Acacia angustissima
(prairie acacia)

Pictures

Picture	Title	Caption	Copyright
Title Tree habit Caption Typical small branchy tree in full bloom, Chiquimula, Guatemala. Copyright ©Colin Hughes, Dept. Plant Sciences, Univ. Oxford	Tree habit	Typical small branchy tree in full bloom, Chiquimula, Guatemala.	©Colin Hughes, Dept. Plant Sciences, Univ. Oxford
Title Tree habit Caption Copyright Duncan Macqueen, DFID-assisted CPATU	Tree habit		Duncan Macqueen, DFID-assisted CPATU
Title Tree habit Caption Copyright Duncan Macqueen, DFID-assisted CPATU	Tree habit		Duncan Macqueen, DFID-assisted CPATU
Title Shrubs Caption Copyright Sonja Bowden	Shrubs		Sonja Bowden
Title Flowers Caption Copyright Duncan Macqueen, DFID-assisted CPATU	Flowers		Duncan Macqueen, DFID-assisted CPATU
Title Flowers Caption Lax flower heads, illustrating cream-white stamen filaments. Copyright ©Colin Hughes, Dept. Plant Sciences, Univ. Oxford	Flowers	Lax flower heads, illustrating cream-white stamen filaments.	©Colin Hughes, Dept. Plant Sciences, Univ. Oxford
Title Seed pods Caption Unripe, flat, glossy maroon pods. Pods turn mid-orange when ripe. Copyright ©Colin Hughes, Dept. Plant Sciences, Univ. Oxford	Seed pods	Unripe, flat, glossy maroon pods. Pods turn mid-orange when ripe.	©Colin Hughes, Dept. Plant Sciences, Univ. Oxford

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Acacia angustissima (Mill.) Kuntze

Preferred Common Name

• prairie acacia

Other Scientific Names

• Acacia angulosa Bertol.
• Acacia boliviana Rusby
• Acacia elegans M.Martens & Galeotti
• Acacia filicena Willd.
• Acacia filicioides (Cav.) Branner & Coville
• Acacia filicoides (Cav.) Trel.
• Acacia glabrata Schltdl.
• Acacia hirta Nutt.
• Acacia hirta Nutt. ex Torr. & Gray
• Acacia insignis M. Martens & Galeotti
• Acacia lemmonii Rose
• Acacia pittieriana Standl.
• Acacia suffrutescens Rose
• Acacia texensis Torr. & Gray
• Acaciella angulosa (Bertol.) Britton & Rose
• Acaciella angustissima (Mill.) Britton & Rose
• Acaciella costariciensis Britton & Rose
• Acaciella holtonii Britton & Killip
• Acaciella martensis Britton & Killip
• Acaciella rensonii Britton & Rose
• Acaciella santanderensis Britton & Killip
• Acaciella talpana Britton & Rose
• Mimosa angustissima Mill.
• Mimosa filicoides Cav.
• Mimosa ptericina Poir.
• Senegalia filicina (Willd.) Pittier

International Common Names

• English: fern acacia; prairie wattle; white-ball acacia
• Spanish: cantebo; cantemo; carboncillo; chilipac; guachillo; guaje; guajillo blanco; guajito; guapinico; huajillo; palo de pulque; timbe; timbre

Local Common Names

• Costa Rica: carboncillo
• El Salvador: guaje de bajillo
• Mexico: guajillo; timbe; timbre; xaax
• USA: barbas de chivo; cantemó; palo de pulque; prairie guajillo; Texas acacia

EPPO code

• ACAAG (Acacia angustissima)

Summary of Invasiveness

A. angustissima is a shrub or small tree reported as having a high potential of invasiveness due to its prolific seed production, rapid growth, and its capability to reproduce vegetatively (Roshetko, 2001; Rico Arce and Bachman, 2006). It is native from the southern United States into Argentina, and has been introduced in various countries as a multi-use tree for soil restoration, improvement of crop production and as a fodder (Brook et al., 1992; Dzowela, 1994; Hove et al., 2003; Cole et al., 2006; Csurhes and Naive, 2009). It has been reported as invasive in Asia, Indonesia, Thailand and Australia, where it has spread forming thickets, with persistent seed banks (Gardiner et al., 2008). It can be invasive in low deciduous forest in its native range (Rico Arce and Bachman, 2006). Although its use has been abandoned in Australia due to its high invasiveness potential (Csurhes and Naive, 2009), the species' use for agroforestry is being actively promoted in various countries, mainly in Africa (Roshetko, 2001; Orwa et al., 2009). 

