Gmelina arborea (candahar)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Introductions
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Impact Summary
- Environmental Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Wood Products
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Gmelina arborea Roxb.
Preferred Common Name
- candahar
Variety
- Gmelina arborea var. arborea
- Gmelina arborea var. canescens Haines
- Gmelina arborea var. glaucescens Haines
Other Scientific Names
- Gmelina sinuata Link
International Common Names
- English: gamhar; gmelina; goomar teak; Kashmir tree; Malay beechwood; Malay bush-beech; snapdragon tree; white beech; white teak
- Spanish: ciruela Malaya; jobo de Africa; melina
- French: peuplier d’ Afrique; yemane
- Chinese: yun nan shi zi
- Portuguese: árvore-boca-de-leão; guemelina; guimelina
Local Common Names
- Bangladesh: gamar
- Brazil: gmelinea
- Costa Rica: melina
- Cuba: Álamo blanco
- Dominican Republic: ciruela de Malaya
- India: badraparmi; ban; bhodroporrni; gamari; gambari; gambhar; ghambari; ghandari; gomari; gumadi; gumartek; gumbar; gumhar; gummadi; kasmari; kasmiri-mara; khambhari; kumbil; kumhar; kummadi; perungumpil; sewan; shewan; shivan; shivani; shriparmi; umi-thekku
- India/Assam: gomari
- Myanmar: yamane
- Nepal: gamari; gambari; gumhari; khamari; yemane
- Philippines: yemane
- Thailand: so-maeo
EPPO code
- GMEAR (Gmelina arborea)
Trade name
- gamari
- gamhar
- yamane
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageDue to its rapid growth rate, G. arborea is a tree which has been widely used in reforestation programs in tropical and subtropical regions of the world and as a source of commercial timber and cellulose (Dvorak, 2004; Rojas-Rodríguez et al., 2004; Silva et al., 2005; USDA-ARS, 2016). This species produces large numbers of fertile fruits that are easily dispersed by birds and bats, spreading seedlings quite far from the parent tree (Orwa et al., 2009). In this way, G. arborea has escaped from plantations and entered wild habitats where it is now replacing native trees and becoming invasive (IUCN, 2013). Currently, it is listed as invasive in Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Ghana, Australia and the Cook Islands (Chacón and Saborío, 2012; Mir, 2012; IUCN, 2013; PIER, 2016; Weeds of Australia, 2016). It is also separately reported as invasive in Malawi, Tanzania and Zambia.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Lamiales
- Family: Lamiaceae
- Genus: Gmelina
- Species: Gmelina arborea
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageThe family Lamiaceae comprises around 236 genera and 7173 species distributed worldwide (Stevens, 2012). The genus Gmelina includes 38 species of trees occurring in tropical Asia, Australia and New Guinea (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016). Gmelina is related to the large genus Vitex, which also includes several timber trees. Vitex can be distinguished by its more narrowly funnel-shaped corolla and less fleshy drupe (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016; PROTA, 2016).
The genus Gmelina, here assigned to the family Lamiaceae, is sometimes placed in the Verbenaceae. It was first described by Roxburgh in 1832 and later in a more complete form by Hooker in 1885 (Brandis, 1924). G. arborea var. canescens and var. glaucescens (Haines 1910, cited by Greaves, 1981) are differentiated from the type variety by their lamina features, i.e. stellately-hairy beneath (type), subcoriaceous and grey-pubescent with simple hairs (var. canescens) and glaucous and glabrous beneath (var. glaucescens). The genus name Gmelina was named by Carl Linnaeus in honour of the German botanist Johann Georg Gmelin. The specific name means treelike, from the Latin ‘arbor’ (tree).
Description
Top of pageTrees about 15 m tall; bark grayish brown; branchlets, petioles, and inflorescences densely yellow-brown tomentose. Branchlets slightly 4-angled when young, becoming terete, lenticellate, leaf scars prominent. Petiole terete, 3.5-10 cm; leaf blade broadly ovate, 8-19 X 4.5-15 cm, thickly papery, base broadly cuneate to subcordate, apex acuminate; veins 3-5 pairs, abaxially prominent. Inflorescences terminal, narrow thyrses; peduncle 15-30 cm. Calyx 3-5 mm, with several black discoid gland patches; teeth 5, sharply triangular. Corolla yellow, 3-4 cm, 2-lipped, sparsely glandular; lower lip 3-lobed, outside yellowish brown puberulent, inside glabrous; upper lip entire or slightly 2-cleft. Ovary glabrous, glandular. Stigma unequally 2-cleft. Drupes yellow when ripe and black when dry, ellipsoid to obovoid-ellipsoid, 1.5-2 cm (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016).
