Euonymus japonicus (Japanese spindle tree)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Introductions
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Impact: Biodiversity
- Social Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Principal Source
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Euonymus japonicus Thunb.
Preferred Common Name
- Japanese spindle tree
Other Scientific Names
- Elaeodendron javanicum Turcz.
- Euonymus carrierei Dippel
- Euonymus fortunei var. alticola Hand.-Mazz.
- Euonymus pulchellus Dippel
- Euonymus repens Carrière
- Euonymus sinensis Carrière
- Masakia japonica (Thunb.) Nakai
International Common Names
- English: evergreen euonymus; evergreen spindle; spindle tree
- French: fusain du Japon
Local Common Names
- China: dong qing wei mao
- France: bonnet de prêtre
- Germany: Spindelstrauch, Japanischer
- Italy: evonimo del Giappone
- Japan: masaki
- Malaysia: belimbing hutan; belungkas; kemuning ayer
- Netherlands: kardinaalsmuts, Japanse
- Philippines: malasangki
- Portugal: evônimo-do-Japão
- Sweden: japansk benved
- Thailand: khao kwang; kraduuk kai
EPPO code
- EUOJA (Euonymus japonicus)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageEuonymus japonicus is native in Japan (and perhaps China and Korea) but has been widely introduced for cultivation as an ornamental or hedge plant. It has become naturalized in other Asian countries, a number of states in the USA, and in some European countries including the UK. It is of concern for its potential to be invasive. E. fortunei, which is closely related, is already proving invasive in some regions. In New Zealand, E. japonicus is cited as a ‘weed of concern on conservation lands’ (Invasive Plants Database, 2017). In Australia, it has been ranked as an environmental weed and declared weed (regulated) ‘with the potential to have serious impact' (Randall, 2007). E. japonicus was included in the Life IAP-Risk list of 37 potentially invasive species to the EU (Tanner, 2017), but was subsequently removed due to a lack of adequate information (Life IAP-Risk, 2016). As the seeds are dispersed by birds it has the potential to readily spread outside cultivation.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Celastrales
- Family: Celastraceae
- Genus: Euonymus
- Species: Euonymus japonicus
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageThere are a number of synonyms listed for Euonymus japonicus but it is not believed that any of these are commonly used. Confusion could be caused by the use of E. fortunei var. alticola to refer to E. japonicus due to similarity with E. fortunei, which is also an invasive species. There are a range of recognized subspecies or varieties for E. japonicus, many developed as ornamentals. Some hybrids have also been developed from E. japonicus and related species (e.g. E. kiautschovicus and E. fortunei) that show greater cold hardiness (RenJun, 2013).
Description
Top of pageE. japonicus grows as an evergreen shrub or small tree that can reach up to 3 m, sometimes dwarfed. Branches are grey-green to grey-brown, terete glabrous and sturdy. Twigs are green to light green, glabrous, and not evidently striate, especially when fresh. The petiole is 3-10 mm long. Leaf blades are leathery or thickly leathery, ovate, obovate, orbicular-ovate or long ovate, measuring (3-)5-10(-12) x (2-)3-5(-5.5) cm, base orbicular or semiorbicular, margin crenulate distally, nearly entire proximally, apex orbicular or semiorbicular; lateral veins 6-8 pairs, slightly visible or unclear, especially when dry. Leaves are often variegated in cultivated varieties. Cymes usually axillary, sometimes terminal, many branched with many flowers; peduncle up to 8 cm, sub-branches 2-4 cm; pedicel 4-7 mm. Flowers are 4-merous, 5-6 mm in diameter; sepals nearly orbicular; petals greenish white or yellowish green, sometimes cream, nearly orbicular. Capsule globose or subglobose, brown or yellow-brown to red-brown, 6-9(-12) mm in diameter, 4-lobed. Seeds 2 per locule, 5 x 3.5 mm, dark brown, globose; aril orange-red (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2017).
