Hemiberlesia lataniae (latania scale)

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Adult

Hemiberlesia lataniae (latania scale); adult on avocado (Persea americana). Intercepted on avocado from Argentina, in Atlanta, Georgia, USA.

©Charles Olsen/USDA APHIS PPQ/Bugwood.org - CC BY-NC 3.0 US

Adult

Hemiberlesia lataniae (latania scale); adult on Heliconia. Intercepted, from Costa Rica, on Heliconia by Customs & Border Protection at Atlanta International Airport, Georgia, USA.

©Charles Olsen/USDA APHIS PPQ/Bugwood.org - CC BY-NC 3.0 US

Adults

Hemiberlesia lataniae (latania scale); adults on winter's bark (Drimys winteri), Chile.

©Dennis Navea/ControlBestBugwood.org - CC BY-NC 3.0 US

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Hemiberlesia lataniae (Signoret)

Preferred Common Name

latania scale

Other Scientific Names

Aspidiotus askleniae Sasaki
Aspidiotus aspleniae Ferris
Aspidiotus crawii Cockerell
Aspidiotus cydoniae Cockerell
Aspidiotus greenii Cockerll
Aspidiotus lataniae Signoret
Aspidiotus punicae Cockerell
Aspidiotus tectus Ferris
Diaspidiotus lataniae
Euaspidiotus lataniae
Hemiberlesia cydoniae
Hemiberlesia greenii

International Common Names

English: grape vine Aspidiotus; palm scale; scale, latania; scale, palm

Local Common Names

Czechoslovakia (former): quince scale
South Africa: palm dopluis (South Africa)

EPPO code

HEBELA (Hemiberlesia lataniae)

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Metazoa
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Uniramia
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Sternorrhyncha
Unknown: Coccoidea
Family: Diaspididae
Genus: Hemiberlesia
Species: Hemiberlesia lataniae

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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H. lataniae is a member of the subfamily Diaspidinae tribe Aspidiotini.

Description

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Eggs

The eggs are yellow in colour, elongate and 0.15 mm long.

Larvae

The first instar, or crawler, is yellowish in colour and is 0.15 mm long. It moults after approximately 14 days. The second instar exhibits the same colour as the adult female.

Adults

Adult females are variable in colour and shape, measuring 1-2 mm in diameter. On leaves they are grey to white in colour, circular and convex; on stems, they are brown and slightly convex. Exuviae are subcentral and yellow-brown (Davidson and Miller, 1990).

Male scale covers are oval-shaped and elongate, similar in colour to those of the females, but are not always present. Exuviae are subterminal and yellow (Davidson and Miller, 1990). The adult male is a tiny insect with one pair of wings and no mouthparts, and which lives for 24 to 48 hours.

Distribution

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H. lataniae was originally described from a palm, Latania borbonica, in 1869 (Quayle, 1938). This palm was a very popular ornamental plant which was distributed worldwide, carrying the pest with it. It is considered to be a serious pest in many areas of the world, including Israel, Palearctic Regions, the former USSR and USA (Florida and Hawaii) (Miller and Davidson, 1990).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 21 Jul 2022