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Dicotyledonae
•                     Order: Fabales
•                         Family: Fabaceae
•                             Subfamily: Mimosoideae
•                                 Genus: Acacia
•                                     Species: Acacia angustissima

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

The genus Acacia was described by Philip Miller in 1754 and has a complex nomenclature and classification history (Maslin et al., 2003b). Acacia sensu lato, is polyphyletic, which prompted proposals and discussions on the reclassification of the genus (Maslin et al., 2003a; Kyalangalilwa et al., 2013).

Orchard and Maslin (2005) proposed the retypification of the genus from Acacia scorpioides (L.) W.F. Wright (=A. nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Del), distributed from Africa to India, to A. penninervis Sieb. ex DB, an Australian species. This proposal was adopted in the 2005 International Botanical Congress Nomenclature Session, and ratified in the 2011 International Botanical Congress, not without plenty of debate (McNeill and Turland, 2011; Smith and Figueiredo, 2011; Thiele et al., 2011). Rico Arce and Bachman (2006) reinstated the genus Acaciella for species that are native from the Southern USA to Argentina. The genus is characterized by the unarmed plants, lack of extrafloral nectaries and pollen in 8-celled polyads. Fifteen accepted species and five varieties are recognized by these authors. According to the changes proposed by the authors, Acaciella angustissima (Mill.) Britton & Rose should be the name used for Acacia angustissima (Mill.) Kuntze. It is a species with high morphological variability and extensive synonymy (Rico Arce and Bachman, 2006).

Acceptance of the new nomenclature has been slow or inconsistent. For example, Missouri Botanical Garden (2015), The Plant List (2013), and ILDIS (2015) still have not fully adopted all the changes. This datasheet follows the names being used at The Plant List (2013).

Description

The following description is from the Flora of Panama (2015): Shrub or tree, the branchlets pubescent or puberulent to subglabrous, not noticeably lenticellate, longitudinally striate or angled. Leaves moderately large, bipinnate, the pinnae few to several pairs (about 15 pairs in Panamanian material cited), opposite or subopposite on the rachis, the leaflets numerous (up to 60 or more pairs per pinna); petiole up to a few cm. long, puberulent, eglandular, sulcate above; rachis up to 12 or more cm. long, like the petiole; pinnular rachis 3-9 cm long, somewhat margined, seemingly eglandular, bearing basally a pair of stipule-like leaflets; leaflets nearly linear, usually about 6 mm long and 1 mm. wide, acute (mostly bluntly so) apically, obliquely truncate basally, glabrous except ciliate-margined, dull above and below but darker above, the costa visible but secondary venation obscure; stipules linear-subulate, mostly 4-6 mm long. Inflorescence a terminal or subterminal panicle of pedunculate umbels (heads), these solitary to few-fasciculate from the (usually) defoliate nodes; peduncles usually about 1 cm long; floral bracts obovate-spatulate, little more than 1 mm long; pedicels mostly 1-2 mm long, borne from the terminus of the peduncle in umbellate or very short-spicate fashion. Flowers few to several per umbel, whitish; calyx campanulate or turbinate, about 1 mm long, glabrous or sometimes sparingly ciliate, the teeth short and broad; corolla funnelform, about 2 mm long, glabrous, the lobes divided almost to the base; stamens many, about 4 mm long, free except at the extreme base; anthers eglandular; ovary scarcely stipitate, glabrous or minutely puberulent, the style slightly exceeding the stamens. Legume linear- oblong, 4-8 cm long and about 1 cm wide, flat and thin, stipitate, glabrous in age; the seeds few, transverse.

Plant Type

Distribution

A. angustissima is native to North America (Mexico and southern United States), Central America and South America (Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia and Argentina) (Rico Arce and Bachman, 2006). It is one of the acacias most widely distributed in the Neotropics (Cook et al., 2005). Outside its native range it is reported for the Caribbean, Asia, Africa and Oceania (see distribution table for details). Although it is not listed for the Guyana's, Uruguay and Paraguay, Rico Arce and Bachman (2006) report that the species might have been introduced in those countries for forestry trials, as has been done in Brazil (Rico Arce and Bachman, 2006). It has been reported as naturalized in Australia and Southeast Asia (Rico Arce and Bachman, 2006; Csurhes and Naive, 2009). 