Distribution
Top of pageG. arborea is native to Asia, from Pakistan to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam and southern China (Troup, 1921; Moldenke, 1977; Greaves, 1981; Gupta, 1993; Luna, 1996). This species has been extensively planted as a fast-growing tree in tropical areas of Africa, Asia, Australia, America, the West Indies, and on several islands in the Pacific Ocean (PROTA, 2016).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 17 Dec 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Planted | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
||||||||
Benin | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Burkina Faso | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Cameroon | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Côte d'Ivoire | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Ethiopia | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Gambia | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Ghana | Present | Introduced | Listed as “potentially invasive” | |||||
Kenya | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Malawi | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Nigeria | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Réunion | Present | Introduced | 1992 | |||||
Rwanda | Present | Planted | ||||||
Senegal | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Sierra Leone | Present | Introduced | ||||||
South Africa | Present | Planted | ||||||
Sudan | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Tanzania | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Uganda | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Zambia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Asia |
||||||||
Bangladesh | Present | Native | ||||||
Bhutan | Present | Native | ||||||
Brunei | Present | Planted | ||||||
Cambodia | Present | Native | ||||||
China | Present | Native | ||||||
-Guangxi | Present | |||||||
-Yunnan | Present | Native | ||||||
India | Present | Native | ||||||
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Andhra Pradesh | Present | Native | ||||||
-Assam | Present | Native | ||||||
-Bihar | Present | Native | ||||||
-Delhi | Present | Planted | ||||||
-Gujarat | Present | Native | ||||||
-Haryana | Present | Native | ||||||
-Karnataka | Present | Native | ||||||
-Kerala | Present | Native | ||||||
-Madhya Pradesh | Present | Native | ||||||
-Maharashtra | Present | Native | ||||||
-Manipur | Present | Native | ||||||
-Meghalaya | Present | |||||||
-Odisha | Present | Native | ||||||
-Punjab | Present | Native | ||||||
-Rajasthan | Present | Native | ||||||
-Sikkim | Present | Native | ||||||
-Tamil Nadu | Present | Native | ||||||
-Tripura | Present | |||||||
-Uttar Pradesh | Present | Native | ||||||
-West Bengal | Present | Native | ||||||
Indonesia | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Irian Jaya | Present | Planted | ||||||
-Java | Present | Planted | ||||||
-Sulawesi | Present | Planted | ||||||
-Sumatra | Present | Planted | ||||||
Laos | Present | Native | ||||||
Malaysia | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Peninsular Malaysia | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Sabah | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Sarawak | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Myanmar | Present | Native | ||||||
Nepal | Present | Native | ||||||
Pakistan | Present | Native | ||||||
Philippines | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Singapore | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | |||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Native | ||||||
Taiwan | Present | Planted | ||||||
Thailand | Present | Native | ||||||
Vietnam | Present | Native | ||||||
North America |
||||||||
Belize | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Costa Rica | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
El Salvador | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Guatemala | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Haiti | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Mexico | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Nicaragua | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | ||||||
United States | ||||||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Oceania |
||||||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
-Northern Territory | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
-Queensland | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Cook Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Fiji | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | |||||
New Caledonia | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | |||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | Planted | ||||||
Solomon Islands | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Tonga | Present | Introduced | ||||||
South America |
||||||||
Bolivia | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Brazil | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Distrito Federal | Present | |||||||
-Parana | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | |||||
-Pernambuco | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | |||||
Colombia | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | |||||
Ecuador | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Peru | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Venezuela | Present | Introduced |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageG. arborea was first introduced from Myanmar as a fast-growing tree species into forest plantations of Peninsular and East Malaysia. It was also introduced to other ASEAN countries, such as the Philippines and Indonesia. By the 1960s, the FAO encouraged the utilization of G. arborea for reforestation projects and commercial purposes across the tropics (FAO, 1981). By that time, G. arborea was featured as a promising species due to its ease and inexpensive establishment, rapid early growth, quick return on investment, and for its wood characteristics including high durability, good yield and high quality pulp. So, during the following 30-35 years, small and large-scale plantations of G. arborea were established through Southeastern Asia, Australia, West Africa, and South and Central America (Lauridsen and Kjaer, 2002).
In Brazil, G. arborea was first introduced from Asia in the 1960s during a reforestation project located in the Amazon basin (Silva et al., 2005).