Distribution
Top of pageAccording to most sources, E. japonicus, is only native to Japan but some sources, e.g. World Agroforestry Centre (2017), indicate that it is also native to China and Korea. E. japonicus has been widely introduced for cultivation as an ornamental or hedge plant. This is well documented in many countries in Europe (DAISIE, 2017; Flora Europaea, 2017; Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora, 2017), USA (USDA-NRCS, 2017), South and South East Asia (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2017; USDA-ARS, 2017), Australia (Randall, 2007) and New Zealand (GBIF, 2017), and locally in South America (Bolivia) (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2017), and may well occur in more countries than are indicated in this datasheet. It has naturalized in some parts of the USA (USDA-NRCS, 2017) and Europe (DAISIE, 2017), and elsewhere (GBIF, 2017).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Feb 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Asia |
|||||||
Cambodia | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
China | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
-Anhui | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
-Fujian | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
-Gansu | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
-Guangdong | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
-Guangxi | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
-Guizhou | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
-Hainan | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
-Hebei | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
-Henan | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
-Hubei | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
-Hunan | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
-Jiangsu | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
-Jiangxi | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
-Liaoning | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
-Qinghai | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
-Shaanxi | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
-Shandong | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
-Shanxi | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
-Sichuan | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
-Xinjiang | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
-Yunnan | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
-Zhejiang | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
India | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
-Tamil Nadu | Present | Introduced | |||||
Indonesia | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
-Java | Present | ||||||
-Sulawesi | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
-Sumatra | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
Israel | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
Japan | Present | Present based on regional distribution | |||||
-Hokkaido | Present | Native | |||||
-Honshu | Present | Native | |||||
-Kyushu | Present | Native | |||||
-Ryukyu Islands | Present | Native | Also Okinawa | ||||
-Shikoku | Present | Native | |||||
Laos | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
Malaysia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Myanmar | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
North Korea | Present | ||||||
Pakistan | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
Philippines | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
South Korea | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
Taiwan | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
Thailand | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
Turkey | Present | ||||||
Vietnam | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
Europe |
|||||||
Belgium | Present | Introduced | 1979 | ||||
Bulgaria | Present | Introduced | |||||
Croatia | Present | Introduced | |||||
France | Present | Introduced | 1804 | ||||
-Corsica | Present | Introduced | |||||
Germany | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ireland | Present | Introduced | 1996 | ||||
Italy | Present | Introduced | Including Sardinia | ||||
Russia | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
Slovakia | Present | Introduced | First reported: 1895. First reported in wild: 1991 | ||||
Spain | Present | Introduced | |||||
Sweden | Present | Introduced | First reported: 2000 - 2009 | ||||
United Kingdom | Present | Introduced | S Britain and Scilly Isles; Original citation: Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora (2017) | ||||
-Channel Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
North America |
|||||||
Canada | Present | ||||||
-Ontario | Present | ||||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution | |||||
-California | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | Original citation: Dave's Garden (2017) | ||||
-Hawaii | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
-Indiana | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Louisiana | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Mississippi | Present | Introduced | |||||
-North Carolina | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Texas | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | Original citation: Dave's Garden (2017) | ||||
-Virginia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | 1843 | ||||
New Zealand | Present | Introduced | |||||
South America |
|||||||
Bolivia | Present | Introduced |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageE. japonicus was introduced to cultivation in the UK in 1804 and has been known in the wild on the Isles of Scilly since 1897 (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora, 2017).
Introductions
Top of pageIntroduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reason | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
UK | 1804 | Horticulture (pathway cause) | Yes | No | Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora (2017) |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageThere is a high risk of introduction, due to its popularity as an ornamental plant. The likelihood of it becoming invasive when introduced is far less certain. As the seeds are dispersed by birds it has the potential to readily spread outside cultivation.
Habitat
Top of pageIn the UK it has naturalized in woodland, on sea-cliffs and roadsides (Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora, 2017; PFAF, 2017). In China it occurs from sea level up to 1400 m.
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Principal habitat | |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Principal habitat | |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Secondary/tolerated habitat | |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Principal habitat | |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Principal habitat |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome number of E. japonicus is 2n = 32 (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2017).
Reproductive Biology
E. japonicus reproduces by seed. Flowering occurs in early summer and flowers are pollinated by bees and flies. Seed is dormant when shed and requires stratification. Stored seeds require 3 months of cold stratification, and can take up to 18 months to germinate (PFAF, 2017). Increasing the period of cold stratification can improve the rate of seed germination to 65% after 60 days germination. Soaking the seeds in gibberellin can further enhance germination. Optimum germination occurs at about 25°C (Xue, 2011).
