Grapevine virus A (grapevine closterovirus)

Datasheet

Grapevine virus A (grapevine closterovirus)

Index

Summary

Last modified
11 December 2020

Datasheet Type(s)
Invasive Species
Pest

Preferred Scientific Name
Grapevine virus A

Preferred Common Name
grapevine closterovirus

Taxonomic Tree
Domain: Virus
Group: "Positive sense ssRNA viruses"
Group: "RNA viruses"
Order: Tymovirales
Family: Betaflexiviridae

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Pictures

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Picture

Title

Caption

Grapevine virus A (grapevine closterovirus); Symptoms on grapevine (Vitis vinifera) - note uneven development of stem.

©William M. Brown Jr./via Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0

Symptoms

Grapevine virus A (grapevine closterovirus); Symptoms of Corky Bark Virus on the lower trunk of a grapevine (Vitis vinifera).

©William M. Brown Jr./via Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Grapevine virus A

Preferred Common Name

grapevine closterovirus

Other Scientific Names

Grapevine corky bark closterovirus
Grapevine corky bark disease
Grapevine corky bark virus
Grapevine stem pitting disease
Grapevine stem pitting virus
Grapevine stem pitting-associated closterovirus
Grapevine stem-pitting virus

International Common Names

English: corky bark of grapevine; grapevine A trichovirus; grapevine legno riccio; grapevine stem pitting-associated virus; grapevine trichovirus; rugose wood; stem pitting of grapevine
Spanish: madera rizada
French: bois strié
Portuguese: estrias do lembo

Local Common Names

Germany: Holzrunzeligkeit
Italy: legno riccio; riccio legno

English acronym

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Virus
Group: "Positive sense ssRNA viruses"
Group: "RNA viruses"
Order: Tymovirales
Family: Betaflexiviridae
Genus: Vitivirus
Species: Grapevine virus A

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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Grapevine virus A (GVA) was initially thought to resemble viruses included in the family Closteroviridae (Conti et al., 1980), and was later considered to be a tentative member of the Trichovirus genus (Martelli et al., 1994a; Candresse et al., 1995; Minafra et al., 1997). However, GVA is now recognized as the type species of the Vitivirus genus (Martelli et al., 2000), one of seven genera included in the newly recognized Flexiviridae family (Adams et al., 2003). The virus was earlier designated grapevine closterovirus, grapevine stem pitting-associated closterovirus and grapevine stem pitting-associated virus (Chevalier et al., 1995; Boscia et al., 1995) before Milne et al. (1984) suggested that the name be changed to Grapevine virus A. When later considered to be a trichovirus, it was occasionally referred to as Grapevine trichovirus (e.g., Boscia et al., 1995; Zabalgogeazcoa et al., 1997) or Grapevine A trichovirus (e.g.,Credi and Giunchedi,1996; Rubinson et al., 1997).

Description

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GVA has helically constructed flexuous filamentous particles, measuring ca 800 x 12 nm, with a pitch of 3.3-3.5 nm and ca 10 subunits per turn of the helix (Conti et al., 1980). The particles, contain ca 95% protein and 5% nucleic acid by weight and sediment as a single component with a sedimentation coefficient of ca 92 S. GVA is best purified from experimentally infected Nicotiana benthamiana (Monette and James, 1990a).The coat protein is composed of a single polypeptide of 21.5 kDa (Minafra et al., 1997). Each particle contains a single molecule of single-stranded RNA of 7.6 kb, the sequence (database sequence accession number X75433) of which has been determined (Minafra et al., 1997). The genomic RNA of GVA contains five open-reading frames encoding, respectively, the replication-related proteins (ORF 1), a 19 kDa product with unknown functions (ORF 2), the movement protein (ORF 3), the coat protein (ORF 4) and a 10 kDa product (ORF 5) with nucleotide binding properties, which is suspected to be a suppressor of gene silencing (Galiakparov et al., 2003; Turturo et al., 2003). Full length cDNA infectious clones have been produced (Galiakparov et al., 1999; Saldarelli et al., 2000a). The movement protein can be detected immunologically (Rubinson et al., 1997; Saldarelli et al., 2000b) and the epitopes of the viral coat protein have been mapped using monoclonal antibodies (Dell'Orco et al., 2002).

