Hemiberlesia lataniae
(latania scale)

Pictures

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Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

• Hemiberlesia lataniae (Signoret)

Preferred Common Name

• latania scale

Other Scientific Names

• Aspidiotus askleniae Sasaki
• Aspidiotus aspleniae Ferris
• Aspidiotus crawii Cockerell
• Aspidiotus cydoniae Cockerell
• Aspidiotus greenii Cockerll
• Aspidiotus lataniae Signoret
• Aspidiotus punicae Cockerell
• Aspidiotus tectus Ferris
• Diaspidiotus lataniae
• Euaspidiotus lataniae
• Hemiberlesia cydoniae
• Hemiberlesia greenii

International Common Names

• English: grape vine Aspidiotus; palm scale; scale, latania; scale, palm

Local Common Names

• Czechoslovakia (former): quince scale
• South Africa: palm dopluis (South Africa)

EPPO code

• HEBELA (Hemiberlesia lataniae)

Taxonomic Tree

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• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Metazoa
•         Phylum: Arthropoda
•             Subphylum: Uniramia
•                 Class: Insecta
•                     Order: Hemiptera
•                         Suborder: Sternorrhyncha
•                             Unknown: Coccoidea
•                                 Family: Diaspididae
•                                     Genus: Hemiberlesia
•                                         Species: Hemiberlesia lataniae

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Top of page H. lataniae is a member of the subfamily Diaspidinae tribe Aspidiotini.

Description

Top of page Eggs

The eggs are yellow in colour, elongate and 0.15 mm long.

Larvae

The first instar, or crawler, is yellowish in colour and is 0.15 mm long. It moults after approximately 14 days. The second instar exhibits the same colour as the adult female.

Adults

Adult females are variable in colour and shape, measuring 1-2 mm in diameter. On leaves they are grey to white in colour, circular and convex; on stems, they are brown and slightly convex. Exuviae are subcentral and yellow-brown (Davidson and Miller, 1990).

Male scale covers are oval-shaped and elongate, similar in colour to those of the females, but are not always present. Exuviae are subterminal and yellow (Davidson and Miller, 1990). The adult male is a tiny insect with one pair of wings and no mouthparts, and which lives for 24 to 48 hours.

Distribution

Top of page H. lataniae was originally described from a palm, Latania borbonica, in 1869 (Quayle, 1938). This palm was a very popular ornamental plant which was distributed worldwide, carrying the pest with it. It is considered to be a serious pest in many areas of the world, including Israel, Palearctic Regions, the former USSR and USA (Florida and Hawaii) (Miller and Davidson, 1990).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 10 Jan 2020

Risk of Introduction

Top of page According to Burger and Ulenberg (1990), H. lataniae is a quarantine pest in certain countries. Introduction to new countries is often via importation of infested plant material, especially ornamental plants.

Hosts/Species Affected

Top of page The latania scale, H. lataniae, is polyphagous and occurs on hundreds of host plants, including ornamental plants from at least 78 families (Boechsenius, 1966; Davidson and Miller, 1990) and the coniferous families Cupressaceae (Cupressus, Juniperus, Thuja) and Pinaceae (Cedrus) (Zahradník, 1990). Members of the families Rosaceae, Palmae and Euphorbiaceae are preferred hosts.

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Growth Stages

Top of page Fruiting stage, Vegetative growing stage

Symptoms

Top of page The presence of latania scale can be detected on leaves, twigs, fruit and as pitting on the bark of stems. Infested mango fruit turn pale green or yellow where the scales feed. The discoloration remains on the mango skin even if the scales are removed by natural enemies or when the fruit is cleaned before packing. If there are more than ten of these spots per fruit on 10% or more of the fruit, it cannot be exported (Daneel, 1998).

According to Ebeling (1959), the rostralis of H. lataniae irritates the flesh of avocado cultivar Fuerte and possibly other thin-skinned cultivars. This is indicated by nodules adhering to the inside of the peel with corresponding depressions in the flesh of ripe fruit.