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Reference	Notes
Africa
Algeria	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Angola	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Benin	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Cabo Verde	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Cameroon	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Congo, Democratic Republic of the	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Côte d'Ivoire	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Egypt	Present			UK, CAB International (1976) Williams and Greathead (1990)
Eritrea	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Ethiopia	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Ghana	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Guinea	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Kenya	Present			UK, CAB International (1976) Nagarkatti and Sankaran (1990)
Libya	Present			UK, CAB International (1976) CABI (Undated)
Madagascar	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Malawi	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Mali	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Mauritius	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Morocco	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Mozambique	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Nigeria	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Réunion	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Saint Helena	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
-Ascension	Present			CABI (Undated b)
São Tomé and Príncipe	Present			UK, CAB International (1976) CABI (Undated)
Seychelles	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Sierra Leone	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Somalia	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
South Africa	Present, Widespread			UK, CAB International (1976) Mitchell and Ironside (1982) Daneel et al. (1994) Daneel (1998)
Sudan	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Tanzania	Present			UK, CAB International (1976) Mitchell and Ironside (1982)
-Zanzibar Island	Present			CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Quayle (1938)
Tunisia	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Uganda	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Zambia	Present			CABI (Undated b)
Zimbabwe	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Asia
Bangladesh	Present			CABI (Undated b)
British Indian Ocean Territory	Present			CABI (Undated b)
Brunei	Present			CABI (Undated b)
China	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Hong Kong	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
India	Present			UK, CAB International (1976) Nagarkatti and Sankaran (1990) Verma and Dinabandhoo (2005)
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands	Present			CABI (Undated b)
-Andhra Pradesh	Present			Dhileepan (1991)
-Himachal Pradesh	Present			Verma and Dinabandhoo (2005)
-Karnataka	Present			Dhileepan (1991)
-Kerala	Present			Dhileepan (1991)
-Maharashtra	Present			Dhileepan (1991)
-Tamil Nadu	Present			CABI (Undated b)
Indonesia	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
-Irian Jaya	Present			Williams and Watson (1988)
Iran	Present			Danzig and Pellizari (1998)
Iraq	Present			Danzig and Pellizari (1998)
Israel	Present			AVIDOV and HARPAZ (1969) UK, CAB International (1976) Argyriou (1990) CABI (Undated)
Japan	Present			Nagarkatti and Sankaran (1990)
Malaysia	Present			Chu and Wood (1990)
Maldives	Present			CABI (Undated b)
Oman	Present			CABI (Undated b)
Pakistan	Present	Introduced		CABI (Undated b)	Not established
Philippines	Present			CABI (Undated b)
Saudi Arabia	Present	Introduced		Danzig and Pellizari (1998)	Not established
Sri Lanka	Present			Chu and Wood (1990) Nagarkatti and Sankaran (1990) CABI (Undated)
Taiwan	Present			Su and Wang (1988) Wang and Su (1989)
Thailand	Present			CABI (Undated b)
Turkey	Present			Argyriou (1990) Danzig and Pellizari (1998)
Europe
Austria	Present	Introduced		CABI (Undated b)	Establishment uncertain
Belgium	Present	Introduced		Danzig and Pellizari (1998)	Not established
Bulgaria	Present	Introduced	1964	Seebens et al. (2017)
Croatia	Present			Milek et al. (2009)
Cyprus	Present			Danzig and Pellizari (1998) Șİșman and Ülgentürk (2010)
Czechia	Present	Introduced		Danzig and Pellizari (1998) Seebens et al. (2017)	Not established
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
France	Present	Introduced		Danzig and Pellizari (1998) Seebens et al. (2017)	Not established
-Corsica	Present	Introduced	2003	Seebens et al. (2017)
Germany	Present	Introduced		Danzig and Pellizari (1998) Seebens et al. (2017)	Not established
Greece	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
-Crete	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Italy	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
-Sicily	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Malta	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Portugal	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
-Madeira	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Romania	Present	Introduced		Danzig and Pellizari (1998)	Not established
Russia	Present			Miller and Davidson (1990)
Spain	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
-Canary Islands	Present			UK, CAB International (1976) Chu and Wood (1990) CABI (Undated)
United Kingdom	Present	Introduced		CABI (Undated b)	Not established
-Channel Islands	Present	Introduced		CABI (Undated b)	Not established
North America
Bahamas	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Barbados	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Bermuda	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Costa Rica	Present			CABI (Undated b)
Cuba	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Dominica	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Guatemala	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Haiti	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Honduras	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Jamaica	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Mexico	Present			UK, CAB International (1976) CABI (Undated)
Nicaragua	Present			CABI (Undated b)
Panama	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Trinidad and Tobago	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
U.S. Virgin Islands	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
United States	Present			CABI (Undated a) Seebens et al. (2017)	Present based on regional distribution.
-California	Present			McKenzie (1935) UK, CAB International (1976) Argyriou (1990) Chu and Wood (1990) Gill (1997)
-Florida	Present, Widespread			UK, CAB International (1976) Miller and Davidson (1990) Gill (1997) CABI (Undated)
-Georgia	Present			Hodges et al. (2001)
-Hawaii	Present	Introduced	1898	Seebens et al. (2017) UK, CAB International (1976) Mitchell and Ironside (1982) Williams and Greathead (1990)
-Kansas	Present	Introduced		CABI (Undated b)	Not established
-Louisiana	Present			UK, CAB International (1976) Howard and Oliver (1985)
-Maryland	Present			Stoetzel and Davidson (1974)
-Missouri	Present			Mitchell and Ironside (1982)
-New Mexico	Present			CABI (Undated b)
-Ohio	Present	Introduced		Kosztarab (1963)	Not established
-Virginia	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Oceania
Australia	Present	Introduced	1897	Seebens et al. (2017) UK, CAB International (1976)
-Queensland	Present			UK, CAB International (1976) Mitchell and Ironside (1982) CABI (Undated)
Cook Islands	Present			Williams and Watson (1988)
Fiji	Present			UK, CAB International (1976) Chu and Wood (1990) CABI (Undated)
French Polynesia	Present			Williams and Watson (1988)
Kiribati	Present			Williams and Watson (1988)
New Caledonia	Present			UK, CAB International (1976) CABI (Undated)
New Zealand	Present	Introduced	1977	Seebens et al. (2017) Hill et al. (1993) Charles et al. (1995) New Zealand MAF Biosecurity (2011)
Niue	Present			Williams and Watson (1988)
Papua New Guinea	Present			Chu and Wood (1990)
Samoa	Present			UK, CAB International (1976) Williams and Watson (1988)
Solomon Islands	Present			UK, CAB International (1976) Williams and Watson (1988)
Tokelau	Present			Williams and Watson (1988)
Tonga	Present			UK, CAB International (1976) Williams and Watson (1988)
Tuvalu	Present			Williams and Watson (1988)
Vanuatu	Present			Williams and Watson (1988)
South America
Argentina	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Brazil	Present			UK, CAB International (1976) CABI (Undated)
-Espirito Santo	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
-Minas Gerais	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
-Para	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
-Rio Grande do Sul	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
-Sao Paulo	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Chile	Present			UK, CAB International (1976) Argyriou (1990) CABI (Undated)
Colombia	Present			Kondo and Muñoz (2016) Dix-Luna et al. (2018)
Ecuador	Present			CABI (Undated b)
Guyana	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Peru	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)
Venezuela	Present			UK, CAB International (1976)

