Verbesina encelioides (golden crownbeard)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Threatened Species
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Detection and Inspection
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
Don't need the entire report?
Generate a print friendly version containing only the sections you need.
Generate reportIdentity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Verbesina encelioides (Cav.) Benth. & Hook.f. ex A.Gray
Preferred Common Name
- golden crownbeard
Other Scientific Names
- Verbesina exauriculata (B.L. Rob. & Greenm.) Cockerell
- Ximenesia encelioides Cav.
International Common Names
- English: butter daisy; crownbeard; crown-beard; golden crown-beard; South African daisy; wild sunflower
- Spanish: flor de Santa Maria; girasolcito del campo; girasolillo; yuyo de Santa Maria
Local Common Names
- Argentina: quellocisa; queluzisa
- Germany: Verbesine, Goldgelbe
- USA: American dogweed
- USA/Texas: cowpen daisy
EPPO code
- VEEEN (Verbesina encelioides)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageV. encelioides is a native annual herb in the USA and Mexico, but there exists controversy as to its native status in South America. It has expanded its range into Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia. Cause and timing of initial introductions are mostly unknown. It is considered invasive in the northern Hawaiian Islands due to the displacement of native plant species and the negative impacts it has on breeding colonies of marine birds. It is a dominant invasive on Midway Atoll (PIER, 2013). V. encelioides also invades agricultural crops, especially peanuts, in the United States, Argentina, Australia and India, where allelopathy may provide interference. When grazed upon by livestock (sheep and cattle), animals become lethargic or may die due to the toxin galegine in the plant.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Asterales
- Family: Asteraceae
- Genus: Verbesina
- Species: Verbesina encelioides
Description
Top of pageV. encelioides is an annual herb growing up to 150 cm high. Stems are densely short-hairy with mostly alternate leaves. Stems are 20-100 cm long. Leaf blades are lanceolate to triangular-ovate, bases broadly cuneate to truncate, dull green, 3-veined, with a coarsely dentate margin, and strigose-canescent hairs. The peduncle is subtended by leaf-like bracts. The inflorescence has 1-many heads with 1-2 phyllary series, 6-10 mm, and linear-lanceolate to linear. Chaff scales 6 to 8 mm and abruptly acuminate. Ray flowers are orange-yellow and disk flowers are yellow to light brown. Disk achenes are 4 to 6.5 mm, obovate, flattened, and with wide wing (Baldwin et al., 2012).
Distribution
Top of pageSeveral sources indicate V. encelioides is native to the southwestern USA, Mexico and South America (Shluker, 1999; Carr, 2012). However, native origins within particular states in the USA, as well as in South America, are questioned (Coleman, 1974). USDA-ARS (2013) includes most of the USA and Mexico in its native range, and USDA-NRCS (2013) includes states as east as Florida and as north as Michigan in its native range. In South America the majority of herbarium collections are from Argentina (GBIF, 2012). See Schluker (1999) for a detailed discussion.
