Festuca arundinacea
(tall fescue)

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Festuca arundinacea Schreb.

Preferred Common Name

• tall fescue

Other Scientific Names

• Aira oryzetorum Spreng.
• Avena secunda Salisb.
• Brachypodium interruptum (Desf.) Roem. & Schult.
• Bromus arundinaceus (Schreb.) Roth
• Bucetum elatius (L.) Parn.
• Festuca elatior L.
• Gnomonia elatior (L.) Lunell
• Lolium arundinaceum (Schreb.) Darbysh.
• Poa elatior (L.) Moench
• Schedonorus arundinaceus (Schreb.) Dumort.
• Schedonorus elatior (L.) P.Beauv.
• Schedonorus phoenix (Scop.) Holub
• Tragus elatior (L.) Panz.

International Common Names

• English: alata fescue; alta fescue; coarse fescue; Kentucky fescue; reed fescue
• Spanish: cañuela alta; festuca canosa; zacate fescua
• French: fétuque élevée; fétuque faux roseau; fétuque roseau
• Russian: ovsyanitsa trostnikovaya
• Chinese: wei zhuang yang mao
• Portuguese: erva-corneira

Local Common Names

• Germany: Rohrschwingel
• Italy: festuca alta
• Japan: oniushinokegusa
• Netherlands: rietzwenkgras
• Poland: kostrzewa trzcinowa
• Sweden: roersvingel

EPPO code

• FESAR (Festuca arundinacea)

Summary of Invasiveness

Festuca arundinacea, commonly known as tall fescue, is a cool season, long-lived, perennial, C3 species of bunchgrass native to Europe. In many places it was initially introduced as a lawn and pasture grass. Its use spread from Europe to North America during the early to mid-1800s due to its high growth rate, resilience against drought and protection against herbivory. In its introduced range, F. arundinacea has escaped cultivation and invaded wild areas. It has become an invasive species and noxious weed in native grasslands, woodlands and other habitats, reducing native biodiversity. It has documented associations with fungal endophytes such as Neotyphodium coenophialum, which may be the reason for the plant’s success. The endophyte produces bioactive alkaloids which give the plant protection against predation by insects, larger grazers and even nematodes. Following the introduction of F. arundinacea as a forage grass, particularly in North America, reports of poor animal performance emerged. Ergot alkaloids produced within the grass have been linked to fescue toxicosis in animals, which can lead to aborted foetuses in livestock and some wild animals. Endophyte-free grasses are much less aggressive than their infected counterparts, and so do not pose the same threats.

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Monocotyledonae
•                     Order: Cyperales
•                         Family: Poaceae
•                             Genus: Festuca
•                                 Species: Festuca arundinacea

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Festuca arundinacea was first described by the German naturalist von Schreber in 1771, moved to the genus Schedonorus by Dumortier in 1824 and moved again to the genus Lolium under the name Lolium arundinaceum by Darbyshire in 1993. The genus Schedonorus was resurrected in 1998 and the name Schedonorus arundinaceus (Schreb.) Dumort. was conserved against the earlier name Schedonorus arundinaceus Roem. & Schult. (Soreng et al., 2001). Festuca arundinacea is now classified in the subgenus Schedonorus, a subgenus very closely related to Lolium, which has led to proposals that species within this subgroup should be reclassified as Lolium, meaning that tall fescue would become Lolium arundinacea (Hand et al., 2010) which is an accepted synonym. The name Festuca arundinacea is widely used and recognised within the agricultural, veterinary and scientific communities, as well as within lawn care and landscaping businesses, so that any further name changes would be hard to establish (Soreng et al., 2001).