For commercial purposes propagation can be obtained from cuttings (Tawfik, 2001).
Physiology and Phenology
E. japonicus is an evergreen shrub with a periodic growth pattern consisting of several growth flushes per year. In each flush, 9-11 nodes are added to the stem length. Nodes formed at the beginning of a growth flush are short and bear scale-like leaves. In the middle of the flush, the nodes are longer and become shorter again toward the end of the flush (Zieslin and Pines, 1987).
Longevity
Trees may live for up to 150 years (Urban Forest Ecosystems Institute, 2017).
Environmental Requirements
E. japonicus tolerates temperatures as low as -10°C (PFAF, 2017) and is rated by PFAF (2017) as being tolerant to both UK and USA hardiness zones 7 (down to -20°C). It also has a wide tolerance to different soil types and acidity levels and some tolerance of salinity (Urban Forest Ecosystems Institute, 2017). It does not tolerate deep shade but has medium shade tolerance (Lin ShuYan, 2007). Plants are very tolerant of maritime exposure, succeeding even when grown on the seashore but they can be killed by cold drying winds (Useful Tropical Plants, 2017).
When grown as an ornamental, it tolerates light, medium and heavy (clay) soils, but prefers well-drained soil. It also tolerates acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. The plant prefers night temperatures of 4-12°C and day temperatures of 19°C or lower.
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
BS - Steppe climate | Tolerated | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Preferred | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | |
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
55 | 40 | 0 | 1400 |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) | -20 | |
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 2 | 24 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 500 | 1500 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
Soil reaction
- acid
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Natural enemies
Top of pageNotes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageA wide range of pests and pathogens have been recorded on E. japonicus, scale insects, thrips and powdery mildew are perhaps the most common causes of damage.
Major host of:
Colletotrichum boninense; Erysiphe euonymi-japonici; Luperomorpha xanthodera; Parthenolecanium persicae (peach scale); Senecio vulgaris.
Minor host of:
Alfalfa mosaic virus (alfalfa yellow spot); Armillaria luteobubalina (armillaria root rot); Ceroplastes floridensis (soft scale); Ceroplastes japonicus (tortoise wax scale); Cydalima perspectalis (box tree moth); Epiphyas postvittana (light brown apple moth); Exomala orientalis (oriental beetle); Metcalfa pruinosa (frosted moth-bug); Pratylenchus penetrans (nematode, northern root lesion).
Wild host of:
Aphis fabae (black bean aphid).
Host of:
Aphis fabae cirsiiacanthoidis; Fusarium oxysporum (basal rot); Pryeria sinica (pellucid, zygaenid (Japan)); Unaspis euonymi (euonymus scale).
Pryeria sinica (Euonymus leaf notcher) is newly recorded in the USA (University of Maryland Extension, 2017). E. japonicus is noted to be susceptible to scales, spider mites and thrips, oak root rot, powdery mildew and root rot (Urban Forest Ecosystems Institute, 2017).
In California, E. japonicus can be heavily infested by the light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana, an exotic introduction from Australia (Wang et al., 2012).
Unaspis euonymi is found in the centre of Brussels, Belgium, and in Belgrade, Serbia, causing severe leaf loss and dieback (Graora, 2007; Malumphy, 2016)
Heavy infestations of Eutetranychus orientalis have been recorded in Shandong, China (Sun et al., 1996).
Rhizoctonia solani [Thanatephorus cucumeris] can be a serious problem in seedling nurseries of E. japonicus (Lee et al., 1996).
Paratylenchus dianthus was found to cause severe leaf drop of E. japonicus in Chongqing, China (Liu, 1995).
It may also be a host of the sugar beet fly, Pegomya mixta [Pegomya cunicularia] (PFAF, 2017).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageVector Transmission (biotic)
A wide range of bird species disperse the seeds of E. japonicus (Orwa et al., 2009; Forest and Bird, 2017).
Accidental Introduction
Accidental introduction is extremely unlikely.
Intentional Introduction
E. japonicus has been widely introduced deliberately for horticultural purposes, as an ornamental or hedge plant. It is available from a wide range of companies and intentional introduction is therefore highly likely.
