Gmelina arborea
(candahar)

Preferred Common Name

• candahar

Variety

• Gmelina arborea var. arborea
• Gmelina arborea var. canescens Haines
• Gmelina arborea var. glaucescens Haines

Other Scientific Names

• Gmelina sinuata Link

International Common Names

• English: gamhar; gmelina; goomar teak; Kashmir tree; Malay beechwood; Malay bush-beech; snapdragon tree; white beech; white teak
• Spanish: ciruela Malaya; jobo de Africa; melina
• French: peuplier d’ Afrique; yemane
• Chinese: yun nan shi zi
• Portuguese: árvore-boca-de-leão; guemelina; guimelina

Local Common Names

• Bangladesh: gamar
• Brazil: gmelinea
• Costa Rica: melina
• Cuba: Álamo blanco
• Dominican Republic: ciruela de Malaya
• India: badraparmi; ban; bhodroporrni; gamari; gambari; gambhar; ghambari; ghandari; gomari; gumadi; gumartek; gumbar; gumhar; gummadi; kasmari; kasmiri-mara; khambhari; kumbil; kumhar; kummadi; perungumpil; sewan; shewan; shivan; shivani; shriparmi; umi-thekku
• India/Assam: gomari
• Myanmar: yamane
• Nepal: gamari; gambari; gumhari; khamari; yemane
• Philippines: yemane
• Thailand: so-maeo

EPPO code

• GMEAR (Gmelina arborea)

Trade name

• gamari
• gamhar
• yamane

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Dicotyledonae
•                     Order: Lamiales
•                         Family: Lamiaceae
•                             Genus: Gmelina
•                                 Species: Gmelina arborea

The family Lamiaceae comprises around 236 genera and 7173 species distributed worldwide (Stevens, 2012). The genus Gmelina includes 38 species of trees occurring in tropical Asia, Australia and New Guinea (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016). Gmelina is related to the large genus Vitex, which also includes several timber trees. Vitex can be distinguished by its more narrowly funnel-shaped corolla and less fleshy drupe (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016; PROTA, 2016).

The genus Gmelina, here assigned to the family Lamiaceae, is sometimes placed in the Verbenaceae. It was first described by Roxburgh in 1832 and later in a more complete form by Hooker in 1885 (Brandis, 1924). G. arborea var. canescens and var. glaucescens (Haines 1910, cited by Greaves, 1981) are differentiated from the type variety by their lamina features, i.e. stellately-hairy beneath (type), subcoriaceous and grey-pubescent with simple hairs (var. canescens) and glaucous and glabrous beneath (var. glaucescens). The genus name Gmelina was named by Carl Linnaeus in honour of the German botanist Johann Georg Gmelin. The specific name means treelike, from the Latin ‘arbor’ (tree).

Trees about 15 m tall; bark grayish brown; branchlets, petioles, and inflorescences densely yellow-brown tomentose. Branchlets slightly 4-angled when young, becoming terete, lenticellate, leaf scars prominent. Petiole terete, 3.5-10 cm; leaf blade broadly ovate, 8-19 X 4.5-15 cm, thickly papery, base broadly cuneate to subcordate, apex acuminate; veins 3-5 pairs, abaxially prominent. Inflorescences terminal, narrow thyrses; peduncle 15-30 cm. Calyx 3-5 mm, with several black discoid gland patches; teeth 5, sharply triangular. Corolla yellow, 3-4 cm, 2-lipped, sparsely glandular; lower lip 3-lobed, outside yellowish brown puberulent, inside glabrous; upper lip entire or slightly 2-cleft. Ovary glabrous, glandular. Stigma unequally 2-cleft. Drupes yellow when ripe and black when dry, ellipsoid to obovoid-ellipsoid, 1.5-2 cm (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016).

G. arborea was first introduced from Myanmar as a fast-growing tree species into forest plantations of Peninsular and East Malaysia. It was also introduced to other ASEAN countries, such as the Philippines and Indonesia. By the 1960s, the FAO encouraged the utilization of G. arborea for reforestation projects and commercial purposes across the tropics (FAO, 1981). By that time, G. arborea was featured as a promising species due to its ease and inexpensive establishment, rapid early growth, quick return on investment, and for its wood characteristics including high durability, good yield and high quality pulp. So, during the following 30-35 years, small and large-scale plantations of G. arborea were established through Southeastern Asia, Australia, West Africa, and South and Central America (Lauridsen and Kjaer, 2002).

In Brazil, G. arborea was first introduced from Asia in the 1960s during a reforestation project located in the Amazon basin (Silva et al., 2005).

In Central America, the first plantation of G. arborea was established in 1966 in Costa Rica (in the Caribbean coast of Siquirres) using seeds introduced from more than 20 sites across its native distribution in Asia (Rojas-Rodríguez et al., 2004). Later, during the 1980s-1990s, the establishment of G. arborea plantations was promoted by local and international agencies in Panama, Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Honduras. The total area of G. arborea plantations in Central America has been estimated at 52,000 ha, with biggest plantations located in Costa Rica and Guatemala (Rojas-Rodríguez et al., 2004).