Description

F. arundinacea is a perennial grass producing large, loose, but sometimes dense, tussocks, normally without short rhizomes, and without stolons. Culms are unbranched, smooth (or rough below panicle) and erect, (39-)45-120(-200) cm long. The lower sheaths are not fused, and are smooth and rounded on the back. Ligule, < 2 mm, membranous with ciliate auricles (cilia often few and wearing off with age). Leaves, dark-green, stiff, usually flat, 10–60(-105) cm long, (1-)3-12 mm wide, distinctly ribbed above, rough or smooth below only, scabrous on margin, and tapering to a fine tip. Panicles (6-)10-50 cm long, lax and wide, erect or pendant, lanceolate to ovate, green or purplish, with many rough branches, which are mostly in pairs; lowest two nodes with 2-3 subequal branches, each with 5-15 spikelets, the shorter branch with (3-)4-many spikelets. Pedicels up to 8 mm long. Spikelets elliptic to oblong; (8-)9-18 mm long, with 3-10 florets, disarticulating beneath each lemma at maturity. Glumes persistent, often purple-tinged, subequal to equal, pointed; lower narrowly lanceolate, 3-6 mm long, one-nerved; upper lanceolate to lanceolate-oblong, 4.5-7 mm long. Lemmas rounded on back, overlapping, or with margins incurved, lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate in side view, pointed to blunt, 6-7.5(-10) mm long, firm except for the membranous upper margins, five-nerved, broadly rounded on back with fine, rough awn, when present, 0.5-3.5(-6) mm extension of the middle nerve. Paleas as long as lemmas with rough keels. Three stamens with anthers 3-4 mm long. Ovary glabrous. Caryopsis with adherent pericarp; glabrous (Gibson and Newman, 2001; Clayton et al., 2016).

Plant Type

Distribution

F. arundinacea is native to large parts of Europe, Asia and North Africa (USDA-NRCS, 2016). It has been widely planted in other temperate regions (Spyreas et al., 2001) due to its importance as a pasture grass (Gibson and Newman, 2001), and is naturalized in many areas outside its native range (Preston and Hill, 1997).

According to the Flora of China (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016) and eMonocot (2016), the native range of F. arundinacea covers the whole of Europe (apart from northern European Russia and Iceland), Central Asia as far east as Xinjiang in China, and northern Asia (to northwestern Siberia). The southern distribution includes North Africa, from Libya to Morocco. The introduced range encompasses most states of the USA (including Alaska and Hawaii), most southern Canadian provinces, parts of Mexico, some Caribbean islands, most provinces of China, Japan, southern Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand’s North Island, and several countries in South America and Africa, including South Africa, Kenya and Ethiopia.

Both endophyte-free and infected strains are widespread, with the latter being predominantly responsible for the plant’s invasive status (Malinowski and Belesky, 2000).

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

Tall fescue was introduced into the USA from Europe sometime in the 19th century, according to some in the early 1800s (Duble, 2016), but according to Hannaway et al. (1999) in the late 1800s, with early performance tests conducted at the Utah and Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Stations and in Washington, DC. Tall fescue did not become a prominent forage grass in the USA, however, until the 1940s, and is now present in all states, as well as southern Canada.

In Australia, F. arundinacea was first documented in Victoria in 1901 (Australian Government Office of the Gene Technology Regulator, 2008). Introduced there as a pasture grass, it is now widely naturalized in the temperate regions of southern Australia (eastern New South Wales, the ACT, Victoria, Tasmania, many parts of South Australia and south-western Western Australia). It is also found occasionally naturalized in the southern parts of the Northern Territory and south-eastern Queensland (Queensland Government, 2016).

F. arundinacea was first recorded in Japan in 1905, having been imported as a pasture grass. It now occurs on the main islands of Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku and is considered an invasive alien, occurring in grasslands, farm fields, urban areas, vacant lots and along streams and waterfronts (Invasive Species of Japan, 2016). 