List of Symptoms/Signs

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Biology and Ecology

Top of page The eggs of H. lataniae are laid under the female cover and hatch shortly afterwards, usually within a few hours. The first instar, or crawler, usually settles near the parent female and moults after 14 days. The female second instar lasts 2 to 3 weeks before moulting to the adult stage.

H. lataniae is bisexual in Maryland, USA (Stoetzel and Davidson, 1974), and unisexual in Israel (Gerson and Zor, 1973) and southern California, USA (McKenzie, 1935).

Annually, H. lataniae completes two generations in Maryland, USA (Stoetzel and Davidson, 1974), three generations in Egypt (El-Minshway et al., 1971) and four generations in Israel (Gerson and Zor, 1973). From the egg to egg-laying female takes 56 to 65 days in southern California, USA (McKenzie, 1935).

Dispersal is by the active crawling of the first instar, and passive transport by wind and animal agents, including man. Dry weather favours dispersal and establishment; heavy rain causes high mortality of crawlers.

Natural enemies

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Notes on Natural Enemies

Top of page In most areas where H. lataniae is present, natural enemies are usually able to control populations in field conditions. However, this will only occur where ants do not disturb the balance of natural enemies and pesticides are not applied indiscriminately.

The parasitoids of H. lataniae belong to the Aphelinidae (Aphytis spp.) the Encyrtidae (Habrolepis obscura and Comperiella lemniscata) and the Signiphoridae (Signiphora spp.).

The predatory mites, Cheletomimus berlesei (Cheyletidae) and the Hemisarcoptes spp. (Hemisarcoptidae) feed on diaspidid crawlers, such as those of H. lataniae (Gerson et al., 1990). Coccinellids, such as Rhyzobius lophanthae and Chilocorus sp., are considered to be high-density feeders of scale insects, although their principal importance is as hosts for the dispersal of predatory mites. Dentifibula obtusilobae is a cecidomyiid predator of the latania scale.

Evans and Prior (1990) note that armoured scale insects, particularly in the humid tropics, are subject to periodic and often devastating attacks by highly adapted fungal pathogens. The pathogen Nectria flammea has been isolated from H. lataniae.

Impact

Top of page H. lataniae attacks the branches, leaves and fruit of avocado, and infested fruit are downgraded to a lower quality class and may not be accepted for export. In South Africa, heavy infestations have been observed on fruit of avocado cultivar Hass, but smooth-skinned cultivars are also susceptible. Heavier scale infestations on cultivar Hass were observed on fruit hanging near the ground, compared to higher up in the tree (Steyn, 1995).

Latania scale is considered to be a serious pest of avocado in Israel (Gill, 1997).

In the USA, H. lataniae is a serious pest of palms in Florida and on ornamentals in California, where it has recently also begun to cause problems on kiwifruit (Gill, 1997).

On macadamia (Macadamia spp.) trees, the insect attacks the nuts, leaves and branches.

H. lataniae attacks the twigs and bark of mango trees, moving to the fruit during severe infestations. The peel of infested fruit turns pale green or yellow where the scales feed, but no internal damage was observed by Daneel (1998).

On grapevine, the insect attacks the main stem, branches and shoots of the vines, causing dieback of bearing stems, as well as older wood and occasionally whole vines (Swart and De Klerk, 1986).

Detection and Inspection

Top of page Inspect the stem, branches, leaves and fruit for the presence of greyish-colored scale insects up to 2 mm in length. A magnifying glass or hand lens, and good lighting are important to ensure detection.

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Biological Control

In New Zealand, species of Hemisarcoptes have been introduced into kiwifruit orchards (Charles et al., 1995b), but only H. coccophagus has become established. Chilocorus spp. were also introduced to enable the predatory Hemisarcoptes mites to be dispersed by phoresy. Following introduction of H. coccophagus, there was a long term decline in H. lataniae numbers in orchards and Lombardy poplar shelter belts (Charles et al., 1995a).