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Yes | |||
Garden waste disposal | Yes | |||
Hedges and windbreaks | Yes | Yes | ||
Horticulture | Yes | Yes | ||
Internet sales | Yes | |||
Landscape improvement | Yes | |||
Nursery trade | Yes | Yes | ||
Seed trade | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Aircraft | Yes | |||
Debris and waste associated with human activities | Yes | |||
Yes | Yes |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Positive |
Environment (generally) | Negative |
Human health | Negative |
Impact: Biodiversity
Top of pageThere are no specific examples of problems, but of concern for its potential invasiveness in several countries.
Social Impact
Top of pageAll parts of E. japonicus are reported to be poisonous when ingested, causing vomiting, diarrhoea, weakness, chills, coma and convulsions. Seeds and arils are particularly poisonous. Otherwise, large amounts of foliage may be needed to cause acute poisoning. Though the toxic principle is not clearly defined, it is ‘believed to be a glycoside’ (North Carolina State University, 2017). In Belgium, E. japonicus has been responsible for causing sickness and death in sheep (Baert et al., 2005).
Poison Delivery Mode: ingestion
Symptoms: vomiting, diarrhoea, weakness, chills, coma and convulsions.
Toxic Principle: unidentified, possibly a glycoside, peptide or sesquiterpene alkaloid.
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Negatively impacts human health
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Poisoning
- Rapid growth
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Top of pageEconomic Value
E. japonicus is primarily used as a hardy, versatile ornamental garden plant, being available in a wide variety of foliage colours and plant shapes, available from many internet suppliers across the world. It is also valued as a hedge plant and in Korea it is of interest for sound proofing (Kim et al., 1989).
E. japonicus is also described as an important forest tree species in Shandong, China (Sun et al., 1996).
Roots and stems yield up to 7% gutta-percha, a non-elastic rubber used as an electrical insulator and in making plastics (Useful Tropical Plants, 2017). It is cultivated for this purpose in Russia and in Spain (PFAF, 2017).
E. japonicus has apparently been used widely as a research tool in the study of photosynthesis, cold and drought-hardiness, salt-tolerance and other physiological reactions, especially in China. Some of this work relates to its use for ornamental and conservation purposes, but some may be because of its common availability.
Social Benefit
Decoctions from the bark are considered to be tonic, anti-rheumatic, anhidoritic and diuretic. Chinese women use the leaves to aid difficult childbirths (Duke and Ayensu, 1985 in: Useful Tropical Plants, 2017). American Indians use the occidental vicariads in gynaecological applications (Orwa et al., 2009).
In spite of indications of toxicity, there are reports of the leaves being edible (PFAF, 2017).
Environmental Services
E. japonicus is widely studied in China for its use in conservation and re-vegetation.
Uses List
Top of pageEnvironmental
- Agroforestry
- Amenity
- Landscape improvement
- Revegetation
- Soil conservation
General
- Research model
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
Ornamental
- Propagation material
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageE. japonicus is very similar to E. fortunei but is more erect, growing to 3 m tall, while the latter has a climbing or procumbent habit (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2017). It is distinguished from most other species by its leathery leaves and smooth, rounded fruit, not lobed (Stace, 1997; Schulz, 2006).
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Physical/Mechanical Control
Established plants can be removed by cutting and by uprooting if small enough, but larger stumps may need to be covered with thick black polyethylene to exclude light (Forest and Bird, 2017).
Biological Control
E. japonicus is damaged by a wide range of insects, pathogens and nematodes but there are no reports of attempts at exploiting these for biological control.
Chemical Control
The growth of E. japonicus can be inhibited by the growth regulator paclobutrazol (Keever et al., 1990); also by uniconazole (Norcini and Knox, 1990); and by dikegulac (Yamazaki et al., 1979) but these would only limit the size of established plants. In New Zealand, recommendations include cutting and painting the stump with a 1-2 mm layer of metsulfuron gel; also spraying foliage with metsulfuron (Forest and Bird, 2017). Glyphosate is not included as a means of control in New Zealand but it is known to be mildly damaging to the foliage and GISD (2017) recommendations for control of the closely related E. fortunei include the application of glyphosate or triclopyr to freshly cut stems.