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

A. angustissima has been the subject of research over the past 20-30 years, for its potential as a fodder and use in agroforestry (Dzowela, 1994; Cook et al., 2005). Most of these studies began in Australia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and Hawaii (Brook et al., 1994; Cole et al., 1996; Bray et al., 1997). In Australia, Pedley (1981) reported the species as present in 1965; it was planted in 1975 in Queensland for assessment for forage and fodder (Csurhes and Naive, 2009). Research with the species was abandoned in Australia since it has been considered a potential invasive weed (Gardiner et al., 2008). It is reported to be naturalized in the areas where it was planted and to have spread to neighbouring locations (Csurhes and Naive, 2009).

Research in Africa also started in the early 1990's and has been facilitated by the International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) to promote the species use for agroforestry and as a fodder (Dzowela, 1994; Dzowela et al., 1997). One of the countries where most of the planting has been done is Zimbabwe, where it has been made available to farmers and its reported as being highly desirable for agroforesty (Cook et al., 2005). It was introduced in the early 2000’s in Brazil (Paula et al., 2015) for its use as an intercropping tree in crop fields. It was introduced to Burkina Faso in 2005 with seeds coming from "Agroforester Tropical Seeds" from Hawaii (Bayala et al., 2009) for its use as a fodder and in site restoration. Martínez Quesada and Morales Pérez (2013) report it from Camaguey, Cuba; citing that the occurrence of few plants suggests an unintentional introduction, possibly resulting from dispersion by hurricane “Ike” in 2008.

Introductions

Habitat

A. angustissima is found in tropical and subtropical climates, adapting better to seasonally dry areas (Csurhes and Naive, 2009). It is found on dry soils on hillsides, savannahs, rocky outcrops, grasslands and open shrublands. It is also reported growing in Quercus and Pinus forests and at secondary low deciduous or semi-deciduous forests (Rico Arce and Bachman, 2006). In its native range mean annual rainfall varies from 400 to 3000 mm and mean temperature is 25-30°C; it tolerates cold climates once established (occasional temperatures below freezing) (Dzowela, 1994; Cook et al., 2005). It is reported to retain its leaf through the 8-month dry season in eastern Indonesia (Cook et al., 2005; Csurhes and Naive, 2009).

Habitat List

Hosts/Species Affected

A. angustissima has been studied for its potential intercropping use, to provide nutrients to soil and improve crop yields, with mixed results (Roshetko, 2001). It is argued that the species secondary compounds bind nitrogen, which helps build up organic matter in the soil (Dzowela 1994, Mafongoya et al.,1997). Dzowela (1994) also discuss that slowly decomposing prunings may suppress weed growth in the crop fields. In Zimbabwe, A. angustissima leaf biomass application on Brassica napus fields significantly increased the growth rate and yield of the crop (Musara and Chitamba, 2015). A. angustissima has been reported to shade understorey species, inhibiting their vegetative growth (Cook et al., 2005). This has been the case in intercropping experiments at Brazil with bananas (Paula et al., 2015) and in Papua New Guinea with sweet potato (Brook, 1993).

Growth Stages

Biology and Ecology

Genetics

Chromosome number is reported as 2n=26 (Rico Arce and Bachman, 2006).

Reproductive Biology

Bees are reported as the dominant pollen vectors for the species, including Apis mellifera,Scarptotrigona hellwegeri, and species of Megachile, Augochloropsis, Ceratina, Eulonchopria, Exomalopsis and Xylocopa (Raine et al., 2007). It propagates by seeds (Cook et al., 2005) with an almost 100% germination success in trials (Kew Royal Botanic Gardens, 2015). It also forms colonies by means of woody rhizomes (USDA-NRCS, 2015). Branches break easily, usually by wind, which promotes re-sprouting and root suckers (Rincón-Rosales and Gutiérrez-Miceli, 2008; Csurhes and Naive, 2009).

Physiology and Phenology

A. angustissima grows to a height of 5 m and 6 cm in diameter in 2½ years. It responds well to fertilizer when grown on acid-infertile soils. Nodulation is also improved with fertilization (Cook et al., 2005).