In Australia, a complex of natural enemies was able to suppress H. lataniae infestations in sprayed avocado orchards (Waite, 1988).

Chemical Control

Although there are systemic and contact insecticides that can control H. lataniae, it is mostly not necessary to apply chemical control.

Where natural enemies have been suppressed by misuse of insecticides, scale-infested avocado fruit need to be cleaned before marketing (Swaine et al., 1985). Ebeling (1959) describes washing of fruit in a special solution and vigorous brushing to remove the scales.

The misuse of broad-spectrum insecticides for the control of stink bugs on macadamia can also cause a population build up of H. lataniae (De Villiers and Du Toit, 1984).


IPM

Where orchards become infested with H. lataniae, the history of the orchards and the chemicals used on them during the previous two seasons should be determined. Broad spectrum pesticides with long residual action should be replaced with narrow spectrum pesticides with short residual action. Other useful practices are to reduce dust depositing on the trees from nearby dusty roads, and to prevent ants from gaining access to trees.

References

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APPPC, 1987. Insect pests of economic significance affecting major crops of the countries in Asia and the Pacific region. Technical Document No. 135. Bangkok, Thailand: Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific region (RAPA).

Argyriou LC, 1990. Olive. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 579-583.

Avidov Z; Harpaz I, 1969. Plant pests of Israel. Jerusalem, Israel: Israel Universities Press.

Borchsenius NS, 1966. A Catalogue of the Armoured Scale Insects (Diaspidoidea) of the World. (In Russian). Leningrad, Russia: Akademii Nauk SSR Zoologicheskogo Instituta, 449 pp.

Burger HC; Ulenberg SA, 1990. Quarantine problems and procedures. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 313-327.

Charles JG; Hill MG; Allan DJ, 1995. Persistence of the predatory mite, Hemisarcoptes coccophagus Meyer (Hemisarcoptidae), on low populations of Hemiberlesia lataniae (Signoret) (Diaspididae) in New Zealand. In: Ascher KRS; Ben-Dov Y, eds. Proceedings of the VII International Symposium of Scale Insect Studies, Bet Dagan, Israel. Israel Journal of Entomology 29:297-300.

Charles JG; Hill MG; Allan DJ, 1995. Releases and recoveries of Chilocorus spp. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) and Hemisarcoptes spp. (Acari: Hemisarcoptidae) in kiwifruit orchards: 1987-93. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 22(3):319-324.

Chu TH; Wood BJ, 1990. Other Tropical Fruit Trees and Shrubs. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 543-552.

CIE, 1976. Distribution Maps of Plant Pests, Series A (Agricultural), No. 360. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Daneel M; Merwe Svan der; Jager Kde, 1994. Sporadic scales affecting mango. Yearbook - South African Mango Growers' Association, 14:72-74; 7 ref.

Daneel MS, 1998. Palm scale. In: De Villiers EA, ed. The Cultivation of Mangoes. South Africa, Nelspruit: Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Crops, 154-155.

Danzig E; Pellizari G, 1998. In: Kozar, ed. Catalogue of Palearctiv Coccoidea. Budapest, Hungary: Plant Protection Institute, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 272-273.

Davidson JA; Miller DR, 1990. Ornamental plants. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 603-632.

de Villiers EA; du Toit WJ, 1984. Uitwerking van piretroid-middels op die groenstinkbesie, Nezara viridula, by makadamianeute. Subtropica, 5(10):17-20.

Dekle GW; Merrill GB, 1976. Florida armored scale insects. Arthropods of Florida and Neighbouring Land Areas No. 3. Gainesville, USA: Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, 32, 345 pp.

Dhileepan K, 1991. Insects associated with oil palm in India. FAO Plant Protection Bulletin, 39(2-3):94-99.

Ebeling W, 1959. Subtropical Fruit Pests. Los Angeles, USA: University of California.