V. encelioides ssp. encelioides has a native range in the eastern and lowland USA (eastern Oklahoma and eastern Texas) and lowland northeastern Mexico, and prefers mesic climates, whereas V. encelioides ssp. exauriculata has a native range in the southwestern USA and into northwestern Mexico, and prefers more arid climates at higher elevations (Coleman, 1966, 1974).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 12 May 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Algeria | Present | 1985 | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized alien | ||
Benin | Present | 1998 | Introduced | ||||
Botswana | Present | 2000 | Introduced | ||||
Egypt | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized alien | |||
Ethiopia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Mauritius | Present, Localized | ||||||
Morocco | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized alien | |||
Namibia | Present | 2002 | Introduced | ||||
Réunion | Present, Localized | ||||||
Senegal | Present | Introduced | |||||
Somalia | Present | Introduced | |||||
South Africa | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
Sudan | Present | 1868 | Introduced | ||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Introduced | 1959 | ||||
Asia |
|||||||
India | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
-Delhi | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
-Haryana | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
-Punjab | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
Israel | Present, Widespread | Introduced | 1971 | Casual alien | |||
Jordan | Present | 1984 | Introduced | Casual alien | |||
Saudi Arabia | Present | 1976 | Introduced | ||||
United Arab Emirates | Present, Few occurrences | ||||||
Yemen | Present | 1997 | Introduced | ||||
Europe |
|||||||
Belgium | Present | Introduced | Casual alien | ||||
Czechia | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Denmark | Present | Introduced | |||||
France | Present | Introduced | Casual alien | ||||
Germany | Present | Introduced | Casual alien | ||||
Norway | Present | Introduced | Casual alien | ||||
Poland | Present | Introduced | Casual alien | ||||
Spain | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized alien | |||
-Canary Islands | Present | Introduced | Casual alien | ||||
Sweden | Absent, Unconfirmed presence record(s) | ||||||
Switzerland | Absent, Unconfirmed presence record(s) | ||||||
Ukraine | Present | Introduced | 1934 | ||||
United Kingdom | Present | Introduced | Casual alien | ||||
North America |
|||||||
Bahamas | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | |||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mexico | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Native | |||||
United States | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
-Alabama | Present | Native | |||||
-Arizona | Present | Native | |||||
-Arkansas | Present | Native | |||||
-California | Present | Native | |||||
-Colorado | Present | Native | |||||
-Florida | Present | Native | |||||
-Georgia | Present | Native | |||||
-Hawaii | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | First reported: early 1800s | |||
-Illinois | Present | Native | |||||
-Iowa | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Kansas | Present | Native | |||||
-Louisiana | Present | Native | |||||
-Maryland | Present | Native | |||||
-Massachusetts | Present | Native | |||||
-Michigan | Present | Native | |||||
-Missouri | Present | Native | |||||
-Montana | Present | Native | |||||
-Nebraska | Present | Native | |||||
-Nevada | Present | Native | |||||
-New Mexico | Present | Native | |||||
-New York | Present | Native | |||||
-North Carolina | Present | Native | |||||
-North Dakota | Present | Native | |||||
-Oklahoma | Present | Native | |||||
-Pennsylvania | Present | Native | |||||
-Rhode Island | Present | Native | |||||
-South Carolina | Present | Native | |||||
-South Dakota | Present | Native | |||||
-Tennessee | Present | Native | |||||
-Texas | Present | Native | |||||
-Utah | Present | Native | |||||
-Wyoming | Present | Native | |||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | ||||||
-New South Wales | Present, Widespread | Introduced | 1888 | ||||
-Northern Territory | Present | Introduced | Original citation: Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria (CHAH) (2012) | ||||
-Queensland | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
-South Australia | Present | Introduced | Original citation: Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria (CHAH) (2012) | ||||
-Victoria | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
-Western Australia | Present | Introduced | Original citation: Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria (CHAH) (2012) | ||||
United States Minor Outlying Islands | |||||||
-Midway Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Midway Atoll, Eastern Island, Sand Island, Spit Island | |||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present, Widespread | Invasive | |||||
Bolivia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Brazil | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Rio de Janeiro | Present | Introduced | |||||
Chile | Present | Introduced | 1945 | ||||
-Easter Island | Present | Introduced | |||||
Colombia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ecuador | Present | Introduced | |||||
Paraguay | Present | Introduced | |||||
Uruguay | Present | Introduced |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageV. encelioides is able to invade various new habitats as the species has evolved in highly diverse ecosystems (Coleman, 1966, 1974). Seed germination in highly variable and in some cases nutrient-poor soil has also enabled the success and naturalization of V. encelioides into new habitats.