The species flowers throughout the year in its natural range (Rico Arce and Bachman, 2006), and at the end of the dry season in Zimbabwe (Dzowela, 1994). Flowers are protandrous and open within a single day (Raine et al., 2007). Mechanical scarification and soaking the seed in cold water increases the germination (USDA-NRCS, 2015).

Flowers open at dawn and are fully open by 10am to noon. Flowers remain in a reproductive state for a few days, after which unpollinated flowers will fall (Raine et al., 2007).

Population Size and Structure

A. angustissima grows rapidly and responds well to regular cutting. It forms thickets, especially along roadsides in its native range (Cook et al., 2005). The damage caused by insects makes old trees vulnerable to strong winds, promoting new plants to emerge rapidly in the rainy season, which is reported as being an important propagation and survival strategy for the species (Raine et al., 2007).

Associations

Lloret et al. (2007) report the bacteria Ensifer mexicanus sp. nov. as a new species nodulating A. angustissima in Mexico.

Environmental Requirements

A. angustissima is found in tropical and subtropical climates, doing best in seasonally dry areas (Csurhes and Naive, 2009). It can withstand drought periods as long as 8 months, retaining its foliage (Orwa et al.,2009) and once established tolerates fires (Cook et al., 2005). In its native range it grows in areas with annual rainfall average of 400-3000 mm, with temperatures between 5° to 30°C; it can tolerate cold climates, sometimes temperatures below freezing (Dzowela, 1994). The species is noted to be more prolific at higher elevations, and flowering but not seeding at elevations close to sea level (Roshetko, 2001). It has been cultivated on a variety of soils, although it does best in free-draining, infertile and acidic soils (Csurhes and Naive, 2009). It responds well to fertilizers (Cook et al., 2005).

Climate

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

Air Temperature

Rainfall

Rainfall Regime

Soil Tolerances

Soil drainage

• free

Soil reaction

• acid
• alkaline
• neutral

Soil texture

• light
• medium

Special soil tolerances

• infertile

Natural enemies

Notes on Natural Enemies

In its native habitat, A. angustissima is eaten by the Acacia skipper butterfly, Cogia hippalus, and by the moth larvae of Sphingicampa blanchardi and S. raspa. Coccus axin (Margarodidae) females damage the stems and branches of young plants. Beetles (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) have been found to cause damage to the seeds (Raine et al., 2007).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

A. angustissima has been introduced to various countries outside its native range because of its potential as a multi-purpose tree (Pedley 1981; Brook et al., 1992; Dzowela, 1994; Cole et al., 1996, Bray et al., 1997; Paula et al., 2015). Pedley (1981) cites different localities and collections for Queensland, Australia, where it was introduced as a forage plant. Bray et al. (1997) and Cole et al. (1996) give details on the introductions to Indonesia and Australia to study shrubby legume species for their potential as fodder. The International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) has various projects in the southern region of Africa, providing seeds and plants that could be used in agroforestry to improve crop production and feed livestock in order to ensure food security in the region (Dzowela, 1994; Bohringer, 2001). The species was also introduced in Brazil to improve crop production (Paula et al., 2015).

The recent introduction of the species to Cuba has led to the suggestion that it may have been introduced from the  southern USA to Cuba by Hurricane "Ike" in 2008 (Martínez Quesada and Morales Pérez, 2013).

Pathway Causes

Pathway Vectors

Impact Summary

Economic Impact

A. angustissima leaves contain large amounts of nitrogen and a high percentage tannin content that can affect the digestion and absorption of nutrients and lower its palatability (Dzowela 1994; Bray et al., 1997). Odenyo et al. (2003) reported that the tannins and non-protein amino acids in its leaves had caused death in sheep, for which they suggested a gradual increase in the feeding of the Acacia leaves to cause adaptability and prevent toxicity. McSweeney et al. (2008) recommend further studies in ruminants to assess the links between these compounds and toxicity.

The use of A. angustissima for intercropping has not been recommended, because its rapid growth limits available light to other species, which inhibits their growth and/or affects crop yield (Brook, 1993;  Paula et al., 2015).