Risk of Introduction

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According to Burger and Ulenberg (1990), H. lataniae is a quarantine pest in certain countries. Introduction to new countries is often via importation of infested plant material, especially ornamental plants.

Hosts/Species Affected

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The latania scale, H. lataniae, is polyphagous and occurs on hundreds of host plants, including ornamental plants from at least 78 families (Boechsenius, 1966; Davidson and Miller, 1990) and the coniferous families Cupressaceae (Cupressus, Juniperus, Thuja) and Pinaceae (Cedrus) (Zahradník, 1990). Members of the families Rosaceae, Palmae and Euphorbiaceae are preferred hosts.

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context	References
Acacia (wattles)	Fabaceae	Wild host
Acacia saligna (coojong)	Fabaceae	Wild host
Actinidia	Actinidiaceae	Main
Actinidia deliciosa (kiwifruit)	Actinidiaceae	Main
Albizia julibrissin (silk tree)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Keçe and Ulusoy (2017)
Artocarpus heterophyllus (jackfruit)	Moraceae	Other
Camellia	Theaceae	Other
Carya (hickories)	Juglandaceae	Other
Carya illinoinensis (pecan)	Juglandaceae	Other
Casimiroa edulis (white sapote)	Rutaceae	Other
Citrus	Rutaceae	Main
Cocos nucifera (coconut)	Arecaceae	Main
Elaeis guineensis (African oil palm)	Arecaceae	Other
Elymus repens (quackgrass)	Poaceae	Wild host
Feijoa	Lithomyrtus	Other
Ficus benjamina (weeping fig)	Moraceae	Other
Ficus carica (common fig)	Moraceae	Other	Șİșman and Ülgentürk (2010)
Korthalsella	Viscaceae	Unknown
Macadamia	Proteaceae	Other
Malus (ornamental species apple)	Rosaceae	Other
Mangifera indica (mango)	Anacardiaceae	Other	Milek et al. (2009); Verma and Dinabandhoo (2005)
Manilkara zapota (sapodilla)	Sapotaceae	Other
Melia azedarach (Chinaberry)	Meliaceae	Main
Morus alba (mora)	Moraceae	Other
Musa (banana)	Musaceae	Other
Olea europaea subsp. europaea (European olive)	Oleaceae	Other
Passiflora (passionflower)	Passifloraceae	Other
Persea americana (avocado)	Lauraceae	Main	Kondo and Muñoz (2016)
Polyphagous (polyphagous)		Main
Populus nigra (black poplar)	Salicaceae	Habitat/association
Psidium guajava (guava)	Lithomyrtus	Main
Pyrus communis (European pear)	Rosaceae	Other
Robinia pseudoacacia (black locust)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Șİșman and Ülgentürk (2010)
Schinus molle (false pepper tree)	Anacardiaceae	Unknown	Șİșman and Ülgentürk (2010)
Solanum melongena (aubergine)	Solanaceae	Other
Solanum torvum (turkey berry)	Solanaceae	Other
Vitis labrusca (fox grape)	Vitaceae	Other
Vitis vinifera (grapevine)	Vitaceae	Main

Growth Stages

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Fruiting stage, Vegetative growing stage

Symptoms

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The presence of latania scale can be detected on leaves, twigs, fruit and as pitting on the bark of stems. Infested mango fruit turn pale green or yellow where the scales feed. The discoloration remains on the mango skin even if the scales are removed by natural enemies or when the fruit is cleaned before packing. If there are more than ten of these spots per fruit on 10% or more of the fruit, it cannot be exported (Daneel, 1998).

According to Ebeling (1959), the rostralis of H. lataniae irritates the flesh of avocado cultivar Fuerte and possibly other thin-skinned cultivars. This is indicated by nodules adhering to the inside of the peel with corresponding depressions in the flesh of ripe fruit.