V. encelioides is currently cultivated in the Czech Republic (Euro+Med, 2012) and has been transported between Hawaiian islands, most likely on the tyres of vehicles (Shluker, 1999). Although negative environmental impacts have been reported once V. encelioides has naturalized on Hawaiian islands, the species has not been classified as a state noxious weed. Purposeful introductions have not been reported, but this should not be ruled out as the species does produce showy displays of flowers and has been cultivated, both as an ornamental and for its medicinal qualities (Jain et al., 2008).
Habitat
Top of pageV. encelioies can be found in a variety of habitats, from riparian to coastal to upland to island. The preferred habitat is tropical to subtropical, with disturbed porous sandy soils and an open canopy (McCoy, 1987). The plant is also found along roads. The species does well on alkaline soils. Habitats with high shade or with very fine soil texture are not optimal sites for this species (Kaul and Mangal, 1987). It may become more invasive on fertile soils; it has been observed to have robust growth when associated with nesting marine birds, and poor growth when on islands with poor soils (Shluker, 1999).
In Hawaii, PIER (2013) reported it as ‘relatively common in dry, disturbed sites, 0-2,805 m’ in altitude.
V. encelioides ssp. encelioides prefers mesic climates, whereas V. encelioides ssp. exauriculata has prefers more arid climates at higher elevations (Coleman, 1966, 1974).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Arid regions | Principal habitat | Natural |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural | |
Littoral | Coastal dunes | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Littoral | Coastal dunes | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pagePlant name | Family | Context | References |
---|---|---|---|
Arachis hypogaea (groundnut) | Fabaceae | Other | |
Brassica napus | Brassicaceae | Other | |
Cicer arietinum (chickpea) | Fabaceae | Other | |
Cucumis melo (melon) | Cucurbitaceae | Other | |
Lens culinaris subsp. culinaris (lentil) | Fabaceae | Other | |
Oryza (rice (generic level)) | Poaceae | Other | |
Pennisetum glaucum (pearl millet) | Poaceae | Other | |
Raphanus sativus (radish) | Brassicaceae | Other | |
Sorghum | Poaceae | Other | |
Triticum spp. | Poaceae | Other | |
Zea mays (maize) | Poaceae | Other |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
n = 17 (Keil and Stuessy, 1977).
Reproductive Biology
Rapid uptake of water leads to germination and rapid plant growth, where flowering and seed production appear limited only by seasonal drought. Larger and heavier seeds have the highest germination rates and are maintained by plants growing in open and sand dune habitats. Although seeds were found to germinate over a wide range of soil moistures (11.3 to 34.8% with >50% germination rate) and temperatures (5 to 20ºC), drought and waterlogged soils suppressed germination. The optimal soil moisture for seed germination was 21% (Kaul and Mangal, 1987). This species is also both self- and cross-pollinated and very fecund, producing ample winged seeds for local dispersal (Kaul and Mangal, 1987).
In its exotic range of northern India, seed germination occurred in February, flowering started in March and the first fruit set started in May, lasting until December. In India V. encelioides emerges after the first cyclonic precipitation and it flourishes in both the hot and humid and cool seasons (Kaul and Mangal, 1987).
Physiology and Phenology
In India, V. encelioides grows well on many soil types and exhibits high phenotypic plasticity and ecological variability (Kaul and Mangal, 1987).
Longevity
V. encelioides is an annual herb.
Environmental Requirements
V. encelioides is considered drought tolerant. It grows best in the 800-900 mm annual rainfall. It is not tolerant to salinity or to shade and requires exposure to light to establish. V. encelioides is adapted to fine or medium textured soil (EPPO, 2013).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Tolerated | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
BS - Steppe climate | Preferred | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation | |
BW - Desert climate | Tolerated | < 430mm annual precipitation | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Preferred | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
50 | 40 |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) | -14 | |
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 13 | 27 |
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC) | 18 | 37 |
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC) | 5 | 25 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Dry season duration | 1 | 9 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
Mean annual rainfall | 300 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Zygogramma bicolorata | Predator | Plants|Growing point; Plants|Inflorescence; Plants|Leaves | Anonymous (2011) |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageThe beetle Zygogramma bicolorata was observed attacking V. encelioides in Australia (Withers, 1998, in Anonymous, 2011).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageNatural Dispersal (Non-Biotic)
V. encelioides spreads by seed, which are dispersed by the wind.
Vector Transmission (Biotic)
V. encelioides may potentially be dispersed by birds.
Accidental Introduction
Transport of this species is most likely accidental, via contaminated soils on vehicle tyres, bulldozer treads or shoes.