In Central America, the first plantation of G. arborea was established in 1966 in Costa Rica (in the Caribbean coast of Siquirres) using seeds introduced from more than 20 sites across its native distribution in Asia (Rojas-Rodríguez et al., 2004). Later, during the 1980s-1990s, the establishment of G. arborea plantations was promoted by local and international agencies in Panama, Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Honduras. The total area of G. arborea plantations in Central America has been estimated at 52,000 ha, with biggest plantations located in Costa Rica and Guatemala (Rojas-Rodríguez et al., 2004).
In tropical Africa, G. arborea is planted in many countries, and large-scale plantations can be found in Senegal, Gambia, Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon and Malawi. The total area of G. arborea plantations in Africa has been estimated at 130,000 ha (PROTA, 2016).
In Asia and the Pacific region, large plantations have been established in Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Solomon and Fiji Islands. There is an estimation of 50,000 ha of G. arborea plantations in Asia and the Pacific (Lauridsen and Kjaer, 2002).
Introductions
Top of pageIntroduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reason | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
Brazil | Asia | 1960s | Forestry (pathway cause) | Yes | No | Silva et al. (2005) | ||
Costa Rica | Asia | 1966 | Forestry (pathway cause) | Yes | No | Rojas-Rodríguez et al. (2004) |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageThe likelihood of further introductions of G. arborea is very high. At the present, approximately 700,000 ha of G. arborea have been established in plantations in Africa, Southeast Asia, the South Pacific, and Central and South America. It is expected that planting areas will expand to 800,000 ha by 2020 (Dvorak, 2004). Although it is widely introduced, a risk assessment for Hawaii gave it a low risk score of 2 for the danger of becoming a problem (PIER, 2016).
Habitat
Top of pageG. arborea occurs in a wide range of forest habitats, including tropical rainforests, evergreen forests, submontane thickets, very moist forests, deciduous forests and dry forests (Nair, 2001). It also occurs in low alluvial savannah and woodland (Orwa et al., 2009). In China, it grows in open forests along roadsides and near farmhouses at elevations below 1500 m (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016). In Central America, plantations of G. arborea can be found in areas with climate varying from tropical dry to tropical moist and wet climate (Rojas-Rodríguez et al., 2004).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Principal habitat | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome number reported for G. arborea varies from 2n = 36, 2n = 38 to 2n = 40 (Chatha and Bir, 1986; PROTA, 2016). In provenance trials, plants of G. arborea originating from plantations often performed better than plants originating from forests within its natural distribution. This can be due to: (i) a positive selection during thinning in the plantations, (ii) a result of lower inbreeding in the plantations, or (iii) a positive response and adaptation to local conditions (because the plantings often represent local ‘landraces’; Lauridsen and Kjaer, 2002).
Reproductive Biology
G. arborea produces large, bisexual, and zygomorphic nectariferous flowers. The breeding system involves both self- and cross-pollination, but most of the self-pollinated flowers are aborted after two weeks of growth. Flowers are often visited and pollinated by bees (especially Apis and Xylocopa bees) and passerine birds (Orwa et al., 2009). Fruit-set under natural conditions is low (Solomon and Purnachandra, 2006).
Physiology and Phenology
G. arborea starts producing flowers and fruits when trees are 6-8 years old, however, trees in plantations can flower when they are 3-4 years old (Rojas-Rodríguez et al., 2004; Orwa et al., 2009). Under favourable conditions G. arborea is capable of reaching an annual increment of 20–25 m³/ha with impressive exceptions of over 30 m³/ha. On poor sandy soils a yield of only 84 m³/ha after 12 years was reported, whereas on very favorable soils a production of 304 m³/ha after 10 years can be reached (PROTA, 2016).
In China, G. arborea has been recorded flowering from April to May and fruiting from May to July (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016). In India, it flowers from February to March and fruits ripen from the end of April to June (Orwa et al., 2009). In Central America, trees often produce flowers from December to March (Rojas-Rodríguez et al., 2004).
Longevity
G. arborea is a perennial fast-growing tree (Sanon et al., 2006; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016). It has also been classified as a long-lived pioneer species (PROTA, 2016).
Environmental Requirements
G. arborea grows in both dry and moist areas at elevations from sea level to 1500 m and annual rainfall from 750 mm to 4500 mm (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016; PROTA, 2016). It can tolerate a dry season of up to 6–7 months (Duke, 1983), although the optimum climate for the species is in areas with a short dry period of 3-5 months and an average relative humidity of about 40%. It grows best in climates with mean annual temperature ranging from 21°C to 28°C (Moya and Tomazello, 2008; Orwa et al., 2009), and with average monthly temperatures generally between 18 and 35°C for the coolest and warmest months, respectively.