List of Symptoms/Signs

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Sign	Life Stages	Type
Fruit / abnormal patterns
Fruit / discoloration
Fruit / external feeding
Leaves / abnormal forms
Leaves / abnormal patterns
Leaves / external feeding
Stems / discoloration
Stems / external feeding

Biology and Ecology

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The eggs of H. lataniae are laid under the female cover and hatch shortly afterwards, usually within a few hours. The first instar, or crawler, usually settles near the parent female and moults after 14 days. The female second instar lasts 2 to 3 weeks before moulting to the adult stage.

H. lataniae is bisexual in Maryland, USA (Stoetzel and Davidson, 1974), and unisexual in Israel (Gerson and Zor, 1973) and southern California, USA (McKenzie, 1935).

Annually, H. lataniae completes two generations in Maryland, USA (Stoetzel and Davidson, 1974), three generations in Egypt (El-Minshway et al., 1971) and four generations in Israel (Gerson and Zor, 1973). From the egg to egg-laying female takes 56 to 65 days in southern California, USA (McKenzie, 1935).

Dispersal is by the active crawling of the first instar, and passive transport by wind and animal agents, including man. Dry weather favours dispersal and establishment; heavy rain causes high mortality of crawlers.

Natural enemies

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Natural enemy	Type	Life stages	References	Biological control in	Biological control on
Amblyseius citrifolius	Predator	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Anabrolepis bifasciata	Parasite
Aphytis	Predator/parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Aphytis aonidiae	Parasite
Aphytis chilensis	Predator/parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Aphytis coheni	Parasite
Aphytis diaspidis	Parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Aphytis lingnanensis	Parasite
Aphytis melinus	Predator/parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Aphytis mytilaspidis	Parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Aphytis paramaculicornis	Parasite
Aphytis philippinensis	Parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs		India; Karnataka	Albizia chinensis; Solanum torvum
Cheilomenes sexmaculata	Predator	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Cheletogenes ornatus	Predator	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Cheletomimus berlesei	Predator/parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Chilocorus nigrita	Predator	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Chilocorus orbus	Predator	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Chilocorus quadrimaculatus	Predator	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Coccobius comperei	Parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Comperiella bifasciata	Parasite
Comperiella lemniscata	Predator/parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Cosmospora aurantiicola	Pathogen		Tyson et al. (2005)
Encarsia aurantii	Parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Encarsia citrina	Parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Encarsia lounsburyi	Parasite
Habrolepis aspidioti	Parasite			Egypt	figs; olives
Hemisarcoptes coccophagus	Predator	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Marietta leopardina	Parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Nectria flammea	Pathogen	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Pharoscymnus flexibilis	Predator	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Pharoscymnus horni	Predator	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Plagiomerus bangaloriensis	Parasite
Pteroptrix chinensis	Parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Saniosulus nudus
Signiphora fax	Predator/parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Signiphora flavella	Predator/parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Signiphora perpauca	Predator/parasite	Adults; Arthropods\|Nymphs
Thomsonisca amathus	Parasite

Notes on Natural Enemies

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In most areas where H. lataniae is present, natural enemies are usually able to control populations in field conditions. However, this will only occur where ants do not disturb the balance of natural enemies and pesticides are not applied indiscriminately.

The parasitoids of H. lataniae belong to the Aphelinidae (Aphytis spp.) the Encyrtidae (Habrolepis obscura and Comperiella lemniscata) and the Signiphoridae (Signiphora spp.).

The predatory mites, Cheletomimus berlesei (Cheyletidae) and the Hemisarcoptes spp. (Hemisarcoptidae) feed on diaspidid crawlers, such as those of H. lataniae (Gerson et al., 1990). Coccinellids, such as Rhyzobius lophanthae and Chilocorus sp., are considered to be high-density feeders of scale insects, although their principal importance is as hosts for the dispersal of predatory mites. Dentifibula obtusilobae is a cecidomyiid predator of the latania scale.

Evans and Prior (1990) note that armoured scale insects, particularly in the humid tropics, are subject to periodic and often devastating attacks by highly adapted fungal pathogens. The pathogen Nectria flammea has been isolated from H. lataniae.

Impact

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H. lataniae attacks the branches, leaves and fruit of avocado, and infested fruit are downgraded to a lower quality class and may not be accepted for export. In South Africa, heavy infestations have been observed on fruit of avocado cultivar Hass, but smooth-skinned cultivars are also susceptible. Heavier scale infestations on cultivar Hass were observed on fruit hanging near the ground, compared to higher up in the tree (Steyn, 1995).

Latania scale is considered to be a serious pest of avocado in Israel (Gill, 1997).

In the USA, H. lataniae is a serious pest of palms in Florida and on ornamentals in California, where it has recently also begun to cause problems on kiwifruit (Gill, 1997).

On macadamia (Macadamia spp.) trees, the insect attacks the nuts, leaves and branches.

H. lataniae attacks the twigs and bark of mango trees, moving to the fruit during severe infestations. The peel of infested fruit turns pale green or yellow where the scales feed, but no internal damage was observed by Daneel (1998).