El-Minshawy AM; El-Sawaf SK; Hammad SM; Donia A, 1971. The biology of Hemiberlesia lataniae (Sign.) in Alexandria District. Bulletin of the Entomological Society of Egypt, 55:461-467.

Evans HC; Prior C, 1990. Entomopathogenic Fungi. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 3-17.

Gerson U; O'Connor BM; Houck MA, 1990. Acari. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 77-97.

Gerson U; Zor Y, 1973. The armoured scale insects (Homoptera: Diaspididae) of avocado trees in Israel. Journal of Natural History, 7(5):513-533.

Gill RJ, 1997. The scale insects of California. Part 3. The armoured scales (Homoptera: Diaspididae). Technical Series in Agricultural Biosystematics and Plant Pathology, No 3. Sacramento, USA: Department of Food and Agriculture.

Harris KM, 1990. Cecidomyiidae and Other Diptera. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 61-66.

Henderson RC; Sultan A; Robertson AW, 2010. Scale insect fauna (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea) of New Zealand's pygmy mistletoes (Korthalsella: Viscaceae) with description of three new species: Leucaspis albotecta, L. trilobata (Diaspididae) and Eriococcus korthalsellae (Eriococcidae). Zootaxa, 2644:1-24. http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2010/f/z02644p024f.pdf

Hill MG; Allan DJ; Henderson RC; Charles JG, 1993. Introduction of armoured scale predators and establishment of the predatory mite Hemisarcoptes coccophagus (Acari: Hemisarcoptidae) on latania scale, Hemiberlesia lataniae (Homoptera: Diaspididae) in kiwifruit shelter trees in New Zealand. Bulletin of Entomological Research, 83(3):369-376.

Hodges G; Ruter JM; Braman SK, 2001. Susceptibility of Ilex species, hybrids and cultivars to Florida wax scale (Ceroplastes floridensis Comstock). Journal of Environmental Horticulture, 19(1):32-36.

Howard FW; Oliver AD, 1985. Armored scale insects (Homoptera: Diaspididae) of Louisiana. Bulletin, Louisana Agricultural Experiment Station No. 762.

Kosztarab M, 1963. The armoured scale insects of Ohio (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Diaspididae). Bulletin of the Ohio Biological Survey (New Series), 2(2):1-120.

McKenzie HL, 1935. Life history and control of latania scale on avocado. California Avocado Association Yearbook 1935, 80-82.

Miller DR; Davidson JA, 1990. A list of the Armoured Scale Insect Pests. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 299-306.

Mitchell WC; Ironside DA, 1982. Insects and other animals reported on macadamia. California Macadamia Society Yearbook, 28:36-72.

Nagarkatti S; Sankaran T, 1990. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 553-562.

New Zealand MAF Biosecurity, 2011. Pest watch: 2 November 2010 - 21 March 2011, 38(2):53-54.

Quayle HJ, 1941. Insects of Citrus and other Subtropical Fruits. Ithaca, New York, USA: Comstock Publishing Company.

Quayle HJ, 1941. Insects of Citrus and other Subtropical Fruits. Ithaca, New York, USA: Comstock Publishing Company.

Schotman CYL, 1989. Plant pests of quarantine importance to the Caribbean. RLAC-PROVEG, No. 21:80 pp.

Steven D; Valenzuela L; Gonzalez; RH, 1997. Kiwifruit pests in Chile.In: Sfakiotakis E and Porlingis J, eds. Proceedings of the third international symposium on kiwifruit, Thessaloniki, Greece. Acta Horticulturae, 444:773-777.

Steyn WP, 1995. Palmdopluis of avokadovrugte. Information Bulletin, Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Crops No. 272, p. 7.

Stoetzel MB; Davidson JA, 1974. Biology, morphology and taxonomy of immature stages of 9 species in the Aspidiotini (Homoptera: Diaspididae). Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 67(3):475-509.