G. arborea grows on many soil types, including dry sandy soils and heavily leached acidic soils with pH ranging from 5 to 8 (Duke, 1983; Orwa et al., 2009). When established under poor soil conditions, trees often remain stunted or become little more than a shrub. This species prefers well-drained soils and does not tolerate waterlogged sites or peat soils. It has a high light requirement (PROTA, 2016).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
25 | 40 | 1 | 1200 |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) | 5 | |
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 21 | 28 |
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC) | 24 | 40 |
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC) | 14 | 24 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Dry season duration | 1 | 6 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
Mean annual rainfall | 750 | 4500 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
Soil reaction
- acid
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Acalolepta cervina | Herbivore | Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Armillaria mellea | Pathogen | Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Athelia rolfsii | Pathogen | Plants|Seedlings | not specific | |||
Ceratocystis fimbriata | Pathogen | Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Craspedonta leayana | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves | to species | |||
Fusarium oxysporum | Pathogen | Plants|Seedlings | not specific | |||
Gibberella fujikuroi | Pathogen | Plants|Seedlings | not specific | |||
Globisporangium splendens | Pathogen | Plants|Seedlings | not specific | |||
Thanetophorus cucumeris | Pathogen | Plants|Seedlings | not specific |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageIn Brazil, the fungus Parapyricularia brasiliensis was observed on leaf spot of G. arborea (Silva et al., 2005).
Serious fungal infestation has been observed in G. arborea plantations. Armillaria mellea, Ceratocystis fimbriata, Gnomonia spp., and Poria rhizomorpha [Antrodia rhizomorpha] are some of the fungi that cause serious damage to plantations. In Africa, fungal diseases are mainly root diseases of nursery seedlings, caused by Gibberella fujikuroi and Sclerotium rolfsii [Athelia rolfsii] (Duke, 1983; Nair, 2001; PROTA, 2016). Other nursery pathogens include: Pythium splendens [Globisporangium splendens], which causes wilting in 1-2 month old seedlings; Fusarium oxysporum, a fungus causing high seedling mortality, and Rhizoctonia solani [Thanetophorus cucumeris], a root-collar disease (Orwa et al., 2009).
Defoliators are very common, both on seedlings and mature trees. Leaf-cutting ants (Atta species) cause severe defoliation. The insect Craspedonta leayana has been reported causing serious defoliation in Bangladesh (Baksha, 1997) and India (Rishi and Barthakur, 2016). In India, Thailand and Malaysia the borer Acalolepta cervina has killed or severely damaged whole plantations (Nair, 2001; Orwa et al., 2009). Dieback is caused by shoot cutters such as the larvae of Alcidodes gmelinae in Assam, Bengal and Myanmar (Greaves, 1981). Alcidodes ludificator is also a serious pest in nursery and young plantations in NE India (Senthilkumar and Barthakur, 2008). In Nigeria, Roberts (1969) noted that defoliators such as Empacamenta calabrica, Apophylia nigricollis, Zonoceros variegatus and Achaea lienardi (skeletonizer) are common in plantations. In the Philippines, defoliators such as Chrysodeixis chalcites, Acherontia lachesis, Ozola minor and Attacus spp. are common in nurseries and plantations (Lapis and Bautista, 1977; Lapis and Genil, 1979).
In Zaria (Nigeria), individual trees showed severe infestation by mistletoe (Tapinanthus sp.) (Nwanosike, 2005).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageVector Transmission (Biotic)
G. arborea spreads by seeds. Birds and bats attracted by the smell of fruits are the main seed dispersal agents (Orwa et al., 2009).