On grapevine, the insect attacks the main stem, branches and shoots of the vines, causing dieback of bearing stems, as well as older wood and occasionally whole vines (Swart and De Klerk, 1986).

Detection and Inspection

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Inspect the stem, branches, leaves and fruit for the presence of greyish-colored scale insects up to 2 mm in length. A magnifying glass or hand lens, and good lighting are important to ensure detection.

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Biological Control

In New Zealand, species of Hemisarcoptes have been introduced into kiwifruit orchards (Charles et al., 1995b), but only H. coccophagus has become established. Chilocorus spp. were also introduced to enable the predatory Hemisarcoptes mites to be dispersed by phoresy. Following introduction of H. coccophagus, there was a long term decline in H. lataniae numbers in orchards and Lombardy poplar shelter belts (Charles et al., 1995a).

In Australia, a complex of natural enemies was able to suppress H. lataniae infestations in sprayed avocado orchards (Waite, 1988).

Chemical Control

Although there are systemic and contact insecticides that can control H. lataniae, it is mostly not necessary to apply chemical control.

Where natural enemies have been suppressed by misuse of insecticides, scale-infested avocado fruit need to be cleaned before marketing (Swaine et al., 1985). Ebeling (1959) describes washing of fruit in a special solution and vigorous brushing to remove the scales.

The misuse of broad-spectrum insecticides for the control of stink bugs on macadamia can also cause a population build up of H. lataniae (De Villiers and Du Toit, 1984).

IPM

Where orchards become infested with H. lataniae, the history of the orchards and the chemicals used on them during the previous two seasons should be determined. Broad spectrum pesticides with long residual action should be replaced with narrow spectrum pesticides with short residual action. Other useful practices are to reduce dust depositing on the trees from nearby dusty roads, and to prevent ants from gaining access to trees.

References

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APPPC, 1987. Insect pests of economic significance affecting major crops of the countries in Asia and the Pacific region. Technical Document No. 135. Bangkok, Thailand: Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific region (RAPA).

Argyriou LC, 1990. Olive. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 579-583.

Avidov Z; Harpaz I, 1969. Plant pests of Israel. Jerusalem, Israel: Israel Universities Press.

Borchsenius NS, 1966. A Catalogue of the Armoured Scale Insects (Diaspidoidea) of the World. (In Russian). Leningrad, Russia: Akademii Nauk SSR Zoologicheskogo Instituta, 449 pp.

Burger HC; Ulenberg SA, 1990. Quarantine problems and procedures. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 313-327.

Charles JG; Hill MG; Allan DJ, 1995. Persistence of the predatory mite, Hemisarcoptes coccophagus Meyer (Hemisarcoptidae), on low populations of Hemiberlesia lataniae (Signoret) (Diaspididae) in New Zealand. In: Ascher KRS; Ben-Dov Y, eds. Proceedings of the VII International Symposium of Scale Insect Studies, Bet Dagan, Israel. Israel Journal of Entomology 29:297-300.

Charles JG; Hill MG; Allan DJ, 1995. Releases and recoveries of Chilocorus spp. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) and Hemisarcoptes spp. (Acari: Hemisarcoptidae) in kiwifruit orchards: 1987-93. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 22(3):319-324.

Chu TH; Wood BJ, 1990. Other Tropical Fruit Trees and Shrubs. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 543-552.

CIE, 1976. Distribution Maps of Plant Pests, Series A (Agricultural), No. 360. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Daneel M; Merwe Svan der; Jager Kde, 1994. Sporadic scales affecting mango. Yearbook - South African Mango Growers' Association, 14:72-74; 7 ref.

Daneel MS, 1998. Palm scale. In: De Villiers EA, ed. The Cultivation of Mangoes. South Africa, Nelspruit: Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Crops, 154-155.

Danzig E; Pellizari G, 1998. In: Kozar, ed. Catalogue of Palearctiv Coccoidea. Budapest, Hungary: Plant Protection Institute, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 272-273.

Davidson JA; Miller DR, 1990. Ornamental plants. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 603-632.

de Villiers EA; du Toit WJ, 1984. Uitwerking van piretroid-middels op die groenstinkbesie, Nezara viridula, by makadamianeute. Subtropica, 5(10):17-20.

Dekle GW; Merrill GB, 1976. Florida armored scale insects. Arthropods of Florida and Neighbouring Land Areas No. 3. Gainesville, USA: Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, 32, 345 pp.

Dhileepan K, 1991. Insects associated with oil palm in India. FAO Plant Protection Bulletin, 39(2-3):94-99.

Ebeling W, 1959. Subtropical Fruit Pests. Los Angeles, USA: University of California.

El-Minshawy AM; El-Sawaf SK; Hammad SM; Donia A, 1971. The biology of Hemiberlesia lataniae (Sign.) in Alexandria District. Bulletin of the Entomological Society of Egypt, 55:461-467.

Evans HC; Prior C, 1990. Entomopathogenic Fungi. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 3-17.

