Eulachnus rileyi (pine needle aphid)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Growth Stages
- Symptoms
- List of Symptoms/Signs
- Biology and Ecology
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Plant Trade
- Wood Packaging
- Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Detection and Inspection
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Eulachnus rileyi (Williams)
Preferred Common Name
- pine needle aphid
Other Scientific Names
- Lachnus rileyi Williams
Local Common Names
- Italy: afido del pino
EPPO code
- EULARI (Eulachnus rileyi)
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Metazoa
- Phylum: Arthropoda
- Subphylum: Uniramia
- Class: Insecta
- Order: Hemiptera
- Suborder: Sternorrhyncha
- Unknown: Aphidoidea
- Family: Aphididae
- Genus: Eulachnus
- Species: Eulachnus rileyi
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageDescription
Top of pageApterous Vivipara
The wingless parthenogenetic form has black legs and a dark body. It is 2 to 2.6 mm long and 0.6 mm wide. The cornicle consists of a ring without a conical base. The cauda is usually rounded but with an upturned tip, which, when extended, appears pointed.
Alate Vivipara
This form is the same size and colour as the apterous vivipara. The secondary sensoria are absent on segment three and there is one on segment four. The hairs are heavy, 0.1 mm long, spike-like on the vertex, sparse and inconspicuous on the body, and moderately numerous on the appendages. The lengths of the hairs on the hind tibia are at least twice the diameter of the tibia. The rostrum is broad and obtuse. The forewing has a faint media that is usually forked once.
Apterous Ovipara
The apterous ovipara is similar in appearance to the apterous vivipara except that the hind tibia is 1.3 to 1.65 mm long with the proximal half moderately swollen and rather thickly covered with flat sensoria.
Alate Male
This stage is similar in appearance to the alate vivipara except for the antennae, which are much longer (approximately 1.75 mm). In addition, the sensoria are numerous on segments three and four.
Distribution
Top of pageThe distribution map includes records based on specimens of E. rileyi from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK): dates of collection are noted in the List of countries (NHM, various dates).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 17 Dec 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Congo, Democratic Republic of the | Present | ||||||
Eswatini | Present | ||||||
Kenya | Present | Introduced | 1988 | ||||
Malawi | Present | Introduced | 1979 | ||||
South Africa | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: South Africa Institute for Commercial Forestry Res | |||
Tanzania | Present | Introduced | |||||
Uganda | Present | Introduced | |||||
Zambia | Present | Introduced | 1978 | ||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Introduced | 1980 | Invasive | |||
Asia |
|||||||
Iran | Present | ||||||
Iraq | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Israel | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Turkey | Present | ||||||
Europe |
|||||||
Austria | Present | ||||||
Denmark | Present | ||||||
France | Present | ||||||
-Corsica | Present | ||||||
Germany | Present | Native | |||||
Hungary | Present | ||||||
Italy | Present | Introduced | 1970 | Invasive | |||
Netherlands | Present | ||||||
Poland | Present | ||||||
Slovakia | Present | ||||||
Spain | Present | ||||||
-Canary Islands | Present | ||||||
Sweden | Present | ||||||
Switzerland | Present | ||||||
United Kingdom | Present | ||||||
-Channel Islands | Present | ||||||
North America |
|||||||
Jamaica | Present | ||||||
Mexico | Present | ||||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-California | Present | ||||||
-Colorado | Present | Native | |||||
-Kansas | Present | ||||||
-Minnesota | Present | ||||||
-Missouri | Present | ||||||
-New York | Present | ||||||
-North Carolina | Present | Native | Original citation: North Carolina State University Insect Collection | ||||
-Utah | Present | Native | |||||
-Wisconsin | Present | ||||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Brazil | Present | ||||||
Chile | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Colombia | Present | ||||||