Distribution

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The very wide geographical distribution of GVA is probably due to the inadvertent international dissemination of the virus in infected grapevine germplasm before the virus had been identified and methods developed for its detection and identification.

In addition to the countries listed, GVA has also been reported in China (D. Boscia, Instituto di Virologia Vegetale, Bari, Italy, unpublished data), Syria (G.P. Martelli, Instituto di Virologia Vegetale, Bari, Italy, unpublished data), Brazil (O. Nickel, Embrapa Uva e Vinho, Bento Goncalves, RS, Brazil, unpublished data) and New Zealand (R. Bonfiglioli, Department of Plant Science, Waite Agricultural Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Australia, unpublished data).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 25 Feb 2021

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	First Reported	Reference	Notes
Africa
Algeria	Present		Digiaro et al. (1999)
Egypt	Present		Ahmed et al. (2004) Ahmed et al. (2004a)
Morocco	Present		Digiaro et al. (1999)
South Africa	Present		Engelbrecht and Kasdorf (1985) Engelbrecht and Kasdorf (1987) Goszczynski and Jooste (2003) Goszczynski and Jooste (2003a) Goszczynski et al. (2008) Alabi et al. (2014)
Tunisia	Present		Agran et al. (1990) Notte et al. (1997) Mahfoudhi et al. (1998) M'hirsi et al. (2001) Selmi et al. (2017) Selmi et al. (2017a)
Asia
Afghanistan	Present		Digiaro et al. (1999)
Armenia	Present		Digiaro et al. (1999)
China	Present		CABI (Undated a) Ribeiro et al. (2004) Fan et al. (2013) Alabi et al. (2014) Ahmed et al. (2018)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Sichuan	Present		Liu Xiao et al. (2004)
-Xinjiang	Present		Ribeiro et al. (2004)
Iran	Present		Habili et al. (2003) Rakhshandehroo et al. (2005) Roomi et al. (2006) Bayati et al. (2011) Mikaeili et al. (2015)
Israel	Present		Rubinson et al. (1997) Alkowni et al. (1998) Galiakparov et al. (2003) Alabi et al. (2014) CABI (Undated)
Jordan	Present		Boscia et al. (1995) Anfoka et al. (2004) Misbeh et al. (2007)
Kazakhstan	Present		Ryabushkina et al. (2009)
Lebanon	Present		Haidar et al. (1996) Notte et al. (1997) Hanna et al. (2008)
Pakistan	Present		Sunniya Rasool et al. (2019)
Syria	Present		Mslmanieh et al. (2006)
Turkey	Present		Yilmaz et al. (1997) Koklu et al. (1998) Saldarelli et al. (1998) Çiftçİ et al. (2015) Caglayan et al. (2017)
Yemen	Present		Martelli et al. (1994) Saldarelli et al. (1998)
Europe
Albania	Present		Merkuri et al. (1994) Saldarelli et al. (1998)
Croatia	Present		Poljuha et al. (2004)
Cyprus	Present		Ioannou (1993) Notte et al. (1997) Saldarelli et al. (1998)
Czechia	Present		CABI (Undated) Komínek (2008) Alabi et al. (2014)	Original citation: Komínek and Holleinová (2003)
France	Present		Zimmermann et al. (1990) Chevalier et al. (1995) Saldarelli et al. (1998) Hommay et al. (2008)
Germany	Present		Milne et al. (1984)
Greece	Present		Avgelis and Tzortzakakis (2001) Notte et al. (1997)
Hungary	Present		Cseh et al. (2008)
Italy	Present		Conti et al. (1980) Rosciglione et al. (1983) Rosciglione et al. (1983a) Agran et al. (1990) Bonavia et al. (1996) Credi and Giunchedi (1996) Credi (1997) Notte et al. (1997) Saldarelli et al. (1998) Zorloni et al. (2006) Murolo et al. (2008) Bertin et al. (2010) Alabi et al. (2014) CABI (Undated)
-Sardinia	Present		Garau et al. (2003)
-Sicily	Present		Agran et al. (1990) Rosciglione et al. (1983a)
Malta	Present		Martelli et al. (1992)
North Macedonia	Present		Kostadinovska et al. (2014)
Portugal	Present		Pedroso et al. (1991) Notte et al. (1997) Mansinho et al. (1999)
Russia	Present		Porotikova et al. (2016)
Serbia	Present		Kuzmanovic et al. (2003) Jevremović and Paunović (2011)
Slovakia	Present		Subikova and Vanek (1989) Predajňa and Glasa (2016)
Slovenia	Present		Tomazic et al. (2003)
Spain	Present		Zabalgogeazcoa et al. (1997) Notte et al. (1997) Fiore et al. (2016) Ruiz-García and Olmos (2017) Ruiz-García et al. (2017)
Switzerland	Present		Rosciglione and Gugerli (1986) CABI (Undated)
Ukraine	Present		Muljukina et al. (2003)
United Kingdom	Present		Cortesi et al. (2005) Saldarelli et al. (2005) Immanuel et al. (2015)
-Scotland	Present		Cortesi et al. (2005)
North America
Canada	Present		Monette and James (1990) Monette and James (1990a) Saldarelli et al. (1998) Alabi et al. (2014) CABI (Undated)
United States	Present		CABI (Undated a) Mekuria et al. (2008) Klaassen et al. (2011) Alabi et al. (2014)	Present based on regional distribution.
-California	Present		Rowhani et al. (1997) Klaassen et al. (2011) Alabi et al. (2014)
-Missouri	Present		Milkus and Goodman (1999)
-Washington	Present		Alabi et al. (2014) Mekuria et al. (2008)
Oceania
Australia	Present		CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-South Australia	Present		Symons and Habili (2000)
-Victoria	Present		Habili and Symons (2000)
New Zealand	Present	2016	Veerakone et al. (2020)
South America
Brazil	Present		CABI (Undated a) Alabi et al. (2014)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Sao Paulo	Present		Kuniyuki et al. (2003)
Chile	Present		Auger (1994) Engel et al. (2008) Fiore et al. (2008) Fiore et al. (2011)