Introductions

Risk of Introduction

As a widely used pasture grass, the possibility for further spread is high. Endophyte-infected grass shows good growth in difficult habitats and so is often favoured by farmers, despite its potential toxicity (Easton et al., 1994). The endophyte-free grass is frequently used where animal welfare is an important factor, but does not possess the same resilience to difficult conditions (Hoveland, 1993) and so the risk of spread is slightly lessened. F. arundinacea has a slow lateral spread (St. John et al., 2009) and so the risk of large scale spread by this method is low. The main risks of spread come through deliberate introduction for use in agriculture or as a turf grass, and through the grass’s natural rhizome spread.

Habitat

F. arundinacea grows in a large range of habitats; in the British Isles alone it can be found in habitats as wide ranging as meadows, salt marshes and cliff tops (Gibson and Newman, 2001). It can be found growing in soils with varying nutrient levels, but tends to prefer conditions which are moist for the majority of the year. Weber (2003) describes it as growing particularly in moist grassland and woodland, reed swamps, seashores, riparian habitats, and freshwater and saline wetlands. 

In North America, F. arundinacea invades a variety of environments, including agricultural pasture land, tall grass prairies, forest margins and other moist, disturbed places (USDA-NRCS, 2016). In California it favours sites with heavy soil, including grassland, coastal scrub, roadsides, ditches and other disturbed locations (California Invasive Plant Council, 2016). In Hawaii, it is adventive in pastures and open grasslands at elevations from 820 to 1490 m (Wagner et al., 1999).

Habitat List

Biology and Ecology

Genetics

F. arundinacea is an allohexaploid (2n = 6x = 42), but has also been reported with chromosome numbers of 2n = 28 and 70 (Gibson and Newman, 2001). The plant has a gametophytic self-incompatibility system to avoid genetic depression. The species shows large genetic diversity, which is reflected in its tolerance to a wide range of habitats and conditions (Cuyeu et al., 2013).

Reproductive Biology

F. arundinacea can reproduce both sexually and vegetatively, although where it is used as a turf or pasture grass, reproduction is almost wholly vegetative. Its primary method of pollination is by wind (Australian Government Office of the Gene Technology Regulator, 2008).

Physiology and Phenology

Typical of cool-season grasses, peak growth in tall fescue occurs in spring during the period of reproductive growth, with nearly two-thirds of annual growth occurring at this time. A secondary peak of vegetative growth occurs in autumn.

Associations

F. arundinacea has been shown to be associated with many endophytes, particularly Acremonium coenophialum [Neotyphodium coenophialum] (Siegel et al., 1984; Christensen et al., 1993). Plants infected with the endophyte seem to show higher seed production and an increased level of germination when compared to non-infected individuals (Clay, 1987; Zamani et al., 2015). The development of infected seedlings also seems greater, with increased biomass recorded. The benefit of the endophyte to the plant seems to increase as nutrient availability from the soil increases (Cheplick et al., 1989). A positive relationship between the rate of photosynthesis and endophyte infection has also been shown, with higher rates achieved by infected plants when compared to non-infected plants, especially at increased temperatures (Marks and Clay, 1996).

There are many reported benefits to both the host and the endophyte. Benefits to the fungus include improved dispersal through the plants’ seeds, nutrition, a water source and protection (Malinowski and Belesky, 2000; Spyreas et al., 2001). The host also gains many advantageous properties including protection against herbivory, heat and drought stress tolerance, a lower chance of nematode predation (Kimmons et al., 1990), and an overall increase in vigour (Spyreas et al., 2001). The protection against herbivory which the endophyte offers the host plant can be attributed to alkaloids produced by the endophyte. These alkaloids are known to be toxic to many species of mammal as well as some leaf feeding pest insects (Johnson et al., 1985). They are also the reason for many people’s concern over the grass’s spread. The presence of endophyte-infected strains of F. arundinacea has been show to lead to poor weight gain in cattle (Read and Camp, 1986), as well as adverse effects on milk production and reproduction in horses, cattle and sheep (Stuedemann and Hoveland, 1988).