References
Top of pageDAISIE, 2017. Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe. European Invasive Alien Species Gateway. www.europe-aliens.org/default.do
Dave's Garden, 2017. Dave's Garden. http://davesgarden.com/
Encyclopedia of Life, 2017. Encyclopedia of Life. http://eol.org/
EPPO, 2017. EPPO Global Database. Paris, France: European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization.https://gd.eppo.int/
Flora Europaea, 2017. Euonymus japonicus. http://193.62.154.38/cgi-bin/nph-readbtree.pl/feout?FAMILY_XREF=&GENUS_XREF=Euonymus&SPECIES_XREF=japonic*&TAXON_NAME_XREF=&RANK=
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2017. Flora of China. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria.http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2
Forest and Bird, 2017. Weed Control Guide. http://www.forestandbird.org.nz/files/Weed_Guide_Final_small.pdf
GBIF, 2017. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. http://www.gbif.org/species
GISD, 2017. Global Invasive Species Database (GISD). http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/
Invasive Plants Database, 2017. Greenery Technology and Landscape Planning. http://invasive.m-fuukei.jp/
Life IAP-Risk, 2016. Life IAP-Risk Newsletter No 1. http://www.iap-risk.eu/media/files/LIFE_IAP_RISK_Newsletter_1_August_2016.pdf
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2017. Tropicos database. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden.http://www.tropicos.org/
North Carolina State University, 2017. Plants. https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/plant-list
Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora, 2017. Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora. http://www.brc.ac.uk/plantatlas/
Orwa C, Mutua A, Kindt R, Jamnadass R, Anthony S, 2009. Agroforestree Database: a tree reference and selection guide, version 4.0. http://www.worldagroforestry.org/output/agroforestree-database
PFAF, 2017. Plants for a Future Database. http://www.pfaf.org/USER/Default.aspx
RenJun, 2013. The Cold Resistance of the Hybrid of Euonymus japonicus and Euonymus kiautschovicus. http://www.dissertationtopic.net/doc/2150204
Schulz B, 2006. Studies of fruit and seed characters of selected Euonymus species. Mitteilungen der Deutschen Dendrologischen Gesellschaft, 91, 127-145.
Tanner R, 2017. Updates from EPPO. [12th meeting Bern Convention Group of Experts on Invasive Alien Species. Madeira, 2017-06-1/3], The European and Mediterranean, Plant Protection Organization. https://rm.coe.int/updates-from-eppo/1680730319
University of Maryland Extension, 2017. Home & Garden Information Center. https://extension.umd.edu/hgic
Urban Forest Ecosystems Institute, 2017. SelecTree: A Tree Selection Guide. https://selectree.calpoly.edu/
USDA-ARS, 2017. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory.http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl
USDA-NRCS, 2017. The PLANTS Database. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center.http://plants.usda.gov/
Useful Tropical Plants, 2017. Useful Tropical Plants Database. http://tropical.theferns.info/
World Agroforestry Centre, 2017. Euonymus japonicus. http://www.worldagroforestry.org/treedb/AFTPDFS/Euonymus_japonicus.PDF
Xue Hui-Wen, 2011. The Research on the Propagation Techniques of Euonymus Japonicus Cv. Microphyllus Butterscotch. Changsha, Hunan, China: http://www.dissertationtopic.net/doc/187462
Distribution References
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Encyclopedia of Life, 2017. Encyclopedia of Life., http://eol.org/
Flora Europaea, 2017. Euonymus japonicus., http://193.62.154.38/cgi-bin/nph-readbtree.pl/feout?FAMILY_XREF=&GENUS_XREF=Euonymus&SPECIES_XREF=japonic*&TAXON_NAME_XREF=&RANK=
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2017. Tropicos database., St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/
Orwa C, Mutua A, Kindt R, Jamnadass R, Anthony S, 2009. Agroforestree Database: a tree reference and selection guide, version 4.0., http://www.worldagroforestry.org/output/agroforestree-database
PFAF, 2017. Plants For A Future Database., http://www.pfaf.org/USER/Default.aspx
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Contributors
Top of page08/02/17 Original text by:
Chris Parker, Consultant, UK
Pedro Acevedo-Rodríguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
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