Risk of Introduction

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Because GVA has been reported to occur in most major grapevine-producing countries, it poses no phytosanitary risk. However, it is recommended that only certified virus-free stocks be exchanged in national and international trade.

Hosts/Species Affected

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GVA has a very narrow natural host range, its only major hosts being only Vitis vinifera (grapevine) and American Vitis species and hybrids that are used as rootstocks. The virus is transmissible experimentally by grafting and by mealybugs to other Vitis species, and by mechanical inoculation with difficulty to Nicotiana clevelandii and N. benthamiana (Conti et al:, 1980; Minafra et al., 1998; Monette and James, 1990a, b). An isolate from Yemen induces local lesions in Chenopodium amaranticolor [C. giganteum], C. quinoa and Gomphrena globosa and infects latently Datura stramonium (Martelli et al., 1994b).

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context	References
Nicotiana benthamiana	Solanaceae	Unknown	Minafra et al. (1997) Minafra et al. (1994) Saldarelli et al. (1998)
Nicotiana clevelandii		Unknown	Engelbrecht and Kasdorf (1987)
Vitis (grape)	Vitaceae	Unknown	Bertin et al. (2010) Engelbrecht and Kasdorf (1987) Garau et al. (1994) Klaassen et al. (2011)
Vitis californica		Unknown	Klaassen et al. (2011)
Vitis coignetiae	Vitaceae	Other
Vitis rupestris (sand-grape)	Vitaceae	Unknown	Garau et al. (1994)
Vitis vinifera (grapevine)	Vitaceae	Main	Agran et al. (1990) Alabi et al. (2014) Bayati et al. (2011) Bonavia et al. (1996) Credi (1997) Engelbrecht and Kasdorf (1987) Garau et al. (1994) Goszczynski and Jooste (2003) Goszczynski and Jooste (2003) Goszczynski et al. (2008) Hommay et al. (2008) Klaassen et al. (2011) Notte et al. (1997) Murolo et al. (2008) Osman and Rowhani (2008) Osman et al. (2013) Rosciglione et al. (1983) Saldarelli et al. (1998) Tsai et al. (2010) Zorloni et al. (2006)