Intentional Introduction
None reported, but it V. encelioides has been used in horticulture and for medicinal purposes. There is potential for accidental or purposeful introductions occurring from horticultural or medicinal activities.
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Military movements | Unintentional transport of seeds on military vehicle tires within and between Hawaiian Islands. | Yes | Yes | Woodward (1972) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Land vehicles | Unintentional transport of seeds on military bulldozer within and between Hawaiian Islands. | Yes | Yes | Woodward (1972) |
Machinery and equipment | Unintentional transport of seeds on military bulldozer within and between Hawaiian Islands. | Yes | Yes | Woodward (1972) |
Wind | Yes | Kaul and Mangal (1987) |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Positive |
Economic/livelihood | Negative |
Environment (generally) | Negative |
Human health | Positive |
Economic Impact
Top of pageV. encelioides can directly impact agriculture, through competition with crops like peanuts in the USA, as well as poisoning livestock, including cattle and sheep in both the USA but more so in Argentina. Competitive experiments have shown that 3.2 V. encelioides weeds per metre row can decrease peanut harvest by 50% (Farris and Murray, 2006). One mechanism facilitating this interference success may be allelopathy (Inderjit et al., 1999). Toxicity in livestock has been linked to galegine, a chemical which causes dullness and anorexia at low doses and death at high doses when ingested in a single meal (Oelrichs and Vallely, 1981; Keeler et al., 1986; Keeler et al., 1992; Lopez et al., 1996; Jain et al., 2008).
V. encelioides is a known host to thrips (Frankliniella spp.), which are potential vectors of tomato spotted wilt virus. However, there are no studies linking V. encelioides to increases in tomato spotted wilt virus in cultivated crops (Mitchell and Smith, 1996).
Environmental Impact
Top of pageImpact on Habitats
V. encelioides has proven most problematic to natural systems when invading oceanic islands (e.g. the Hawaiian islands). V. encelioides is invasive and problematic on the northwestern Hawaiian islands where it can form monotypic stands on sandy, coastal soils. By displacing native vegetation and disrupting the nesting behaviour of marine birds, this weed has transformed certain islands, like Midway Atoll and Kure Atoll, to the disadvantage of native wildlife (Shluker, 1999). Scaveola sericea (naupaka) and Ipomea pescaprae (beach morning glory) have been suggested as impacted native plant species.
V. encelioides is also widespread in India but there is no mention of how it is impacting native vegetation there. Kaul and Mangal (1987) stated that it creates dense pure stands in landscapes where native vegetation is naturally scarce.
There is very little or no research on the impact V. encelioides has on carbon pools, nutrient cycling or microorganism populations.
Impact on Biodiversity
V. encelioides has impacted the nesting activities of some marine birds (laysan albatross Phoebastria immutabilis, blackfoot albatross Phoebastria nigripes, Christmas shearwater Puffinus nativitatis and wedge-tailed shearwaters Puffinus pacificus) by trapping hatchling and young birds in its intertwining branches in the northwest Hawaiian islands.