Venezuela | Present | Introduced | 1988 | Invasive |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageHabitat
Top of pageHosts/Species Affected
Top of pageHost Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pagePlant name | Family | Context | References |
---|---|---|---|
Pinus (pines) | Pinaceae | Main | |
Pinus caribaea (Caribbean pine) | Pinaceae | Main | |
Pinus cembra (arolla pine) | Pinaceae | Unknown | |
Pinus elliottii (slash pine) | Pinaceae | Main | |
Pinus kesiya (khasya pine) | Pinaceae | Main | |
Pinus merkusii (Tenasserim pine) | Pinaceae | Main | |
Pinus michoacana (Michoacan pine) | Pinaceae | Main | |
Pinus mugo (mountain pine) | Pinaceae | Main | |
Pinus nigra (black pine) | Pinaceae | Main | |
Pinus oocarpa (ocote pine) | Pinaceae | Main | |
Pinus palustris (longleaf pine) | Pinaceae | Main | |
Pinus patula (Mexican weeping pine) | Pinaceae | Main | |
Pinus pinea (stone pine) | Pinaceae | Main | |
Pinus ponderosa var. scopulorum | Pinaceae | Main | |
Pinus sylvestris (Scots pine) | Pinaceae | Main | |
Pinus taeda (loblolly pine) | Pinaceae | Main |
Symptoms
Top of pageList of Symptoms/Signs
Top of pageSign | Life Stages | Type |
---|---|---|
Leaves / abnormal colours | ||
Leaves / yellowed or dead |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageThe genus, Eulachnus, consists of approximately 20 species distributed across the Holarctic conifer forests. They have sucking mouthparts and feed on the sap of host trees. Some species only feed on the needles and others (e.g. Eulachnus brevipilosus) suck the sap from twigs, shoots and needles. Like many aphids, the life history and habits of members of the genus Eulachnus are complex and there are a number of life stages. In addition, the life cycle and occurrence of certain life forms is determined by local climatic conditions.
In northern temperate climates, E. rileyi exhibits heterogamy or cyclic reproduction. This consists of an alternation of asexual and sexual generations. The egg stage is the overwintering stage. The eggs hatch in the spring to produce a fundatrix or stem mother. The stem mothers reproduce parthenogenetically and viviparously (bringing forth live young). Generations subsequent to the fundatrix are known as the summer viviparae. They consist of apterous (wingless) and alate (winged) viviparous summer females known as viviparae. The summer viviparae reproduce in the same manner as the fundatrices for several generations during the summer. The sexuales typically appear at the end of the summer and consist of a true apterous female and males that can be either apterous or alate. This final generation of females is oviparous and lays eggs, which remain dormant until the following spring. Observations in the Rocky Mountain region of the USA indicate that apterous and alate viviparae are present from 20 June to 5 September and sexuales are present from 24 September to 7 October (Palmer, 1952).
Studies on the biology of E. rileyi in Africa, where this insect has been introduced and established, indicate that this species has a reduced life cycle and reproduces throughout the year without the sexual forms. All stages (nymphs and adults) feed on the undersides of pine needles of trees of all ages. The females are normally apterous, although alatae are sometimes produced (Murphy et al., 1991).
In Africa, the abundance of E. rileyi is regulated to some degree by the cycle of alternating dry and rainy seasons. In Zambia, in 1978 and 1979, the build-up of pine needle aphid populations was rapid in May to June after the rains had ceased, and the onset of the rains caused a drastic decrease in the population density from November to December (Loyttyniemi, 1979). In Iraq, populations of E. rileyi seem to be adversely affected by hot, dry weather. In a life history study, Abdullah and Mohammad (1991) reported that in Iraq, small numbers of E. rileyi were first seen at the end of March. Numbers peaked during the fourth week of April and disappeared during the third week of June, with the onset of hot summer weather.
E. rileyi feeds on mature or senescing needles throughout the crowns of host trees (Chilima, 1991). Infestations cause needles of host pines to turn yellow and the aphids produce copious amounts of honeydew. The honeydew provides a medium for the development of sooty moulds on heavily infested trees (Murphy et al., 1991).