Growth Stages

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Flowering stage, Fruiting stage, Vegetative growing stage

Symptoms

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GVA is now known to induce in infected susceptible grapevine cultivars symptoms described as stem-pitting (e.g., Milne et al., 1984; Conti and Milne, 1985), Kober stem grooving (e.g., Garau et al., 1994b) and rugose wood (e.g., Digiaro et al., 1994; Martelli et al., 1992, 1994). Due to the then common occurrence of complexes of morphologically similar viruses and the earlier lack of procedures for their differentiation, GVA was originally thought to be associated with both leafroll and stem-pitting symptoms. However, Milne et al. (1984) and Conti and Milne (1985) demonstrated that leaf rolling was induced by one or more closteroviruses and stem-pitting by GVA. The virus is consistently associated with Kober stem grooving, one of the diseases of the rugose wood complex, and is thought to be its putative agent (Chevalier et al., 1995; Choueiri et al., 1997b). Reports from South Africa and Australia indicate that GVA may also be involved in the aetiology of a severe decline of cv. Shiraz and of so-called Shiraz disease of other grapevine cultivars (Goszczynski and Jooste, 2003a). Several strains of GVA are known which differ biologically (Monette and James, 1990b) and molecularly. Molecular variants cluster into three groups which can be selectively identified by RT-PCR using variant-specific primers. Single vines can be simultaneously infected by more than one variant (Goszczynski and Jooste, 2003b).

List of Symptoms/Signs

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Sign	Life Stages	Type
Stems / discoloration of bark

Biology and Ecology

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The only known source of GVA is infected grapevines, from which the virus is transmitted to healthy plants by its mealybug vectors and by grafting. Humans can prevent further dissemination of the virus by moving internationally and nationally only certified virus-free plants.

GVA is a phloem-restricted virus which multiplies in phloem parenchyma cells, companion cells, and differentiating sieve tubes in which particles accumulate (Rosciglione et al., 1983) and are acquired by the vectors (La Notte et al., 1997). The cytopathology of GVA infections, in both grapevines and herbaceous hosts, is characterized by extensive modifications of the cell walls (thickenings and callose deposits), proliferation of cellular membranes, and vesicular evaginations of the tonoplast that contain fine fibrils. Large numbers of virus particles accumulate in the cytoplasm to form massive bundle-like aggregates (Rosciglione et al., 1983; Monette and Godkin, 1992; Faoro 1997). The viral movement protein localizes in the cell wall, plasmodesmata and in association with virus aggregates (Saldarelli et al., 2000b).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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Vector Transmission

The virus is transmitted from infected to healthy grapevines in a non-circulative semi-persistent manner by the pseudococcid mealybugs Pseudococcus longispinus, Pseudococcus affinis [P. viburni], Planococcus citri and Planococcus ficus (Rosciglione et al., 1983; Engelbrecht and Kasdorf, 1990; Pedroso et al., 1991; Garau et al., 1995; La Notte et al., 1997) and by the scale insect Neopulvinaria innumerabilis (Fortusini et al., 1997). Zorloni et al. (2006) recently reported transmission of GVA by the mealybug Heliococcus bohemicus. Insects acquire the virus by feeding on infected plants for 15-180 min, remain viruliferous for up to 48 h while fasting and up to 15 h while feeding, and transmit virus without a latent period. Transmissibility is lost after moulting (La Notte et al., 1997).