Environmental Impact

Although there is little information on the impacts of A. angustissima on habitats and/or biodiversity, Rico Arce and Bachman (2006) and Csurhes and Naive (2009) note that the species tends to be weedy or invasive in low deciduous forests and form thickets along roadsides and neighbouring areas, which can impact the habitats and the native species within. Its prolific seed production is a determining factor for the species becoming weedy (Bray et al., 1997). The seeds of A. angustissima have the ability to form long-lived seed banks; which for Australia were reported as still significant after five years without seed input (Gardiner et al., 2008).

Risk and Impact Factors

• Invasive in its native range
• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Has a broad native range
• Abundant in its native range
• Highly adaptable to different environments
• Is a habitat generalist
• Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
• Pioneering in disturbed areas
• Tolerant of shade
• Fast growing
• Has high reproductive potential
• Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
• Reproduces asexually

• Monoculture formation
• Negatively impacts agriculture
• Negatively impacts forestry
• Negatively impacts animal health

• Competition - shading
• Poisoning
• Rapid growth

• Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Uses

Economic value

A. angustissima has been extensively promoted as a multi-purpose tree outside its native range, as a fodder, to restore soil fertility, and to improve crop production in countries where there is no food security, soils have been degraded and there is the need for low cost options for agroforestry (Dzowela, 1994; Bohringer, 2001; Rincón-Rosales and Gutiérrez-Miceli, 2008). The species has been used as a protein supplement in areas where forage is limited due to difficult environmental and climatic conditions (McSweeney et al., 2008). As an intercrop hedgerow species, it has shown good results in Cameroon, where the tree prunings incorporated to the soil significantly increased maize yield (Akume et al., 2015).

Social benefit

The plant is an important medicinal species for the Tzotzil and Tzeltal Maya Indians in Mexico. It is used to cure diarrhoea, toothaches, rheumatism and skin lesions. It is also reported to inhibit growth in malignant tumours (Berlin and Berlin,1996). A. angustissima inhibits the growth of Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Candida albicans showing a potential to treat diseases (Hoffman et al.,1993).

The bark is used in Mexico in the fermentation of the beverages “tepache” and “pulque” (Rico Arce and Bachman, 2006). The common name "carboncillo" reported for Costa Rica, may refer to use as charcoal (Zamora, 1991).

Environmental services

Cook et al., (2005) report the following environmental services: reducing soil erosion, re-vegetation of disturbed areas, improvement of water quality, improving soils, and providing food and cover for small animals and wild birds. 

Uses List

Animal feed, fodder, forage

• Fodder/animal feed
• Forage
• Invertebrate food

Environmental

• Agroforestry
• Boundary, barrier or support
• Erosion control or dune stabilization
• Landscape improvement
• Revegetation
• Soil conservation
• Soil improvement
• Wildlife habitat

Fuels

• Fuelwood

General

• Botanical garden/zoo
• Research model

Materials

• Bark products
• Manure

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

• Traditional/folklore

Ornamental

• Propagation material
• Seed trade

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

In the USA, A. angustissima is reported to be similar vegetatively to Desmanthus illinoensis (USDA-NRCS, 2015). Sterile material of Leucaena from Central America has been misidentified as A. angustissima (Rico Arce and Bachman, 2006). Csurhes and Naive (2009) report that the species is easily confused in Australia with Acacia villosa and A. glauca.

Prevention and Control

Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Cook et al. (2005) report that the species can be controlled using basal bark or cut-stump applications of tree-killing herbicides such as fluroxypyr, triclopyr or trichlopyr + picloram. Seedlings can be controlled using complete foliar sprays of fluroxypyr.

The species produces a high number of seeds that persist for more than five years in the soil. Sites where plants have been removed need to be monitored and treated for more than five years to assure that there is no reintroduction of the species (Gardiner et al., 2008). A risk assessment for Queensland (Csurhes and Naïve, 2009) states that any eradication campaign would be prolonged due to the persistent seed bank.

Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs

The extensive synonymy, the recognition of some synonyms as valid species by different authors, the extensive native range and its variable morphology suggest that further studies are needed for the species delimitation (Roshetko, 2001; Rico Arce and Bachman, 2006). More information is needed in the impacts on invaded habitats and its effects on biodiversity.