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Conidiobolus obscurus | Pathogen | Adults; Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Diaeretus leucopterus | Parasite | Arthropods|Nymphs | ||||
Praon bicolor | Parasite | Arthropods|Nymphs |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageThe parasitoid, Diaeretus leucopterus, has been studied as a potential classical biological control agent for both Eulachnus agilis and E. rileyi. Levels of parasitism by D. leucopterus are consistently low and the insect is subjected to high levels of hyperparasitism. These studies suggest that this parasitoid is not an effective biological control agent unless it is used in combination with other complementary natural enemies (Murphy and Völkl, 1996).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageThe most likely pathway for movement of these aphids around the world is via infested pine nursery stock in international trade. The nymphs and adults on leaves are visible to the naked eye but the eggs are not.
Plant Trade
Top of pagePlant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport | Pest stages | Borne internally | Borne externally | Visibility of pest or symptoms |
---|---|---|---|---|
Leaves | arthropods/adults; arthropods/eggs; arthropods/nymphs | Yes | Pest or symptoms usually visible to the naked eye |
Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport |
---|
Bark |
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx |
Fruits (inc. pods) |
Growing medium accompanying plants |
Roots |
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants |
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches |
True seeds (inc. grain) |
Wood |
Wood Packaging
Top of pageWood Packaging not known to carry the pest in trade/transport |
---|
Loose wood packing material |
Non-wood |
Processed or treated wood |
Solid wood packing material with bark |
Solid wood packing material without bark |
Impact
Top of pageThis aphid has recently been implicated as a vector of mycoplasma-like organisms (MLOs) that cause yellows diseases of pines. In a study in Zimbabwe, both light and electron microscopic examinations showed tissue colonization with MLOs when the salivary glands and mid-gut tissues from E. rileyi, which were actively feeding on infected pines, were examined (Gopo et al., 2002).
Environmental Impact
Top of pageDetection and Inspection
Top of pageSimilarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pagePrevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Since E. rileyi is relatively uncommon within its native geographic range and causes little or no damage, control has not been necessary. Varying degrees of damage have been reported in areas where it has been introduced. However, the development of pest management tactics has, thus far, been limited to classical biological control.Biological Control
Classical biological control programmes for E. rileyi could be developed in areas where this insect has become established and is causing severe damage to pine plantations. However, in eastern and southern Africa, where E. rileyi was one of three conifer aphids included in such a programme, it received a low priority because it was the least damaging of the three. The braconid parasitoid, Diaeretus leucopterus, has been studied as a potential biological control agent for Eulachnus sp. (Murphy and Völkl, 1996).
Field Monitoring
Field monitoring for the detection of infestations involves the examination of pine forests for the presence of damage and insect life stages. In Venezuela, the life stages of E. rileyi have been captured on impact- and intercept-traps but not in yellow water traps (Rosales and Cermeli, 1995).
Integrated Pest Management
The integrated pest management (IPM) of E. rileyi is presently limited to monitoring for the insect in areas where it has become established and the development of classical biological control programmes.
References
Top of pageChilima CZ, 1991. The status and development of conifer aphid damage in Malawi. Workshop Proceedings. Exotic aphid pests of conifers: a crisis in African forestry, Muguga, Kenya: Kenya Forest Research Institute and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 64-67.
CSIRO, 2002. 2. Scientific names: Eulachnus thunbergii Wilson. CSIRO Australia & AFFA. http://www.ento.csiro.au/aicn/name_s/b_1282.htm.
Fuentes-Contreras E; Muñoz R; Niemeyer HH, 1997. Diversidad de Aphidoidea en Chile (Hemiptera: Aphidoidea) (Diversity of Aphidoidea in Chile). Revista Chilena de Historia Natural, 70:531-542.