Gerson U; O'Connor BM; Houck MA, 1990. Acari. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 77-97.

Gerson U; Zor Y, 1973. The armoured scale insects (Homoptera: Diaspididae) of avocado trees in Israel. Journal of Natural History, 7(5):513-533.

Gill RJ, 1997. The scale insects of California. Part 3. The armoured scales (Homoptera: Diaspididae). Technical Series in Agricultural Biosystematics and Plant Pathology, No 3. Sacramento, USA: Department of Food and Agriculture.

Harris KM, 1990. Cecidomyiidae and Other Diptera. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 61-66.

Henderson RC; Sultan A; Robertson AW, 2010. Scale insect fauna (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea) of New Zealand's pygmy mistletoes (Korthalsella: Viscaceae) with description of three new species: Leucaspis albotecta, L. trilobata (Diaspididae) and Eriococcus korthalsellae (Eriococcidae). Zootaxa, 2644:1-24. http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2010/f/z02644p024f.pdf

Hill MG; Allan DJ; Henderson RC; Charles JG, 1993. Introduction of armoured scale predators and establishment of the predatory mite Hemisarcoptes coccophagus (Acari: Hemisarcoptidae) on latania scale, Hemiberlesia lataniae (Homoptera: Diaspididae) in kiwifruit shelter trees in New Zealand. Bulletin of Entomological Research, 83(3):369-376.

Hodges G; Ruter JM; Braman SK, 2001. Susceptibility of Ilex species, hybrids and cultivars to Florida wax scale (Ceroplastes floridensis Comstock). Journal of Environmental Horticulture, 19(1):32-36.

Howard FW; Oliver AD, 1985. Armored scale insects (Homoptera: Diaspididae) of Louisiana. Bulletin, Louisana Agricultural Experiment Station No. 762.

Keçe, A. F. Ç., Ulusoy, M. R., 2017. Armored scale insects (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Diaspididae) on ornamental plants in Adana, Turkey. Türkiye Entomoloji Dergisi, 41(3), 333-346. https://dergipark.org.tr/download/article-file/354688

Kondo, T., Muñoz, J. A., 2016. Scale insects (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) associated with avocado crop, Persea americana Mill. (Lauraceae) in Valle del Cauca and neighboring departments of Colombia. Insecta Mundi, (No.0465), 1-24. http://centerforsystematicentomology.org/default.asp?action=insectamundi&id=insecta_new&year=2016

Kosztarab M, 1963. The armoured scale insects of Ohio (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Diaspididae). Bulletin of the Ohio Biological Survey (New Series), 2(2):1-120.

McKenzie HL, 1935. Life history and control of latania scale on avocado. California Avocado Association Yearbook 1935, 80-82.

Milek, T. M., Šimala, M., Korić, B., 2009. The scale insects (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) of imported fruits in Croatia. In: Zbornik predavanj in referatov 9. Slovenskega Posvetovanja o Varstvu Rastlin, Nova Gorica, Slovenije, 4-5 marec 2009 [Zbornik predavanj in referatov 9. Slovenskega Posvetovanja o Varstvu Rastlin, Nova Gorica, Slovenije, 4-5 marec 2009], [ed. by Maček, J.]. Ljubljana, Slovenia: Društvo za Varstvo Rastlin Slovenije. 385-388.

Miller DR; Davidson JA, 1990. A list of the Armoured Scale Insect Pests. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 299-306.

Mitchell WC; Ironside DA, 1982. Insects and other animals reported on macadamia. California Macadamia Society Yearbook, 28:36-72.

Nagarkatti S; Sankaran T, 1990. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 553-562.

New Zealand MAF Biosecurity, 2011. Pest watch: 2 November 2010 - 21 March 2011, 38(2):53-54.

Quayle HJ, 1941. Insects of Citrus and other Subtropical Fruits. Ithaca, New York, USA: Comstock Publishing Company.

Schotman CYL, 1989. Plant pests of quarantine importance to the Caribbean. RLAC-PROVEG, No. 21:80 pp.

Șİșman, S., Ülgentürk, S., 2010. Scale insects species (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. Turkish Journal of Zoology, 34(2), 219-224. http://journals.tubitak.gov.tr/zoology/

Steven D; Valenzuela L; Gonzalez; RH, 1997. Kiwifruit pests in Chile.In: Sfakiotakis E and Porlingis J, eds. Proceedings of the third international symposium on kiwifruit, Thessaloniki, Greece. Acta Horticulturae, 444:773-777.

Steyn WP, 1995. Palmdopluis of avokadovrugte. Information Bulletin, Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Crops No. 272, p. 7.

Stoetzel MB; Davidson JA, 1974. Biology, morphology and taxonomy of immature stages of 9 species in the Aspidiotini (Homoptera: Diaspididae). Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 67(3):475-509.