In tropical Africa, G. arborea is planted in many countries, and large-scale plantations can be found in Senegal, Gambia, Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon and Malawi. The total area of G. arborea plantations in Africa has been estimated at 130,000 ha (PROTA, 2016).

In Asia and the Pacific region, large plantations have been established in Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Solomon and Fiji Islands. There is an estimation of 50,000 ha of G. arborea plantations in Asia and the Pacific (Lauridsen and Kjaer, 2002).

Soil drainage

• free

Soil reaction

• acid
• neutral

Soil texture

• heavy
• light
• medium

Vector Transmission (Biotic)

G. arborea spreads by seeds. Birds and bats attracted by the smell of fruits are the main seed dispersal agents (Orwa et al., 2009).

Intentional Introduction

G. arborea has been actively introduced into many tropical and subtropical regions to be used as a forestry and ornamental tree. Worldwide estimates suggest that by 2004 plantations of G. arborea covered an area of about 700,000 ha (Dvorak, 2004).

G. arborea produces many fertile fruits that are easily dispersed by birds and bats (Orwa et al., 2009), spreading seedlings quite far from the parent tree. In this way, it has escaped from plantations and entered wild habitats where it is now replacing native trees and becoming invasive (IUCN, 2013). It is listed as invasive in Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ghana, Australia and Cook Islands (Chacón and Saborío, 2012; Mir, 2012; IUCN, 2013; PIER, 2016; Weeds of Australia, 2016). In Australia, it is regarded as an environmental weed in the Northern Territory and as a potential environmental weed in Queensland. This species is naturalizing from settlements in the tropical savannas of the Northern Territory. It is also listed as a high priority weed in Aboriginal lands in the Northern Land Council area, and is of particular concern in Maningrida, in Arnhem Land (Weeds of Australia, 2016). It has become naturalized in many African countries, where it may be somewhat invasive and in Ghana it is spreading across the Mole National Park (IUCN, 2013; PROTA, 2016).

Impact on habitats and biodiversity

G. arborea is an opportunist species and it has been classified as a long-lived pioneer. Thus, it has the potential to disrupt successional processes in areas where it is invading and outcompete native vegetation (IUCN, 2013; PROTA, 2016).

• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Has a broad native range
• Abundant in its native range
• Highly adaptable to different environments
• Is a habitat generalist
• Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
• Pioneering in disturbed areas
• Highly mobile locally
• Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
• Long lived
• Fast growing
• Gregarious
• Reproduces asexually

• Altered trophic level
• Damaged ecosystem services
• Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
• Modification of successional patterns
• Monoculture formation
• Reduced native biodiversity
• Threat to/ loss of native species

• Competition - monopolizing resources
• Competition - shading
• Pest and disease transmission
• Rapid growth

• Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Economic Value

G. arborea is a fast-growing tree often grown in large-scale plantations to produce wood for light construction, crafts, decorative veneers, pulp, fuel, and charcoal. It produces high-quality wood, which is harvested for the manufacture of furniture, musical instruments and to make plywood, matches, agricultural implements and even artificial limbs. The wood also produces good quality pulp used in the manufacture of cardboard and paper. Flowers produce abundant nectar, which produces high-quality honey. The leaves are widely used as cattle fodder, and in silkworm culture. The wood ash and fruit yield very persistent yellow dyes (Orwa et al., 2009; PROTA, 2016).

Social Benefit

Roots, bark and seeds of G. arborea are used in traditional Asian medicine. In India G. arborea stem bark and roots are used in Ayurvedic preparations to treat a range of ailments (Shenoy and Yoganarasimhan, 2009; Yogesh and Veeranjaneyulu, 2010; Acharya et al., 2012). The fruit and bark are used to treat various conditions in Sri Lanka (Trimen, 1895; Wagman, 1982). Other vegetative parts (including young leaves) also have medicinal value (Burkhill, 1935). Chemicals that may have commercial potential for drug or chemical production (Greaves, 1981) include apigenin, luteolin and quercetagetin in leaves, gmelinoceryl alcohol in roots, and lignins from the wood.

It is also cultivated as an ornamental tree in gardens and avenues (Orwa et al., 2009).

Environmental Services

G. arborea is often used in reforestation programs (Moya and Tomazello, 2008). The species is also planted in agroforestry systems and as a shade tree on cassava, maize, coffee, and cacao plantations (Orwa et al., 2009; USDA-ARS, 2016). G. arborea has been shown to have some potential for the phytoremediation of crude oil polluted soils as long as the contamination level is below 5% (Agbogidi et al., 2007).

Rotenberg (2007) examines the use of plantations of G. arborea by native birds in Guatemala and assesses its suitability as bird habitat.