Threatened Species
Top of pageThreatened Species | Conservation Status | Where Threatened | Mechanism | References | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Diomedea immutabilis | NT (IUCN red list: Near threatened) | USA; Hawaii | Feenstra and Clements (2008); Shluker (1999) | ||
Phoebastria nigripes | VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable) | USA; Hawaii | Feenstra and Clements (2008); Shluker (1999) |
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Monoculture formation
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Negatively impacts human health
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Negatively impacts animal/plant collections
- Damages animal/plant products
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Poisoning
- Rapid growth
Uses
Top of pageEconomic Value
Its economic and social benefits are limited, but V. encelioides is a horticultural species and has been used as a medicinal plant among certain native American peoples, and is being scrutinized for potential commercial medicinal value.
Environmental Services
V. encelioides provides pollen, nectar and seeds to insects and birds. It is unknown how this species affects nutrient cycling, carbon pools, soil biota and community ecology.
Detection and Inspection
Top of pageOne obvious character found on V. encelioides achenes are wings which can be used for identification (Coleman, 1966, 1974; Baldwin et al., 2012). For a description of the species with images refer to Feenstra and Clements (2008).
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageThis large annual shrub appears from a distance to resemble similar shrub-forming species in Asteraceae, as in the genus Encelia. In contrast to Encelia, V. encelioides has an unpleasant odor and its stems are densely short-hairy with mostly alternate leaves.
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
V. encelioides has proven most problematic to natural systems when invading oceanic islands (e.g. the Hawaiian islands). Prevention of spread should be focused on between and within-island transportation via vehicle translocation. Cleaning soil from potentially contaminated vehicles or shoes will decrease the likelihood of transport. Purposeful transport for propagation will be by seed.
Infestations are associated with disturbed soils. In these areas management should focus on controlling the spread of known populations with whole-plant removal by manual or chemical means. Eradication should be the goal where feasible, as environmental and sensitive species impacts have been linked to this species.
When found as an agricultural weed, or in pasture, this species should be removed in the same manner as other annual weeds are managed, through physical/mechanical control or chemical control. The rapid germination and robust growth of this species likely precludes the effectiveness of cultural control. Biological control is not currently being explored.
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
Top of pageThere appears to be a lack of basic and phenologic research conducted on V. encelioides in its native range. This work is needed to assess how it has adjusted to its naturalized range. It appears to be a very plastic species, able to survive and thrive in highly variable systems. The mechanisms and genes that contribute to this adaptive response to novel environments are unknown. The degree of plasticity and rapid evolution responsible for local adaptation is also unknown. Knowledge of these aspects of V. encelioides may aid genetics-based attempts to improve agriculture in arid regions.
References
Top of pageAnonymous, 2011. Environmental Evaluation for the Release of the Biological Agent Zygogramma (Zygogramma bicolorata L.) to Control the invasive weed Parthenium (Parthenium hysterophorus L.) in Ethiopia. http://www.epa.gov.et/Download/EIA%20Documents%20for%20Review%20Comments/Environmental%20Evaluation%20for%20the%20Release%20of%20the%20Biological%20Agent%20Zyagogramma.pdf
Arellano A, 1997. Herbal medicine in northern New Mexico. Topeka, Kansas, USA: Herbs for Health, 46-52
Baldwin BG, Goldman DH, Keil DJ, Patterson R, Rasatti TJ, Wilken DH, 2012. The Jepson manual: vascular plants of California. Berkeley, California, USA: University of California Press
Carr GD, 2012. Manoa campus plants. Hawaii, USA: University of Hawaii. http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/Faculty/Carr/page25
Coleman JR, 1966. A taxonomic revision of section Ximenesia of the genus Verbesina L. (Compositae). A taxonomic revision of section Ximenesia of the genus Verbesina, 76:475-481