Seedborne Spread

GVA is not seedborne.

Impact

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GVA causes crop losses of 5-22% in wine grape cultivars (Garau et al., 1997), and decline and death of table grapevines also infected by leafroll disease (Digiaro et al., 1997). In vines infected with both GVA and Grapevine leafroll-associated virus 3, leaves senesce rapidly with consequent loss of pigments, soluble proteins, RuBPC proteins and reduced photosynthetic activity (Malossini et al., 2003). Elimination by heat therapy of GVA from vines also showing leafroll symptoms increased fruit yield by 30% and chlorophyll content of leaves, and improved graft take and the quality of the wines (Mannini and Credi, 2000).

Diagnosis

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Indexing

GVA induces stem grooving in Kober 5BB but no symptoms in LN33 and Vitis rupestris (Savino et al., 1989). In field-grown top or chip-bud grafted indicators, symptoms appear usually within 2 years.

Serological Methods

Immunosorbent electron microscopy (ISEM) has been much used for detecting GVA (Conti and Milne, 1985; Milne et al., 1984; Rosciglione and Castellano, 1985; Engelbrecht and Kasdorf, 1987; Agran et al., 1990; Monette et al., 1990; Credi and Giunchedi, 1996; Choueiri et al., 1997a; Buzkan et al., 2001). For more than two decades, the standard form of double antibody sandwich-enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (DAS-ELISA) with polyclonal antisera and monoclonal antibodies (Boscia et al., 1992) has been also used routinely for the detection and identification of GVA in grapevines and test plants (e.g., Monette and James, 1990b; Monette et al., 1990; Pedroso et al., 1991; Peressini et al., 1991; Mahfoudhi et al., 1998; Choueiri et al., 1997a; M'Hirsi et al., 2001; Buciumeanu et al., 2008). Indirect ELISA (Engelbrecht, 1987) and the western blotting technique (Monette and Green, 1992; Goszczynski et al., 1996), although used less frequently, have also been proved effective for detecting the virus. Borgo et al. (2006) were able to successfully detect GVA in mature canes with ELISA.

As the season advances, the reliability of the serological tests on leaf matrix increases (Borgo et al., 2006). With ELISA, the source of the virus also effects the efficiency of GVA detection (Buciumeanu et al., 2008).

Nucleic Acid Hybridization

Nucleic acid spot hybridization (NASH) was shown to be an effective method of detecting GVA (Gallitelli et al., 1985), and nucleic acid hybridization was later shown to have much greater sensitivity than ELISA (Minafra et al., 1992a). Saldarelli et al. (1994) demonstrated the effectiveness of non-radioactive probes.

Nucleic Acid Amplification

Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) has been used as a very sensitive method for the detection of GVA in grapevines (Minafra et al., 1992b; Mansinho et al., 1999; Basso et al., 2010); the procedure is so sensitive that it permits GVA to be detected in viruliferous mealybugs (Minafra and Hadidi, 1994). The sensitivity of the procedure has been further improved by the introduction of an initial Immuno-Capture step; this method permits the detection of GVA in sap diluted 1:100,000 (Chevalier et al., 1995).

Single strand conformational polymorphism has been used to investigate the molecular heterogeneity of GVA (Goszczynski and Jooste, 2002).

Detection and Inspection

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Because it can occur in complex with other viruses, it is not possible to identify GVA by symptoms induced in grapevine. To identify the virus specifically it is necessary to use one or more of the recommended diagnostic methods.

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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The major physicochemical properties and genome organization of GVA are similar to those of other members of the Vitivirus genus (Grapevine virus B, Grapevine virus D and Heracleum latent virus). Like Grapevine virus B, GVA is transmitted by mealybugs. The virus is serologically distantly related only to grapevine viruses B and D from which, however, it can be readily distinguished (Boscia et al., 1992; Goszczynski et al., 1996; Choueiri et al., 1997a).

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

GVA is best controlled by the production, distribution and cultivation of virus-free plants.