Intentional Introduction
G. arborea has been actively introduced into many tropical and subtropical regions to be used as a forestry and ornamental tree. Worldwide estimates suggest that by 2004 plantations of G. arborea covered an area of about 700,000 ha (Dvorak, 2004).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Disturbance | Naturalized in disturbed sites and along roadsides | Yes | Yes | PROTA (2016) |
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Fruits –escaped from plantations and colonizing wild habitats | Yes | Yes | IUCN (2013) |
Forestry | Plantation timber production | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2016) |
Habitat restoration and improvement | Often used in large-scale reforestation programs | Yes | Yes | Silva et al. (2005) |
Horticulture | Often planted as shade tree in cacao and coffee plantations | Yes | Yes | PROTA (2016) |
Medicinal use | Used in traditional Asian medicine | Yes | Orwa et al. (2009) | |
Ornamental purposes | Planted as ornamental and shade tree in parks and avenues | Yes | Yes | Orwa et al. (2009) |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Human health | Positive |
Environmental Impact
Top of pageG. arborea produces many fertile fruits that are easily dispersed by birds and bats (Orwa et al., 2009), spreading seedlings quite far from the parent tree. In this way, it has escaped from plantations and entered wild habitats where it is now replacing native trees and becoming invasive (IUCN, 2013). It is listed as invasive in Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ghana, Australia and Cook Islands (Chacón and Saborío, 2012; Mir, 2012; IUCN, 2013; PIER, 2016; Weeds of Australia, 2016). In Australia, it is regarded as an environmental weed in the Northern Territory and as a potential environmental weed in Queensland. This species is naturalizing from settlements in the tropical savannas of the Northern Territory. It is also listed as a high priority weed in Aboriginal lands in the Northern Land Council area, and is of particular concern in Maningrida, in Arnhem Land (Weeds of Australia, 2016). It has become naturalized in many African countries, where it may be somewhat invasive and in Ghana it is spreading across the Mole National Park (IUCN, 2013; PROTA, 2016).
Impact on habitats and biodiversity
G. arborea is an opportunist species and it has been classified as a long-lived pioneer. Thus, it has the potential to disrupt successional processes in areas where it is invading and outcompete native vegetation (IUCN, 2013; PROTA, 2016).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Highly mobile locally
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Gregarious
- Reproduces asexually
- Altered trophic level
- Damaged ecosystem services
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Modification of successional patterns
- Monoculture formation
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - shading
- Pest and disease transmission
- Rapid growth
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Top of pageEconomic Value
G. arborea is a fast-growing tree often grown in large-scale plantations to produce wood for light construction, crafts, decorative veneers, pulp, fuel, and charcoal. It produces high-quality wood, which is harvested for the manufacture of furniture, musical instruments and to make plywood, matches, agricultural implements and even artificial limbs. The wood also produces good quality pulp used in the manufacture of cardboard and paper. Flowers produce abundant nectar, which produces high-quality honey. The leaves are widely used as cattle fodder, and in silkworm culture. The wood ash and fruit yield very persistent yellow dyes (Orwa et al., 2009; PROTA, 2016).
Social Benefit
Roots, bark and seeds of G. arborea are used in traditional Asian medicine. In India G. arborea stem bark and roots are used in Ayurvedic preparations to treat a range of ailments (Shenoy and Yoganarasimhan, 2009; Yogesh and Veeranjaneyulu, 2010; Acharya et al., 2012). The fruit and bark are used to treat various conditions in Sri Lanka (Trimen, 1895; Wagman, 1982). Other vegetative parts (including young leaves) also have medicinal value (Burkhill, 1935). Chemicals that may have commercial potential for drug or chemical production (Greaves, 1981) include apigenin, luteolin and quercetagetin in leaves, gmelinoceryl alcohol in roots, and lignins from the wood.
It is also cultivated as an ornamental tree in gardens and avenues (Orwa et al., 2009).
Environmental Services
G. arborea is often used in reforestation programs (Moya and Tomazello, 2008). The species is also planted in agroforestry systems and as a shade tree on cassava, maize, coffee, and cacao plantations (Orwa et al., 2009; USDA-ARS, 2016). G. arborea has been shown to have some potential for the phytoremediation of crude oil polluted soils as long as the contamination level is below 5% (Agbogidi et al., 2007).
Rotenberg (2007) examines the use of plantations of G. arborea by native birds in Guatemala and assesses its suitability as bird habitat.
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Forage
Environmental
- Agroforestry
- Amenity
- Erosion control or dune stabilization
- Revegetation
- Shade and shelter
Fuels
- Charcoal
- Fuelwood
Human food and beverage
- Honey/honey flora
Materials
- Carved material
- Dyestuffs
- Essential oils
- Fibre
- Miscellaneous materials
- Wood/timber
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Ornamental
- Christmas tree
- Cut flower
- garden plant
- Potted plant
- Propagation material
- Seed trade
Wood Products
Top of pageBoats
Charcoal
Containers
- Boxes
- Crates
Furniture
Other cellulose derivatives
Pulp
- Short-fibre pulp
Railway sleepers
Sawn or hewn building timbers
- Carpentry/joinery (exterior/interior)
- Exterior fittings
- Fences
- Flooring
- For light construction
- Wall panelling
Veneers
Wood extractives (including oil)
Wood hydrolysates
Wood residues
Wood-based materials
- Plywood
Woodware
- Matches
- Musical instruments
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageG. arborea looks similar to G. asiatica, but differs in having erect inflorescences and larger leaves than G. asiatica (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016).