Su TH; Wang CM, 1988. Life history and control measures for the citrus mealybug and the latania scale insects on grapevine. Plant Protection Bulletin, Taiwan, 30(3):279-288.

Swaine G; Ironside DA; Yarrow WHT, 1985. Insect pests of fruit and vegetables in colour. Brisbane, Australia: Queensland Department of Primary Industries.

Swart PL; De Klerk CA, 1986. Scale Insects. In: Myburgh AC, ed. Crop Pest in Southern Africa. Vol. 1. Plant Protection Research Institute. Pretoria, South Africa: Government Printer, 92 pp.

Therios I, 2008. Pests and diseases. In: Olives [ed. by Therios, I.]. Wallingford, UK: CABI, 335-352. http://www.cabi.org/CABeBooks/default.aspx?site=107&page=45&LoadModule=PDFHier&BookID=440

Tyson JL; Henderson RC; Fullerton RA; Jamieson LE; Froud KJ, 2005. Distribution and new host records for Cosmospora aurantiicola and Cosmospora flammea: entomopathogens of Diaspididae in New Zealand. New Zealand Plant Protection [Proceedings of a conference organized by the New Zealand Plant Protection Society, Wellington, 9-11 August 2005.], 58:283-287. http://www.hortnet.co.nz/publications/nzpps/

Verma SP; Dinabandhoo CL, 2005. Armoured scales (Homoptera: Diaspididae) associated with temperate and subtropical fruit trees in Himachal Pradesh. Acta Horticulturae, 696:423-426. http://www.actahort.org

Waite GK, 1988. Biological control of latania scale on avocados in south-east Queensland. Queensland Journal of Agricultural and Animal Sciences, 45(2):165-167.

Wang CM; Su TH, 1989. The occurrence and population fluctuation of the latania scale, Hemiberlesia latanip (Signoret) on grapevine. Plant Protection Bulletin, Taiwan, 31(1):44-50.

Williams DJ; Watson GW, 1988. The Scale Insects of the Tropical South Pacific Region. Part 1. The Armoured Scales (Diaspididae). Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Williams JR; Greathead DJ, 1990. Sugar Cane. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 563-578.

Wolff VRdos S; Botton M; Silva DCda, 2014. Diaspididae and associated parasitoids in "Niagara" cultivars in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. (Diaspidídeos e parasitoides associados ao cultivo da videira no Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil.) Revista Brasileira de Fruticultura, 36(4):835-841. http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_issues&pid=0100-2945&lng=pt&nrm=iso

Woolley JB, 1990. Signiphoridae. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 167-176.

Wysoki M, 1977. Insect pests of macadamia in Israel. Phytoparasitica, 5(3):187-188.

Zahradnfk J, 1990. Conifers. In: Rosen D, ed. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. Vol. 4B. World Crop Pests. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier, 633-644.

Distribution References

Argyriou LC, 1990. Olive. In: Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control, 4B [ed. by Rosen D]. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. 579-583.

AVIDOV Z, HARPAZ I, 1969. Plant pests of Israel. Plant pests of Israel. x+549 pp.

CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI

Charles J G, Hill M G, Allan D J, 1995. Persistence of the predatory mite, Hemisarcoptes coccophagus Meyer (Hemisarcoptidae), on low populations of Hemiberlesia lataniae (Signoret) (Diaspididae) in New Zealand. In: Israel Journal of Entomology [Proceedings of the VII International Symposium of Scale Insect Studies, held in Bet Dagan, Israel, June 12-17 1994.], 29 [ed. by Ascher K R S, Ben-Dov Y]. 297-300.

Chu TH, Wood BJ, 1990. Other Tropical Fruit Trees and Shrubs. In: Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control, 4B [ed. by Rosen D]. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. 543-552.

Daneel M, Merwe S van der, Jager K de, 1994. Sporadic scales affecting mango. Yearbook - South African Mango Growers' Association. 72-74.

Daneel MS, 1998. Palm scale. In: The Cultivation of Mangoes, [ed. by De Villiers EA]. Nelspruit, South Africa: Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Crops. 154-155.

Danzig E, Pellizari G, 1998. Catalogue of Palearctiv Coccoidea., [ed. by Kozar]. Budapest, Hungary: Plant Protection Institute, Hungarian Academy of Sciences. 272-273.

Dhileepan K, 1991. Insects associated with oil palm in India. FAO Plant Protection Bulletin. 39 (2-3), 94-99.

Dix-Luna O J, Montes-Rodríguez J M, Kulikowski A J, Kondo T, 2018. Alecanochiton marquesi (Hemiptera: Coccomorpha: Coccidae), a new record for Colombia and Costa Rica, and description of its first-instar nymph. Caldasia. 40 (2), 246-254. DOI:10.15446/caldasia.v40n2.69451

Gill RJ, 1997. The scale insects of California. Part 3. The armoured scales (Homoptera: Diaspididae). In: Technical Series in Agricultural Biosystematics and Plant Pathology, Sacramento, USA: Department of Food and Agriculture.