Su TH; Wang CM, 1988. Life history and control measures for the citrus mealybug and the latania scale insects on grapevine. Plant Protection Bulletin, Taiwan, 30(3):279-288.

Swaine G; Ironside DA; Yarrow WHT, 1985. Insect pests of fruit and vegetables in colour. Brisbane, Australia: Queensland Department of Primary Industries.

Swart PL; De Klerk CA, 1986. Scale Insects. In: Myburgh AC, ed. Crop Pest in Southern Africa. Vol. 1. Plant Protection Research Institute. Pretoria, South Africa: Government Printer, 92 pp.

Therios I, 2008. Pests and diseases. In: Olives [ed. by Therios, I.]. Wallingford, UK: CABI, 335-352. http://www.cabi.org/CABeBooks/default.aspx?site=107&page=45&LoadModule=PDFHier&BookID=440

Tyson JL; Henderson RC; Fullerton RA; Jamieson LE; Froud KJ, 2005. Distribution and new host records for Cosmospora aurantiicola and Cosmospora flammea: entomopathogens of Diaspididae in New Zealand. New Zealand Plant Protection [Proceedings of a conference organized by the New Zealand Plant Protection Society, Wellington, 9-11 August 2005.], 58:283-287. http://www.hortnet.co.nz/publications/nzpps/

Verma SP; Dinabandhoo CL, 2005. Armoured scales (Homoptera: Diaspididae) associated with temperate and subtropical fruit trees in Himachal Pradesh. Acta Horticulturae, 696:423-426. http://www.actahort.org

Waite GK, 1988. Biological control of latania scale on avocados in south-east Queensland. Queensland Journal of Agricultural and Animal Sciences, 45(2):165-167.

Wang CM; Su TH, 1989. The occurrence and population fluctuation of the latania scale, Hemiberlesia latanip (Signoret) on grapevine. Plant Protection Bulletin, Taiwan, 31(1):44-50.

Williams DJ; Watson GW, 1988. The Scale Insects of the Tropical South Pacific Region. Part 1. The Armoured Scales (Diaspididae). Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Williams JR; Greathead DJ, 1990. Sugar Cane. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 563-578.

Wolff VRdos S; Botton M; Silva DCda, 2014. Diaspididae and associated parasitoids in "Niagara" cultivars in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. (Diaspidídeos e parasitoides associados ao cultivo da videira no Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil.) Revista Brasileira de Fruticultura, 36(4):835-841. http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_issues&pid=0100-2945&lng=pt&nrm=iso

Woolley JB, 1990. Signiphoridae. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 167-176.

Wysoki M, 1977. Insect pests of macadamia in Israel. Phytoparasitica, 5(3):187-188.

Wysoki M, 1977. Insect pests of macadamia in Israel. Phytoparasitica, 5(3):187-188.

Zahradnfk J, 1990. Conifers. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. World Crop Pests. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier, 633-644.

Distribution References

Argyriou LC, 1990. Olive. In: Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control, 4B [ed. by Rosen D]. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. 579-583.

AVIDOV Z, HARPAZ I, 1969. Plant pests of Israel. Plant pests of Israel. x+549 pp.

CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI

Charles J G, Hill M G, Allan D J, 1995. Persistence of the predatory mite, Hemisarcoptes coccophagus Meyer (Hemisarcoptidae), on low populations of Hemiberlesia lataniae (Signoret) (Diaspididae) in New Zealand. In: Israel Journal of Entomology [Proceedings of the VII International Symposium of Scale Insect Studies, held in Bet Dagan, Israel, June 12-17 1994.], 29 [ed. by Ascher K R S, Ben-Dov Y]. 297-300.

Chu TH, Wood BJ, 1990. Other Tropical Fruit Trees and Shrubs. In: Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control, 4B [ed. by Rosen D]. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. 543-552.

Daneel M, Merwe S van der, Jager K de, 1994. Sporadic scales affecting mango. Yearbook - South African Mango Growers' Association. 72-74.