Environmental Requirements

According to Hannaway et al. (1999), tall fescue is well adapted to humid, temperate areas and is tolerant of warmer southern climates where soil moisture is available. Under heat and drought stress, growth often stops. Tall fescue grows best on deep, moist soils that are heavy to medium in texture and high in organic matter, with pH values between 5.5 and 8.5, although it can tolerate a wide range of soil pH, from strongly acidic (pH 4.7) to alkaline (pH 9.5). With regard to soil moisture, tall fescue can grow under conditions ranging from excessively drained to poorly drained, and can tolerate long periods of flooding (24 to 35 days) when temperatures are below 27°C. A minimum precipitation range is typically 375 to 450 mm, although in areas of high evapotranspiration, up to 900 mm is required for good growth.

Climate

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

Air Temperature

Rainfall

Soil Tolerances

Soil drainage

• free
• impeded
• seasonally waterlogged

Soil reaction

• acid
• alkaline
• neutral
• very alkaline

Soil texture

• heavy
• light
• medium

Special soil tolerances

• saline

Natural enemies

Notes on Natural Enemies

Crown rust (Puccinia coronata) is common on tall fescue during warm moist periods in the growing season. Damping off (Pythium and/or Rhizoctonia) can cause severe seedling loss particularly when germination occurs under cold, damp conditions. Tall fescue can also be infected with ergot (Claviceps purpurea), which affects seed development and is characterized by the presence of purple-black, elongated (up to 5 mm long) ergots in the seed head. Tall fescue plants, particularly endophyte-infected plants, are largely tolerant of pests, although in Australia pasture scarabs (Sericesthis spp.) and Corbie grubs (Oncopera spp.) damage plants by attacking the roots just below the ground (Harris and Lowien, 2003). In the southern USA, nematodes can reduce stands and their persistence by attacking roots, but cause less damage if the endophyte is present (Hannaway et al., 1999). 

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Natural Dispersal

The main natural method of seed dissemination for the grass is through wind dispersal. The seeds germinate rapidly following dispersal, which could account for some of the grass’s success (Gibson and Newman, 2001). The plant also propagates through vegetative means, through the production of rhizoids, although this method does not allow for spread over large distances.

Vector Transmission (Biotic)

The awn allows the seed to attach to animal vectors. Seeds can also travel through the digestive system and be successfully dispersed by excretion, as has been shown in horses (Campbell and Gibson, 2001).

Intentional Introduction

The primary method of dispersal for the grass is through intentional introduction. As an important turf and lawn constituent, F. arundinacea seeds can be found in many lawn seed products (USDA-NRCS, 2016).

Pathway Causes

Pathway Vectors

Impact Summary

Economic Impact

The main negative economic impacts of F. arundinacea arise from endophyte infection, when the alkaloids produced by the organism cause fescue toxicosis, a disorder which can cause poor weight gain, low reproductive success and other health issues in livestock. It has been shown that for every 10% increase in endophyte level, there is a reduction in average daily liveweight gain in cattle of 45 g over the entire grazing season (Stuedemann and Hoveland, 1988). Animals with fescue toxicosis have also been noted to have high temperatures, roughened coats and symptoms of ‘fescue foot’ (Read and Camp, 1986); incidents of fescue poisoning often involve the cost of veterinary intervention.

Environmental Impact

Impact on Habitats

In its introduced range, F. arundinacea has escaped cultivation and invaded wild areas. It has become an invasive species and noxious weed in native grasslands and habitats throughout North America, including the California coastal prairie plant community (California Invasive Plant Council, 2016) and has encroached on the Clymer Meadow Preserve, a native prairie in northeastern Texas. In the latter case, tall fescue typically spread by establishing in wet or disturbed areas along roads, in eroded patches and in damp hollows. With growth continuing throughout the winter, it was able to shade out native plants. By the early 1990s it covered as much as 40% of the ground in test plots at the Preserve. The species has devastated many other prairie remnants in Texas (Cheater, 1992).