References
Top of pageAcevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
Afzal-Ata M, Muhamad M, 1987. Coppice production and tree improvement potential of Gmelina arborea Roxb. in Peninsular Malaysia. Malaysian Forester, 50(1):72-78
Ahmad Said S, 1989. Incidence of attack by beehole borer, Xyleutus ceramicus Wlk., in Gmelina arborea Roxb. Plantation in Peninsular Malaysia, 52(2):61-66
Allsop F, 1945. Burma forest pocket book. Simla, Government of Burma Public Relations Department
Arimah JO, 1979. Genetic Variation in Gmelina arborea Linn. Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Barnard RC, 1953. Experience with exotic tree species in Malaya. Malay Forester 16(1):29-40
Bolzón-de Muñiz GI, Lomelí-Ramírez MG, Mangrich AS, Carbajal-Arizaga GG, 2014. Fast qualitative method based on electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) to date Gmelina arborea and Araucaria angustifolia wood. Agrociencia, 48, 739-749.
Booth TH, Jovanovic T, 2000. Improving descriptions of climatic requirements in the CABI Forestry Compendium. A report for the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research. CSIRO - Forestry and Forest Products, Client Report No. 758
Brandis D, 1924. The Forest flora of North-West and Central India. London, UK: Wm.H. Allen & Co
Burkhill IH, 1935. A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula. Vol. I. Malaya: Dept. of Agric
Chacón E, Saborío G, 2012. Red Interamericana de Información de Especies Invasoras, Costa Rica. San José, Costa Rica: Asociación para la Conservación y el Estudio de la Biodiversidad. http://invasoras.acebio.org
Chatha GS, Bir SS, 1986. Biosystematic studies on certain woody species of Palni Hills, South India. Journal of Cytology and Genetics, 21, 97-114.
Chey YK, 1996. Termicide trials on young infested Gmelina arborea trees in Segaliud-Lokan, Sabah. JTFS, 9(1):57-79
Chinte FO, 1971. Silvicultural studies of four pulpwood species. Philipp. Lumber. 17 (5): 8-26
Chong KY, Tan HTW, Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Singapore: Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore, 273 pp. http://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/nus/pdf/PUBLICATION/LKCNH%20Museum%20Books/LKCNHM%20Books/flora_of_singapore_tc.pdf
Darus Ahmad, 1984. Nursery techniques for Gmelina arborea, Acacia mangium, Albizia falcataria and Eucalyptus species at the F.R.I. Nursery. Report No. 37. Kepong: FRIM
Dawkins GCE, 1919. Yemane (Gmelina arborea) in Upper Burma. Indian Forester, 65(10):505-519
Duke JA, 1983. Handbook of Energy Crops. Unpublished. Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA: Centre for New Crops and Plant Products. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Indices/index_ab.html
Durant CL, 1941. Gmelina arborea in Malayasia. Malaysian. Forester. 10: 89-92
Dvorak WS, 2004. World view of Gmelina arborea: opportunities and challenges. New Forests, 28, 111-126.
Ezema MIS, 1989. The effects of some soil physio-chemical properties on the growth of Gmelina arborea Roxb. In the Southern Guinea Savanna area of Nigeria. Malaysian Forester, 52(4):159-165
FAO, 1981. Tropical Forest Resources Assessment Project: Latin America, Africa, and Tropical Asia -UN 32/6.1301-78-04, Technical Reports no. 1/3. Rome, Italy: FAO
Fasehun FE, 1975. Growth response of Gmelina arborea L. seedlings to aluminium, soil acidity and liming. Nigerian Journal of Forestry, 5(1-2):66-69
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016. Flora of China. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2
Govaerts R, 2016. World Checklist of Lamiaceae. Richmond, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/
Haines HH, 1910. A Forest Flora of chota Nagpur including Gangpur and the Santal-Parganahs. Calcutta, India: Government Printing
Helenda CJ, 1993. Above ground biomass production and nutrient accumulation of a gmelina arborea plantation in Sarawak, Malaysia. Malaysian Forester, 5(4):429-439
Homfray CK, 1937. Nursery and plantation notes for Bengal. Alipore, Bengal: Govt. Printing Press
Idárraga-Piedrahita A, Ortiz RDC, Callejas Posada R, Merello M, 2011. Medellín, Colombia, Universidad de Antioquia.939 pp.