Halperin J, 1986. Eulachnus rileyi - a new pine aphid in Israel. Phytoparasitica, 14(4):319
Kiwuso P, 1995. The current conifer aphid situation in Uganda. In: Proceedings, Biological control of conifer aphids in Africa, Country updates and progress reports, 1991-1993, Muguga, Kenya, 6 December 1993. International Institute of Biological Control, Kenya Station, CABI, 61-62.
Massawe A; Kisaka EZ, 1995. Current status of conifer aphids in Tanzania. In: International Institute of Biological Control, eds. Proceedings of biological control of conifer aphids in Africa, Country updates and progress reports, 1991-1993, Kenya Station CABI, Muguga, Kenya: International Institute of Biological Control, 55-59.
Murphy ST; Abraham YJ; Cross AE, 1991. Ecology and economic importance of the aphid pests, Pineus sp. and Eulachnus rileyi on exotic pine plantations in southern and eastern Africa. In: Ciesla WM, Odera J, Cock MJW, eds. Workshop Proceedings, Exotic aphid pests of conifers: A crisis in African forestry. Mugaga, Kenya: Kenya Forest Research Institute and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 48-53.
Owour AL, 1991. Exotic conifer aphids in Kenya, their current status and options for management. In: Ciesla WM, Odera J, Cock MJW, eds. Workshop Proceedings, Exotic aphid pests of conifers: A crisis in African forestry. Mugaga, Kenya: Kenya Forest Research Institute and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 58-63.
Palmer MA, 1952. Aphids of the Rocky Mountain Region. Colorado, USA: The Thomas Say Foundation.
Tremblay E; DeBiase LM, 1970. Notulae aphidologicae II. - Notizie sugli afidi del Pinus nigra Arn. (Aphidological notes II. - Notes on the aphids of Pinus nigra Arn.). Bollettino del Laboratorio di Entomologia Agraria Filippo Silvestri Portici, 28: 204-223.
Distribution References
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Chilima CZ, 1991. The status and development of conifer aphid damage in Malawi. [Workshop Proceedings. Exotic aphid pests of conifers: a crisis in African forestry], Muguga, Kenya: Kenya Forest Research Institute and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 64-67.
Fuentes-Contreras E, Muñoz R, Niemeyer HH, 1997. Diversity of Aphidoidea in Chile. (Diversidad de Aphidoidea en Chile (Hemiptera: Aphidoidea)). In: Revista Chilena de Historia Natural, 70 531-542.
Halperin J, 1986. Eulachnus rileyi - a new pine aphid in Israel. Phytoparasitica. 14 (4), 319.
Kiwuso P, 1995. The current conifer aphid situation in Uganda. [Proceedings, Biological control of conifer aphids in Africa, Country updates and progress reports, 1991-1993, Muguga, Kenya, 6 December 1993], Kenya Station, International Institute of Biological Control, CABI. 61-62.
Massawe A, Kisaka EZ, 1995. Current status of conifer aphids in Tanzania. [Proceedings of biological control of conifer aphids in Africa, Country updates and progress reports, 1991-1993, Kenya Station CABI], [ed. by International Institute of Biological Control]. Muguga, Kenya: International Institute of Biological Control. 55-59.
NHM, 1911. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1919. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1927. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1934. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1952. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1953. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1955. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1958. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1959. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1960. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1961. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1963. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1964. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1965. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1966. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1968. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1970. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1974. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1975. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1978. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1980. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1985. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1987. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1988. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1990. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
NHM, 1994. Specimen record from the collection in the Natural History Museum (London, UK)., London, UK: Natural History Museum (London).
Owour AL, 1991. Exotic conifer aphids in Kenya, their current status and options for management. [Workshop Proceedings, Exotic aphid pests of conifers: A crisis in African forestry], [ed. by Ciesla WM, Odera J, Cock MJW]. Mugaga, Kenya: Kenya Forest Research Institute and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 58-63.
Palmer M A, 1952. Aphids of the Rocky Mountain Region. Colorado, USA: The Thomas Say Foundation.
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