In Australia, F. arundinacea is regarded as a significant environmental weed in Victoria and as an environmental weed in the wider Sydney and Blue Mountains region of New South Wales. In Victoria it is thought to pose a serious threat to one or more vegetation formations. For example, it is listed as a high threat invasive weed in plains swampy eucalypt woodland in the Glenelg Plain and Wimmera bioregions. It is also present on several local and regional environmental weed lists in this state (e.g. in Knox Shire, Banyule Shire and the Goulburn Broken Catchment). In Western Australia it is established on road verges and in disturbed sites from Pemberton to Denmark, and also in Perth, but is regarded as a low priority environmental weed. In South Australia, tall fescue is commonly found in disturbed areas near pastures, but is also becoming a weed of wetter habitats. It is also established in several conservation areas in South Australia (Cudlee Creek Conservation Park, Cobbler Creek Recreation Park and Sturt Gorge Recreation Park) (Queensland Government, 2016).

Impact on Biodiversity

Tall fescue in North America has replaced many hectares of native grasses and does not supply the type of food and cover that many smaller game bird species need in order to thrive. For example, tall fescue only supports a limited number of insects, which are an important food for both quail and turkey (Henson, 2001). After tall fescue plants die, their leaves fall to the ground and create a thick thatch which prevents native plant seeds from germinating (California Invasive Plant Council, 2016). This thatch, which is a thick, impenetrable mat of culms near the soil surface that also forms after mowing or grazing, does not allow enough bare ground for some seed-eating birds to obtain adequate food. Additionally, tall fescue has been shown to inhibit seed germination in other plant species through allelopathy (Barnes et al., 1995; Henson, 2001). 

The presence of F. arundinacea has been linked with a reduction in biodiversity (Spyreas et al., 2001), and in forest situations has even suppressed the natural succession process by reducing tree abundance and size (Rudgers et al., 2007). The presence of the endophyte-infected grass, which is toxic to some herbivores, increases feeding on tree saplings, again altering normal succession processes. It is now recognized that the presence of the endophyte contributes to both the tough nature of the grass and the poor performance of grazing animals in the warmer months. Endophyte infection has been deleterious to wildlife as well, reducing the biological diversity of soil organisms, insects, native plants, birds and mammals. Endophyte-infected tall fescue inhibits many soil organisms, including pathogenic fungi, parasitic nematodes and beneficial mycorrhizal fungi. The fescue endophyte produces loline alkaloids that are toxic to at least twenty insect species. The endophyte also produces ergot alkaloids that are toxic to mammals, including domestic livestock. Grasslands dominated by endophyte-infected tall fescue support less total herbivore biomass, which in turn supports less predator biomass (Henson, 2001).

A 7.5 to 9 m-wide border composed of either native grasses or native grasses and legumes around tall fescue pastures can moderate the harmful effect of tall fescue on wildlife. A border supplies some food and cover for small game and birds, and is particularly effective when the pasture is adjacent to a well-managed forest (Henson, 2001).

Risk and Impact Factors

• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Has a broad native range
• Abundant in its native range
• Highly adaptable to different environments
• Is a habitat generalist
• Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
• Pioneering in disturbed areas
• Tolerant of shade
• Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
• Reproduces asexually
• Has high genetic variability

• Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
• Modification of successional patterns
• Monoculture formation
• Negatively impacts forestry
• Negatively impacts animal health
• Reduced native biodiversity
• Threat to/ loss of native species

• Allelopathic
• Competition - monopolizing resources
• Competition - shading
• Poisoning

• Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
• Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant

Uses

Economic Value

Tall fescue is widely used as a reliable hay, silage and pasture grass for feeding livestock (Strahan et al., 1987) due to its resilience and vigour compared to other grass species (Hill et al., 1990). Since the early 1970s, tall fescue has been the predominant cool-season perennial grass grown in the USA, occupying around 14 million hectares (Hannaway et al., 1999). Because of its importance as a pasture grass, many cultivars of the species are available, the most common of which is Kentucky-31 (Schmidt et al., 1982).