Daneel MS, 1998. Palm scale. In: The Cultivation of Mangoes, [ed. by De Villiers EA]. Nelspruit, South Africa: Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Crops. 154-155.

Danzig E, Pellizari G, 1998. Catalogue of Palearctiv Coccoidea., [ed. by Kozar]. Budapest, Hungary: Plant Protection Institute, Hungarian Academy of Sciences. 272-273.

Dhileepan K, 1991. Insects associated with oil palm in India. FAO Plant Protection Bulletin. 39 (2-3), 94-99.

Gill RJ, 1997. The scale insects of California. Part 3. The armoured scales (Homoptera: Diaspididae). In: Technical Series in Agricultural Biosystematics and Plant Pathology, Sacramento, USA: Department of Food and Agriculture.

Hill M G, Allan D J, Henderson R C, Charles J G, 1993. Introduction of armoured scale predators and establishment of the predatory mite Hemisarcoptes coccophagus (Acari: Hemisarcoptidae) on latania scale, Hemiberlesia lataniae (Homoptera: Diaspididae) in kiwifruit shelter trees in New Zealand. Bulletin of Entomological Research. 83 (3), 369-376. DOI:10.1017/S0007485300029266

Hodges G, Ruter J M, Braman S K, 2001. Susceptibility of Ilex species, hybrids and cultivars to Florida wax scale (Ceroplastes floridensis Comstock). Journal of Environmental Horticulture. 19 (1), 32-36.

Howard FW, Oliver AD, 1985. Armored scale insects (Homoptera: Diaspididae) of Louisiana. In: Bulletin, Louisana Agricultural Experiment Station No. 762,

Kosztarab M, 1963. The armoured scale insects of Ohio (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Diaspididae). In: Bulletin of the Ohio Biological Survey (New Series), 2 (2) 1-120.

McKenzie H L, 1935. Life history and control of latania scale on avocado. In: California Avocado Association Yearbook 1935. 80-82.

Miller DR, Davidson JA, 1990. A list of the Armoured Scale Insect Pests. In: Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control, 4B [ed. by Rosen D]. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. 299-306.

Mitchell W C, Ironside D A, 1982. Insects and other animals reported on macadamia. Yearbook of the California Macadamia Society. 36-72.

Nagarkatti S, Sankaran T, 1990. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control., 4B [ed. by Rosen D]. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. 553-562.

New Zealand MAF Biosecurity, 2011. Pest watch: 2 November 2010 - 21 March 2011., 38 (2) 53-54.

Stoetzel M B, Davidson J A, 1974. Biology, morphology and taxonomy of immature stages of 9 species in the Aspidiotini (Homoptera: Diaspididae). Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 67 (3), 475-509. DOI:10.1093/aesa/67.3.475

Su T H, Wang C M, 1988. Life history and control measures for the citrus mealybug and the latania scale insects on grapevine. Plant Protection Bulletin, Taiwan. 30 (3), 279-288.

UK, CAB International, 1976. Hemiberlesia lataniae. [Distribution map]. In: Distribution Maps of Plant Pests, Wallingford, UK: CAB International. Map 360.

Verma S P, Dinabandhoo C L, 2005. Armoured scales (Homoptera: Diaspididae) associated with temperate and subtropical fruit trees in Himachal Pradesh. Acta Horticulturae. 423-426. http://www.actahort.org

Wang C M, Su T H, 1989. The occurrence and population fluctuation of the latania scale, Hemiberlesia lataniae (Signoret) on grapevine. Plant Protection Bulletin, Taiwan. 31 (1), 44-50.

Williams D J, Watson G W, 1988. The scale insects of the tropical South Pacific Region. Part 1. The armoured scales (Diaspididae). Wallingford, UK: CAB International. 290pp.

Williams JR, Greathead DJ, 1990. Sugar Cane. In: Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control, 4B [ed. by Rosen D]. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. 563-578.

Distribution Maps

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