of scale insects, although their principal importance is as hosts for the dispersal of predatory mites. Dentifibula obtusilobae is a cecidomyiid predator of the latania scale.
Evans and Prior (1990) note that armoured scale insects, particularly in the humid tropics, are subject to periodic and often devastating attacks by highly adapted fungal pathogens. The pathogen Nectria flammea has been isolated from H. lataniae.
Impact
Top of pageLatania scale is considered to be a serious pest of avocado in Israel (Gill, 1997).
In the USA, H. lataniae is a serious pest of palms in Florida and on ornamentals in California, where it has recently also begun to cause problems on kiwifruit (Gill, 1997).
On macadamia (Macadamia spp.) trees, the insect attacks the nuts, leaves and branches.
H. lataniae attacks the twigs and bark of mango trees, moving to the fruit during severe infestations. The peel of infested fruit turns pale green or yellow where the scales feed, but no internal damage was observed by Daneel (1998).
On grapevine, the insect attacks the main stem, branches and shoots of the vines, causing dieback of bearing stems, as well as older wood and occasionally whole vines (Swart and De Klerk, 1986).
Detection and Inspection
Top of pagePrevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Biological ControlIn New Zealand, species of Hemisarcoptes have been introduced into kiwifruit orchards (Charles et al., 1995b), but only H. coccophagus has become established. Chilocorus spp. were also introduced to enable the predatory Hemisarcoptes mites to be dispersed by phoresy. Following introduction of H. coccophagus, there was a long term decline in H. lataniae numbers in orchards and Lombardy poplar shelter belts (Charles et al., 1995a).
In Australia, a complex of natural enemies was able to suppress H. lataniae infestations in sprayed avocado orchards (Waite, 1988).
Chemical Control
Although there are systemic and contact insecticides that can control H. lataniae, it is mostly not necessary to apply chemical control.
Where natural enemies have been suppressed by misuse of insecticides, scale-infested avocado fruit need to be cleaned before marketing (Swaine et al., 1985). Ebeling (1959) describes washing of fruit in a special solution and vigorous brushing to remove the scales.
The misuse of broad-spectrum insecticides for the control of stink bugs on macadamia can also cause a population build up of H. lataniae (De Villiers and Du Toit, 1984).
IPM
Where orchards become infested with H. lataniae, the history of the orchards and the chemicals used on them during the previous two seasons should be determined. Broad spectrum pesticides with long residual action should be replaced with narrow spectrum pesticides with short residual action. Other useful practices are to reduce dust depositing on the trees from nearby dusty roads, and to prevent ants from gaining access to trees.
References
Top of pageAPPPC, 1987. Insect pests of economic significance affecting major crops of the countries in Asia and the Pacific region. Technical Document No. 135. Bangkok, Thailand: Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific region (RAPA).
Argyriou LC, 1990. Olive. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 579-583.
Avidov Z; Harpaz I, 1969. Plant pests of Israel. Jerusalem, Israel: Israel Universities Press.
Borchsenius NS, 1966. A Catalogue of the Armoured Scale Insects (Diaspidoidea) of the World. (In Russian). Leningrad, Russia: Akademii Nauk SSR Zoologicheskogo Instituta, 449 pp.
Burger HC; Ulenberg SA, 1990. Quarantine problems and procedures. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 313-327.
Charles JG; Hill MG; Allan DJ, 1995. Persistence of the predatory mite, Hemisarcoptes coccophagus Meyer (Hemisarcoptidae), on low populations of Hemiberlesia lataniae (Signoret) (Diaspididae) in New Zealand. In: Ascher KRS; Ben-Dov Y, eds. Proceedings of the VII International Symposium of Scale Insect Studies, Bet Dagan, Israel. Israel Journal of Entomology 29:297-300.
Chu TH; Wood BJ, 1990. Other Tropical Fruit Trees and Shrubs. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 543-552.
Daneel MS, 1998. Palm scale. In: De Villiers EA, ed. The Cultivation of Mangoes. South Africa, Nelspruit: Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Crops, 154-155.
Danzig E; Pellizari G, 1998. In: Kozar, ed. Catalogue of Palearctiv Coccoidea. Budapest, Hungary: Plant Protection Institute, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 272-273.
Davidson JA; Miller DR, 1990. Ornamental plants. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 603-632.
de Villiers EA; du Toit WJ, 1984. Uitwerking van piretroid-middels op die groenstinkbesie, Nezara viridula, by makadamianeute. Subtropica, 5(10):17-20.
Ebeling W, 1959. Subtropical Fruit Pests. Los Angeles, USA: University of California.
El-Minshawy AM; El-Sawaf SK; Hammad SM; Donia A, 1971. The biology of Hemiberlesia lataniae (Sign.) in Alexandria District. Bulletin of the Entomological Society of Egypt, 55:461-467.