Social Benefit

Turf-type F. arundinacea cultivars selected for short stature and narrow leaf blades are widely grown as very hardy, dense, wear-resistant turf in lawns, parks, golf course roughs and other areas which are mowed at a height of 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) or more; it does not tolerate mowing heights lower than this in summer (Lawn UK, 2014; Duble, 2016).

Environmental Services

Tall fescue has been planted for erosion control; however it has been shown to have similar, or even lesser, effectiveness in this regard than other grass species (Malik et al., 2000).

Uses List

Animal feed, fodder, forage

• Fodder/animal feed
• Forage

Environmental

• Amenity
• Erosion control or dune stabilization
• Soil conservation

General

• Ornamental

Materials

• Poisonous to mammals

Ornamental

• garden plant

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

As a species of grass, F. arundinacea is morphologically similar to other grass species, especially other members of the same genus. In particular, tall fescue is very similar in appearance to meadow fescue (F. pratensis). However, tall fescue has 4-5 lemmas per spikelet and its lemmas are 7-10 mm in length. In contrast, meadow fescue has 5-11 lemmas per spikelet and its lemmas are 6-8 mm in length (Hilty, 2016).

Prevention and Control

Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Eradication

Eradication of tall fescue greatly improves the opportunity to provide diverse grasslands capable of supporting more robust and healthier wildlife populations. The two methods most frequently used are herbicide application and/or conventional tillage. In choosing a method, consideration should be given to the availability of equipment, potential for soil erosion, the type of vegetation to be re-seeded, and cost.

Tall fescue is very difficult to completely eradicate. It is not always practical or necessary to eliminate all fescue plants. Rather, the goal should be to keep most growth suppressed so that other more beneficial and diverse vegetation types can become available to support the needs of wildlife. Once a site has been renovated, frequent mowing, deep tillage and autumn burning should be avoided as these practices will accelerate tall fescue reinfestation (Indiana Division of Fish & Wildlife, 2006).

Cultural Control and Sanitary Measures

Although tall fescue is difficult to eradicate without using herbicides, conventional tillage can be used for growth suppression. It is best adapted for use on non-erosive sites. The most effective method is to plough the sod in the autumn and allow the fescue rhizomes to remain exposed to freezing conditions throughout the winter months. As soon as the soil can be worked in the spring, the site should be disked down and allowed to green-up with whatever germinates. Further disking then kills off the vegetation; only the top 5-7.5 cm of the soil should be disturbed as deeper disking will only bring more fescue seed up into the germination zone. The field should be allowed to green-up again before another pass of shallow disking prior to reseeding (Indiana Division of Fish & Wildlife, 2006).

Chemical Control

Herbicides can be used for tall fescue eradication usually on any site, but are strongly recommended for use on highly erosive soils and slopes where soil disturbance may cause or exacerbate erosion problems. Another advantage is that only one pass with spraying equipment is needed in most situations. Best results are obtained by spraying when fescue plants are actively growing and are approximately 15-30 cm in height; prior to herbicide treatment, the fescue should be mowed, grazed or burned and allowed to regrow to that height. This will reduce the amount of non-target residue (dead, leafy material) and ensure the maximum exposure of new growth to herbicide contact. For sites scheduled to be reseeded to a cool-season grass/legume mixture, two applications of glyphosate are recommended (autumn and spring), while for sites to be reseeded to a warm-season grass/forb mixture, glyphosate or an imidazole herbicide such as imazapic alone or in combination can be used (Indiana Division of Fish & Wildlife, 2006).

Ecosystem Restoration

According to Barnes (2004), an effective way of increasing or re-establishing the biodiversity of an area is to remove the tall fescue population by burning it and then reseeding soon after. Another method of is to apply herbicides after burning (Washburn et al., 2000). 

Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs

Much of the literature is focused on problems encountered in North America, so research into F. arundinacea on a more global scale may be required in order to fully assess the risks of the grass’s use. 