Itam SAK, Srivastava PBL, Manikam D, 1986. Trials on rooting of cuttings of Gmelina arborea III. Effects of source, hormone treatment, media and frequency of misting. Malaysian Forester, 49(4):332-350
IUCN, 2013. Invasive plants affecting protected areas of West Africa. Management for reduction of risk for biodiversity. Ouagadougou, BF: IUCN/PACO
Jørgensen PM, Nee MH, Beck SG, 2014. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares de Bolivia. Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden, 127:1-1744
Kalish J, 1979. The Jari [project in Northern Brazil]. Pulp and Paper International, 21(1):37-52
Lapis EB, Genil ZN, 1979. Biology of Ozola minor Moore (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) a defoliator of yemane (Gmelina arborea). Sylvatrop, 4(1):31-37
Lauridsen EB, Kjaer ED, 2002. Provenance research in Gmelina arborea Linn., Roxb. A summary of results from three decades of research and a discussion of how to use them. The International Forestry Review, 4, 20-29.
Lee SS, Goh LK, 1989. Seedling diseases of Acacia mangium willd. and Gmelina arborea Roxb. in forest nursery. Malayan Forester, 52(1):1-7
Lee YH, 1964. Timber tests-Yemane (Gmelina arborea (Roxb.)). Malayan Forester, 27 (4), 370-4
Lee YH, Chu YP, 1965. The strength properties of Malayan timbers. Malayan Forester, 28 (4), 307-19
Limaye VD, 1934. Grouping of Indian timbers and their properties, uses, and suitability. Indian Forest Records. Timber Mechanics, Vol 1. No. 2
Luna RK, 1996. Plantation trees. Delhi, India: International Book Distributors
MacKee HS, 1994. Catalogue of introduced and cultivated plants in New Caledonia. (Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie.) Paris, France: Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, unpaginated
Maziah Z, Norani A, 1988. Disease of Gmelina arborea. FRIM Technical Information, No. 6
Mir C, 2012. Estrategia Nacional de Especies Exóticas Invasoras Realizado en el marco del Proyecto “Mitigando las amenazas de las especies exóticas invasoras en el Caribe Insular”. Dominican Republic: Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales Santo Domingo
Moldenke HN, 1977. A fifth summary of the Verbenaceae, Avicenniaceae, Stilbaceae, Dicrastylidaceae, Symphoremaceae, Nyctanthaceae and Eriocaulaceae of the world as to valid taxa, geographic distribution, and synonymy. Phytologia, 36(1):28-48
Moya R, Tomazello FM, 2008. Variation in the wood anatomical structure of Gmelina arborea (Verbenaceae) trees at different ecological conditions in Costa Rica. Revista de Biología Tropical, 56, 689-704.
Nair KSS, 2001. Pest outbreaks in tropical forest plantations: is there a greater risk for exotic tree species? Bogor, Indonesia: Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)
Okojie JA, 1976. Choosing appropriate volume equations for Gmelina arborea Linn. For two plantation sites in Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Forestry, 6(1/2):67-69
Orwa C, Mutua A, Kindt R, Jamnadass R, Anthony S, 2009. Agroforestree Database: a tree reference and selection guide version 4.0. http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sites/treedbs/treedatabases.asp
Phillips FH, Logan AF, Baloids V, 1978. Suitability of tropical forest for pulpwood: mixed hardwoods, residues and reforestation species. In: Auchter RJ (Coordinator), Proceedings of conference on improved utilisation of tropical forests, 21-26 May, 1978. USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin; USA, 262-278
PIER, 2016. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.htm
Pringle AN, 1950. The Enugu pitwood plantations, Nigeria. Empire Forest Review, 29 (3) (238-43)
PROTA, 2016. PROTA4U web database. Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. http://www.prota4u.info
Rahman AHMM, 1977. Vegetative propagation of few forest species. Bano Biggyan Patrika, 6(1):51-57
Rodger A, 1913. Note on gunhar (Gmelina arborea Roxb.) Indian Forestry Bulletin (New series), No. 16
Rogers FG, 1957. Some notes on Gmelina arborea (Linn.) Nyasaland Farmer and Forester, 4(1):38-40
Rojas-Rodríguez F, Arias-Aguilar D, Moya-Roque R, Meza-Montoya A, Murillo-Gamboa O, Arguedas-Gamboa M, 2004. Manual para productores de Melina (Gmelina arborea) en Costa Rica. Cartago, Costa Rica
Rotenberg JA, 2007. Ecological role of a tree (Gmelina arborea) plantation in Guatemala: an assessment of an alternative land use for tropical avian conservation. The Auk, 124, 316-330.