Evans HC; Prior C, 1990. Entomopathogenic Fungi. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 3-17.
Gerson U; O'Connor BM; Houck MA, 1990. Acari. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 77-97.
Gill RJ, 1997. The scale insects of California. Part 3. The armoured scales (Homoptera: Diaspididae). Technical Series in Agricultural Biosystematics and Plant Pathology, No 3. Sacramento, USA: Department of Food and Agriculture.
Harris KM, 1990. Cecidomyiidae and Other Diptera. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 61-66.
Howard FW; Oliver AD, 1985. Armored scale insects (Homoptera: Diaspididae) of Louisiana. Bulletin, Louisana Agricultural Experiment Station No. 762.
Kosztarab M, 1963. The armoured scale insects of Ohio (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Diaspididae). Bulletin of the Ohio Biological Survey (New Series), 2(2):1-120.
McKenzie HL, 1935. Life history and control of latania scale on avocado. California Avocado Association Yearbook 1935, 80-82.
Miller DR; Davidson JA, 1990. A list of the Armoured Scale Insect Pests. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 299-306.
Mitchell WC; Ironside DA, 1982. Insects and other animals reported on macadamia. California Macadamia Society Yearbook, 28:36-72.
Nagarkatti S; Sankaran T, 1990. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 553-562.
New Zealand MAF Biosecurity, 2011. Pest watch: 2 November 2010 - 21 March 2011, 38(2):53-54.
Quayle HJ, 1941. Insects of Citrus and other Subtropical Fruits. Ithaca, New York, USA: Comstock Publishing Company.
Quayle HJ, 1941. Insects of Citrus and other Subtropical Fruits. Ithaca, New York, USA: Comstock Publishing Company.
Steven D; Valenzuela L; Gonzalez; RH, 1997. Kiwifruit pests in Chile.In: Sfakiotakis E and Porlingis J, eds. Proceedings of the third international symposium on kiwifruit, Thessaloniki, Greece. Acta Horticulturae, 444:773-777.
Steyn WP, 1995. Palmdopluis of avokadovrugte. Information Bulletin, Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Crops No. 272, p. 7.
Swart PL; De Klerk CA, 1986. Scale Insects. In: Myburgh AC, ed. Crop Pest in Southern Africa. Vol. 1. Plant Protection Research Institute. Pretoria, South Africa: Government Printer, 92 pp.
Williams JR; Greathead DJ, 1990. Sugar Cane. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 563-578.
Woolley JB, 1990. Signiphoridae. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 167-176.
Wysoki M, 1977. Insect pests of macadamia in Israel. Phytoparasitica, 5(3):187-188.
Wysoki M, 1977. Insect pests of macadamia in Israel. Phytoparasitica, 5(3):187-188.
Zahradnfk J, 1990. Conifers. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. World Crop Pests. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier, 633-644.
Distribution References
Argyriou LC, 1990. Olive. In: Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control, 4B [ed. by Rosen D]. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. 579-583.
AVIDOV Z, HARPAZ I, 1969. Plant pests of Israel. Plant pests of Israel. x+549 pp.
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Chu TH, Wood BJ, 1990. Other Tropical Fruit Trees and Shrubs. In: Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control, 4B [ed. by Rosen D]. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. 543-552.
Daneel MS, 1998. Palm scale. In: The Cultivation of Mangoes, [ed. by De Villiers EA]. Nelspruit, South Africa: Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Crops. 154-155.
Danzig E, Pellizari G, 1998. Catalogue of Palearctiv Coccoidea., [ed. by Kozar]. Budapest, Hungary: Plant Protection Institute, Hungarian Academy of Sciences. 272-273.
Gill RJ, 1997. The scale insects of California. Part 3. The armoured scales (Homoptera: Diaspididae). In: Technical Series in Agricultural Biosystematics and Plant Pathology, Sacramento, USA: Department of Food and Agriculture.
Howard FW, Oliver AD, 1985. Armored scale insects (Homoptera: Diaspididae) of Louisiana. In: Bulletin, Louisana Agricultural Experiment Station No. 762,
Kosztarab M, 1963. The armoured scale insects of Ohio (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Diaspididae). In: Bulletin of the Ohio Biological Survey (New Series), 2 (2) 1-120.
Miller DR, Davidson JA, 1990. A list of the Armoured Scale Insect Pests. In: Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control, 4B [ed. by Rosen D]. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. 299-306.
Nagarkatti S, Sankaran T, 1990. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control., 4B [ed. by Rosen D]. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. 553-562.
New Zealand MAF Biosecurity, 2011. Pest watch: 2 November 2010 - 21 March 2011., 38 (2) 53-54.
Williams JR, Greathead DJ, 1990. Sugar Cane. In: Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control, 4B [ed. by Rosen D]. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. 563-578.
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