Coleman JR, 1974. Verbesina section Ximenesia (Compositae): biosystematics and adaptive variation. Verbesina section Ximenesia (Compositae), 61:25-35
Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria (CHAH), 2012. Australia's Virtual Herbarium. http://avh.ala.org.au
Dafni A, Heller D, 1982. Adventive flora of Isreal - phylogeographical, ecological and agricultural aspects. Adventive flora of Isreal, 140:1-18
EPPO, 2013. European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. EPPO (online). Paris, France. http://www.eppo.int/
EPPO, 2014. PQR database. Paris, France: European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. http://www.eppo.int/DATABASES/pqr/pqr.htm
Euro+Med, 2012. Euro+Med PlantBase: The information resource for Euro-Mediterranean plant diversity. Palermo, Italy: University of Palermo. http://ww2.bgbm.org/EuroPlusMed
Everist SI, 1957. Common weeds of farms and pastures [ed. by Tucker, A. H.]. Brisbane, Australia: Government Printer
GBIF, 2012. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF). http://data.gbif.org
Keeler RF, Baker DC, Panter KE, 1992. Concentration of galegine in Verbesina encelioides and Galega officinalis and the toxic and pathological effects induced by the plants. Journal of environmental pathology, toxicology and oncology, 11:2, 11 pp
Keil DJ, Stuessy TF, 1977. Chromosome counts of Compositae from Mexico and the United States. American Journal of Botany, 64(6):791-798
McCoy D, 1987. Oklahoma wildflowers. Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA: Ebsco Graphics
Oelrichs P, Vallely P, 1981. Isolation of galegine from Verbesina encelioides, 44:754-755
PIER, 2013. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Shluker A, 1999. HNIS Report for Verbesina encelioides
Turner BL, Bacon L, Urbatsch L, Simpson B, 1979. Chromosome numbers of South American Compositae, 66:173-178
USDA-ARS, 2013. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
USDA-NRCS, 2012. The PLANTS Database. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov/
USDA-NRCS, 2013. The PLANTS Database. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov/
Walther M, 2004. A guide to Hawaii's coastal plants. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Mutual Publishing, 144 pp
Woodward P, 1972. The natural history of Kure Atoll, northwestern Hawaiian islands:164
Zayed KM, El-Karemy AR, 1989. Vegetation between Taif and El-Shafa highland (Asir mountains, Saudi Arabia). Vegetation between Taif and El-Shafa highland, 100(11-12):661-672
Distribution References
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Carr GD, 2012. Manoa campus plants., Hawaii, USA: University of Hawaii. http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/Faculty/Carr/page25
Coleman JR, 1966. A taxonomic revision of section Ximenesia of the genus Verbesina L. (Compositae). In: A taxonomic revision of section Ximenesia of the genus Verbesina, 76 475-481.
Dafni A, Heller D, 1982. Adventive flora of Isreal - phylogeographical, ecological and agricultural aspects. In: Adventive flora of Isreal, 140 1-18.
Euro+Med, 2012. Euro+Med PlantBase: The information resource for Euro-Mediterranean plant diversity., Palermo, Italy: University of Palermo. http://ww2.bgbm.org/EuroPlusMed
Everist SI, 1957. Common weeds of farms and pastures., [ed. by Tucker AH]. Brisbane, Australia: Government Printer.
GBIF, 2012. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. http://www.gbif.org/species
Oelrichs P, Vallely P, 1981. Isolation of galegine from Verbesina encelioides., 44 754-755.
PIER, 2013. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Shluker A, 1999. HNIS Report for Verbesina encelioides.,
USDA-NRCS, 2012. The PLANTS Database. Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: National Plant Data Team. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov
Walther M, 2004. A guide to Hawaii's coastal plants., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Mutual Publishing. 144 pp.
Zayed KM, El-Karemy AR, 1989. Vegetation between Taif and El-Shafa highland (Asir mountains, Saudi Arabia). In: Vegetation between Taif and El-Shafa highland, 100 (11-12) 661-672.
Links to Websites
Top of pageDistribution Maps
Top of pageSelect a dataset
Map Legends
-
CABI Summary Records
Map Filters
Unsupported Web Browser:
One or more of the features that are needed to show you the maps functionality are not available in the web browser that you are using.
Please consider upgrading your browser to the latest version or installing a new browser.
More information about modern web browsers can be found at http://browsehappy.com/