References

Australian Government Office of the Gene Technology Regulator, 2008. The biology of Lolium multiflorum Lam. (Italian ryegrass), Lolium perenne L. (perennial ryegrass) and Lolium arundinaceum (Schreb.) Darbysh (tall fescue). Canberra, ACT, Australia: Australian Government, Department of Health and Ageing, Office of the Gene Technology Regulator, 83 pp. http://www.ogtr.gov.au/internet/ogtr/publishing.nsf/content/ryegrass-3/$FILE/biologyryegrass08.pdf

Barnes TG, 2004. Strategies to convert exotic grass pastures to tall grass prairie communities. Weed Technology [Invasive plants in natural and managed systems (IPINAMS) conference, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA, November 2003.], 18(Suppl.):1364-1370.

Barnes TG; Madison LA; Sole JD; Lacki MJ, 1995. An assessment of habitat quality for northern bobwhite in tall fescue-dominated fields. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 23(2):231-237.

Batcher MS, 2000. Element Stewardship Abstract for Festuca arundinacea (Schreb.). Synonym: Festuca elatior L. Arlington, Virginia, USA: The Nature Conservancy, Wildland Invasive Species Program, 11 pp. http://www.invasive.org/weedcd/pdfs/tncweeds/festaru.pdf

California Invasive Plant Council, 2016. Festuca arundinacea (tall fescue). http://www.cal-ipc.org/ip/management/plant_profiles/Festuca_arundinacea.php

Campbell JE; Gibson DJ, 2001. The effect of seeds of exotic species transported via horse dung on vegetation along trail corridors. Plant Ecology, 157(1):23-35.

Cheater M, 1992. Alien invasion. Nature Conservancy, 42(5):24-29.

Cheplick GP; Clay K; Marks S, 1989. Interactions between infection by endophytic fungi and nutrient limitation in the grasses Lolium perenne and Festuca arundinacea.. New Phytologist, 111(1):89-97.

Christensen MJ; Leuchtmann A; Rowan DD; Tapper BA, 1993. Taxonomy of Acremonium endophytes of tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea), meadow fescue (F. pratensis) and perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne). Mycological Research, 97(9):1083-1092

Clay K, 1987. Effects of fungal endophytes on the seed and seedling biology of Lolium perenne and Festuca arundinacea. Oecologia, 73(3):358-362

Clayton WD; Vorontsova MS; Harman KT; Williamson H, 2016. GrassBase - The Online World Grass Flora. Kew, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens. http://www.org/data/grasses-db.html

Cuyeu R; Rosso B; Pagano E; Soto G; Fox R; Ayub ND, 2013. Genetic diversity in a world germplasm collection of tall fescue. Genetics and Molecular Biology, 36(2):237-242.

Darbyshire SJ, 1993. Realignment of Festuca subgenus Schedonorus with the genus Lolium (Poaceae). Novon, 3(3):239-243.

Duble RL, 2016. Tall fescue. Aggie Horticulture. College Station, TX, USA: Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service. http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/archives/parsons/turf/publications/tallfesc.html

Easton HS; Lee CK; Fitzgerald RD, 1994. Tall fescue in Australia and New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, 37(3):405-417.

eMonocot, 2016. eMonocot - an online resource for monocot plants. http://e-monocot.org/

Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016. Flora of China. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2

Gibson DJ; Newman JA, 2001. Festuca arundinacea Schreber (F. elatior L. ssp. arundinacea (Schreber) Hackel). Journal of Ecology (Oxford), 89(2):304-324.

Hand ML; Cogan NOI; Stewart AV; Forster JW, 2010. Evolutionary history of tall fescue morphotypes inferred from molecular phylogenetics of the Lolium-Festuca species complex. BMC Evolutionary Biology, 10(303):(12 October 2010). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/10/303

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Distribution References

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Contributors

03/02/2016    Original text by:

Georgina Watling, CABI, UK

Distribution Maps