Vector Control

No field trials for the chemical control of vectors have been reported.

Regulatory Measures

Certification schemes for grapevines requiring freedom from GVA are implemented in some European countries (Martelli, 1995). Such schemes are carried out by government officials or by State-recognized certification services operating under government control according to rules and standards set by legislation.

Cultural Control and Phytosanitary Methods

Virus-free plants have been obtained by heat therapy (Guidoni et al., 1997), in vitro culture (Bottalico et al., 2000), somatic embryogenesis using callus of anthers and ovaries (Goussard et al., 1991), and cryopreservation (Wang et al., 2003).

Host-Plant Resistance

No natural resistance to GVA is available (Goelles et al., 2000) so attempts have been made to produce resistant transgenic plants by insertion into the genomes of grapevine and/or herbaceous experimental hosts of virus sequences to the viral coat or movement proteins (Goelles et al., 2000; Radian-Sade et al., 2000; Buzkan et al., 2001; Martinelli et al., 2002).

Biological Control

There are no reports of attempts to control biologically the vectors of GVA.

References

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Adams MJ; Antoniw JF; Bar-Joseph M; Brunt AA; Candresse T; Foster GD; Martelli GP; Milne RG; Zavriev SK; Fauquet CM, 2004. The new plant virus family Flexiviridae and assessment of molecular criteria for species demarcation. Archives of Virology, 149:1045-1060.

Agran MK; Terlizzi B di; Boscia D; Minafra A; Savino V; Martelli GP; Askri F, 1990. Occurrence of grapevine virus A (GVA) and other closteroviruses in Tunisian grapevines affected by leafroll disease. Vitis, 29(1):43-48

Ahmed HMH; Digaro M; Martelli GP, 2004. Viruses and virus diseases of grapevine in Egypt. Bulletin OEPP/EPPO Bulletin (in press).

Alabi, O. J., Rwahnih, M. A., Mekuria, T. A., Naidu, R. A., 2014. Genetic diversity of Grapevine virus A in Washington and California vineyards. Phytopathology, 104(5), 548-560. doi: 10.1094/PHYTO-06-13-0179-R

Alkowni R; Digiaro M; Savino V, 1998. Viruses and virus diseases of grapevine in Palestine. Bulletin OEPP/EPPO Bulletin, 28:189, 195.

Anfoka GH; Wesam Shahrour; Nakhla MK, 2004. Detection and molecular characterization of grapevine virus A in Jordan. Phytopathologia Mediterranea, 43(3):387-394.

Auger J, 1994. Virosis de la vid. Rep. VII Congreso Latinoamericano de Fitopatologia, Universidad Catolica de Chile, Santiago, 155-166.

Avgelis AD; Tzortzakakis EA, 2001. Occurrence of viruses and Xiphinema spp. in vineyards of the Greek islands of Paros and Lemnos. Phytopathologia Mediterranea, 40(3):284-288; 14 ref.

Basso MF; Fajardo TVM; Eiras M; Ayub RA; Nickel O, 2010. Molecular detection and identification of virus associated with symptomatic and symptomless grapevines. (Detecção e identificação molecular de vírus associados a videiras sintomáticas e assintomáticas.) Ciência Rural, 40(11):2249-2255. http://www.scielo.br/pdf/cr/v40n11/a782cr4041.pdf

Bayati, S., Shams-Bakhsh, M., Moini, A., 2011. Elimination of grapevine virus A (GVA) by cryotherapy and electrotherapy. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology, 13(3), 443-450. http://jast.journals.modares.ac.ir/?_action=showPDF&article=413&_ob=c51d0b2176daee020a071e9d33f2aa51&fileName=full_text.pdf

Bertin, S., Cavalieri, V., Graziano, C., Bosco, D., 2010. Survey of mealybug (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) vectors of Ampelovirus and Vitivirus in vineyards of northwestern Italy. Phytoparasitica, 38(4), 401-409. http://www.springerlink.com/content/a230816611h3026n/

Bonavia, M., Digiaro, M., Boscia, D., Boari, A., Bottalico, G., Savino, V., Martelli, G. P., 1996. Studies on "corky rugose wood" of grapevine and on the diagnosis of grapevine virus B. Vitis, 35(1), 53-58.