Hill M G, Allan D J, Henderson R C, Charles J G, 1993. Introduction of armoured scale predators and establishment of the predatory mite Hemisarcoptes coccophagus (Acari: Hemisarcoptidae) on latania scale, Hemiberlesia lataniae (Homoptera: Diaspididae) in kiwifruit shelter trees in New Zealand. Bulletin of Entomological Research. 83 (3), 369-376. DOI:10.1017/S0007485300029266

Hodges G, Ruter J M, Braman S K, 2001. Susceptibility of Ilex species, hybrids and cultivars to Florida wax scale (Ceroplastes floridensis Comstock). Journal of Environmental Horticulture. 19 (1), 32-36.

Howard FW, Oliver AD, 1985. Armored scale insects (Homoptera: Diaspididae) of Louisiana. In: Bulletin, Louisana Agricultural Experiment Station No. 762,

Șİșman S, Ülgentürk S, 2010. Scale insects species (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. Turkish Journal of Zoology. 34 (2), 219-224. http://journals.tubitak.gov.tr/zoology/

Kondo T, Muñoz J A, 2016. Scale insects (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) associated with avocado crop, Persea americana Mill. (Lauraceae) in Valle del Cauca and neighboring departments of Colombia. Insecta Mundi. 1-24. http://centerforsystematicentomology.org/default.asp?action=insectamundi&id=insecta_new&year=2016

Kosztarab M, 1963. The armoured scale insects of Ohio (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Diaspididae). In: Bulletin of the Ohio Biological Survey (New Series), 2 (2) 1-120.

McKenzie H L, 1935. Life history and control of latania scale on avocado. In: California Avocado Association Yearbook 1935. 80-82.

Milek T M, Šimala M, Korić B, 2009. The scale insects (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) of imported fruits in Croatia. In: Zbornik predavanj in referatov 9. Slovenskega Posvetovanja o Varstvu Rastlin, Nova Gorica, Slovenije, 4-5 marec 2009 [Zbornik predavanj in referatov 9. Slovenskega Posvetovanja o Varstvu Rastlin, Nova Gorica, Slovenije, 4-5 marec 2009.], [ed. by Maček J]. Ljubljana, Slovenia: Društvo za Varstvo Rastlin Slovenije. 385-388.

Miller DR, Davidson JA, 1990. A list of the Armoured Scale Insect Pests. In: Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control, 4B [ed. by Rosen D]. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. 299-306.

Mitchell W C, Ironside D A, 1982. Insects and other animals reported on macadamia. Yearbook of the California Macadamia Society. 36-72.

Nagarkatti S, Sankaran T, 1990. Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control., 4B [ed. by Rosen D]. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. 553-562.

New Zealand MAF Biosecurity, 2011. Pest watch: 2 November 2010 - 21 March 2011., 38 (2) 53-54.

Seebens H, Blackburn T M, Dyer E E, Genovesi P, Hulme P E, Jeschke J M, Pagad S, Pyšek P, Winter M, Arianoutsou M, Bacher S, Blasius B, Brundu G, Capinha C, Celesti-Grapow L, Dawson W, Dullinger S, Fuentes N, Jäger H, Kartesz J, Kenis M, Kreft H, Kühn I, Lenzner B, Liebhold A, Mosena A (et al), 2017. No saturation in the accumulation of alien species worldwide. Nature Communications. 8 (2), 14435. http://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms14435

Stoetzel M B, Davidson J A, 1974. Biology, morphology and taxonomy of immature stages of 9 species in the Aspidiotini (Homoptera: Diaspididae). Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 67 (3), 475-509. DOI:10.1093/aesa/67.3.475

Su T H, Wang C M, 1988. Life history and control measures for the citrus mealybug and the latania scale insects on grapevine. Plant Protection Bulletin, Taiwan. 30 (3), 279-288.

UK, CAB International, 1976. Hemiberlesia lataniae. [Distribution map]. In: Distribution Maps of Plant Pests, Wallingford, UK: CAB International. Map 360. DOI:10.1079/DMPP/20056600360

Verma S P, Dinabandhoo C L, 2005. Armoured scales (Homoptera: Diaspididae) associated with temperate and subtropical fruit trees in Himachal Pradesh. Acta Horticulturae. 423-426. http://www.actahort.org

Wang C M, Su T H, 1989. The occurrence and population fluctuation of the latania scale, Hemiberlesia lataniae (Signoret) on grapevine. Plant Protection Bulletin, Taiwan. 31 (1), 44-50.

Williams D J, Watson G W, 1988. The scale insects of the tropical South Pacific Region. Part 1. The armoured scales (Diaspididae). Wallingford, UK: CAB International. 290pp.

Williams JR, Greathead DJ, 1990. Sugar Cane. In: Armoured Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control, 4B [ed. by Rosen D]. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. 563-578.

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Hemiberlesia lataniae (latania scale)

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