Sanon A, Martin P, Thioulouse J, Plenchette C, Spichiger R, Lepage M, Duponnois R, 2006. Displacement of an herbaceous plant species community by mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal Gmelina arborea, an exotic tree, grown in a microcosm experiment. 16(2), 25-132.
Sharma RP, Jain RC, 1977. Standard volume tables for Gmelina arborea Roxb. (based on data from Tripura). Indian Forester, 103(8):536-538
Silva AMF, Barbosa MAG, Menezes M, Camara MP, 2005. Parapyricularia brasiliensis, a new dematiaceous hyphomycete on Gmelina arborea from Brazil. Mycotaxon, 92, 43-48.
Smith AC, 1991. Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii, USA, National Tropical Botanic Gardens.626 pp.
Solomon RAJ, Purnachandra RS, 2006. Pollination by bees and passerine birds and seed dispersal by monkeys in the white teak Gmelina arborea Roxb., a commercially important timber tree species in the Eastern Ghats. Current Science, 90, 232-236.
Space JC, Flynn T, 2002. Report to the Government of the Cook Islands on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Honolulu, USA: USDA Forest Service, 146 pp
Stevens PF, 2012. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
Streets RJ, 1962. Exotic forest trees in the British Commonwealth. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press
Surendran T, Seethalakshmi KK, 1987. Vegetative propagation of some important tree species by rooting cuttings. KFRI Research Report 59
Thomas AV, 1939. The timber of Yemane [Gmelina arborea] grown in Malaya. Malayan Forester, 8: 84-5
Trimen H, 1895. A handbook to the flora of Ceylon. Pt. III. London, UK: Dulau & Co
USDA-ARS, 2016. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, USA. http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl
Villaneura EP, Tadena OB, Escolano JO, 1970. Pulpwood potentials of some Philippine reforestation species. Paper presented at the seminar of the Philippine Forest Research Society. U.P. College of Forestry, July, 1972
Wagman RJ, 1982. The new complete medical and health encyclopedia. Vol. 2 & 4. New York, NY: Lexicon Publications
Weeds of Australia, 2016. Weeds of Australia, Biosecurity Queensland Edition. http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/03030800-0b07-490a-8d04-0605030c0f01/media/Html/search.html?zoom_query
Wong WC, Khoo KC, 1980. Gmelina arborea - a literature review. FRIM Reports No. 14
Distribution References
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Chacón E, Saborío G, 2012. (Red Interamericana de Información de Especies Invasoras, Costa Rica)., San José, Costa Rica: Asociación para la Conservación y el Estudio de la Biodiversidad. http://invasoras.acebio.org
Govaerts R, 2016. World Checklist of Lamiaceae., Richmond, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/
IUCN, 2013. Invasive plants affecting protected areas of West Africa. In: Management for reduction of risk for biodiversity, Ouagadougou, BF: IUCN/PACO.
Jørgensen PM, Nee MH, Beck SG, 2014. (Catálogo de las plantas vasculares de Bolivia). In: Monographs in systematic botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden, 127 1-1744.
Mir C, 2012. [English title not available]. (Estrategia Nacional de especies exóticas invasoras realizado en el marco del Proyecto “Mitigando las amenazas de las especies exóticas invasoras en el Caribe Insular”)., Dominican Republic: Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales Santo Domingo.
Orwa C, Mutua A, Kindt R, Jamnadass R, Anthony S, 2009. Agroforestree Database: a tree reference and selection guide version 4.0., http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sites/treedbs/treedatabases.asp
PIER, 2016. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.htm
PROTA, 2016. PROTA4U web database., Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. http://www.prota4u.info
Space JC, Flynn T, 2002. Report to the Government of the Cook Islands on invasive plant species of environmental concern., Honolulu, USA: USDA Forest Service. 146 pp.
USDA-ARS, 2016. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
Weeds of Australia, 2016. Weeds of Australia, Biosecurity Queensland Edition., http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/03030800-0b07-490a-8d04-0605030c0f01/media/Html/search.html?zoom_query
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Contributors
Top of page05/12/16 Original text by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
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