References

Akume ND; Suh C; Manga MA; Francis NAS; Yaya FV; Lendzemo V, 2015. Effect of tree hedgerow pruning on maize yield in Santa, Cameroon. International Journal of Agriculture Innovations and Research, 3(6):1750-1756. http://www.ijair.org/administrator/components/com_jresearch/files/publications/IJAIR_1464_Final.pdf

Bayala J; Dianda M; Wilson J; Ouédraogo SJ; Sanon K, 2009. Predicting field performance of five irrigated tree species using seedling quality assessment in Burkina Faso, West Africa. New Forests, 38(3):309-322. http://www.springerlink.com/link.asp?id=102971

Berlin E; Berlin B, 1996. Medical Ethnobiology of the Highland Maya of Chiapas, Mexico: The Gastrointestinal Diseases. Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University Press, 513 pp.

Bray RA; Palmer B; Ibrahim TM, 1997. Performance of shrub legumes at four sites in Indonesia and Australia. Tropical Grasslands, 31(1): 31-39.

Brook RM, 1992. Early results from an alley cropping experiment in the humid lowlands of Papua New Guinea. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 10: 73-76; 7 ref.

Brook RM, 1993. Alley cropping for sweet potato in Papua New Guinea. Nitrogen fixing Tree Research Reports, 11:35-39.

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Gardiner C; Chanclud N; Clouten B; Cox K, 2008. Acaciella angustissima: a soil seed bank study. In: Proceedings of the 16th Australian Weeds Conference, Cairns Convention Centre, North Queensland, Australia, 18-22 May, 2008. Queensland, Australia: Queensland Weed Society, 187-188.

Genesys, 2015. Genesys Global Portal on Plant Genetic Resources. http://www.genesys-pgr.org

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Hammer RH; Cole JR, 1965. Phytochemical investigation of Acacia angustissima. J. pharm. Sci., Wash. 54 (2), (235-9). 24 refs. O.R.S. [Cf. F.A. 26 No. 1548.].

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ILDIS, 2005. International Legume Database and Information Service: World Database of Legumes (version 10). Reading, UK: School of Plant Sciences, University of Reading. http://www.ildis.org/

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Kew Royal Botanic Gardens, 2015. Millennium Seed Bank - Seed List. Richmond, UK: Kew Royal Botanic Gardens. http://apps.kew.org/seedlist/SeedlistServlet

Kuntashula E; Mafongoya PL, 2005. Farmer participatory evaluation of agroforestry trees in eastern Zambia. Agricultural Systems, 84(1):39-53. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/0308521X

Kyalangalilwa B; Boatwright JS; Daru BH; Maurin O; Bank Mvan der, 2013. Phylogenetic position and revised classification of Acacia s.l. (Fabaceae: Mimosoideae) in Africa, including new combinations in Vachellia and Senegalia. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 172(4):500-523. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1095-8339

Lloret L; Ormeño-Orrillo E; Rincón R; Martínez-Romero J; Rogel-Hernández MA; Martínez-Romero E, 2007. Ensifer mexicanus sp. nov. a new species nodulating Acacia angustissima (Mill.) Kuntze in Mexico. Systematic and Applied Microbiology, 30(4):280-290. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/07232020

Lloyd-Reilley J, 2011. Plant guide for prairie acacia (Acacia angustissima var. hirta). Kingsville, Texas, USDA: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_acanh.pdf

Mafongoya PL; Nair PKR; Dzowela BH, 1997. Multipurpose tree prunings as a source of nitrogen to maize under semiarid conditions in Zimbabwe. 3. Interactions of pruning quality and time and method of application on nitrogen recovery by maize in two soil types. Agroforestry Systems, 35(1):57-70.

Martínez Quesada E; Pérez M, 2013. Acaciella angustissima (Fabaceae, Mimosoideae), new for Cuba. Willdenowia, 43(1):139-141. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bgbm/will/2013/00000043/00000001/art00016

Maslin BR; Miller JT; Seigler DS, 2003. Overview of the generic status of Acacia (Leguminosae: Mimosoideae). Australian Systematic Botany, 16(1):1-18.

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Distribution References

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PIER, 2015. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html

Rubanza C D K, Shem M N, Bakengesa S S, Ichinohe T, Fujihara T, 2007. The content of protein, fibre and minerals of leaves of selected Acacia species indigenous to north-western Tanzania. Archives of Animal Nutrition. 61 (2), 151-156. http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content˜content=a772614085˜db=all˜order=page DOI:10.1080/17450390701203907

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Links to Websites

Contributors

09/04/2016 Original text by:

Jeanine Vélez-Gavilán, University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez

Distribution Maps