Borgo M; Bazzo I; Bertazzon N; Angelini E, 2006. Sanitary controls for grapevine virus diagnosis. (Accertamenti sanitari per la diagnosi dei virus della vite.) Informatore Fitopatologico, 56(4):15-17.

Boscia D; Aslouj E; Elicio V; Savino V; Castellano MA; Martelli GP, 1992. Production, characterization and use of monoclonal antibodies to grapevine virus A. Archives of Virology, 127(1-4):185-194

Boscia D; Masannat KM; Abu-Zurayk AR; Martelli GP, 1995. Rugose wood of the grapevine in Jordan. Phytopathologia Mediterranea, 34(2):126-128

Bottalico G; Savino V; Campanale A, 2000. Improvements in grapevine sanitation protocols. Extended Abstracts of the 13th Meeting of ICVG, Adelaide, South Australia, 2000, 167.

Buciumeanu EC; Guta IC; Visoiu E, 2008. Improvement of grapevine virus A (GVA) diagnosis by ELISA testing. Analele Universitatcedilla~ii din Craiova - Biologie, Horticultura, Tehnologia Prelucrarii Produselor Agricole, Ingineria Mediului, 13:105-110. http://anucraiova.3x.ro/

Buzkan N; Minafra A; Saldarelli P; Castellano A; Dell'Orco M; Martelli GP; G÷lles R; Machado MLda C, 2001. Heterologous encapsidation in non-transgenic and transgenic Nicotiana plants infected by Grapevine viruses A and B. Journal of Plant Pathology, 83(1):37-43; 32 ref.

Candresse T; Namba S; Martelli GP, 1995. Genus Trichovirus. In: Virus Taxonomy; Sixth Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (Murphy FA; Fauquet CM; Bishop DHL; Ghabrial SA; Jarvis AW; Martelli GP; Mayo MA; Summers MD, eds), Academic Press, San Diego, 468-470.

Chevalier S; Grief C; Clauzel JM; Walter B; Fritsch C, 1995. Use of an immunocapture-polymerase chain reaction procedure for the detection of grapevine virus A in Kober stem grooving-infected grapevines. Journal of Phytopathology, 143(6):369-373

Choueiri E; Abou-Ghanem N; Boscia D, 1997. Grapevine virus A and grapevine virus D are serologically distantly related. Vitis, 36(1):39-41; 17 ref.

Choueiri S; Digiaro M; Savino V, 1997. Further evidence that grapevine virus A is the agent of Kober stem grooving. Extended Abstracts of the 12th Meeting of ICVG Lisbon, Portugal 1997, 39-40.

Conti M; Milne RG, 1985. Closterovirus associated with leafroll and stem pitting in grapevine. Phytopathologia Mediterranea, 24(1/2):110-113

Conti M; Milne RG; Luisoni E; Boccardo G, 1980. A closterovirus from a stem-pitting-diseased grapevine. Phytopathology, 70(5):394-399

Credi R; Giunchedi L, 1996. Grapevine leafroll-associated viruses and grapevine virus A in selected Vitis vinifera cultivars in northern Italy. Plant Pathology, 45(6):1110-1116; 21 ref.

Credi, R., 1997. Characterization of grapevine rugose wood disease sources from Italy. Plant Disease, 81(11), 1288-1292. doi: 10.1094/PDIS.1997.81.11.1288

Cseh E; Lázár J; Takács A; Kazinczi G; Gáborjányi R, 2008. Review of grapevine viruses and virus diseases in Hungary. (A szo?lo? magyarországon elo?forduló és várhatóan megjeleno? virusos betegségeinek és kórokozóinak áttekintése.) Növényvédelem, 44(11):535-544.

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Grapevine virus A (grapevine closterovirus)

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