Dactyloctenium aegyptium
(crowfoot grass)

Pictures

Picture	Title	Caption	Copyright
Title Leaves and inflorescences - colour illustration Caption D. aegyptium is a grass, with characteristic 'bird's foot' digitate inflorescence, up to 50 cm tall. Copyright NOVARTIS	Leaves and inflorescences - colour illustration	D. aegyptium is a grass, with characteristic 'bird's foot' digitate inflorescence, up to 50 cm tall.	NOVARTIS
Title Leaf and ligule - line drawing Caption Ligule membraneous, ca 1 mm long, ciliolate along the upper edge; leaf blades flat when mature, rolled when in bud, linear, up to 12 mm wide. Copyright NOVARTIS	Leaf and ligule - line drawing	Ligule membraneous, ca 1 mm long, ciliolate along the upper edge; leaf blades flat when mature, rolled when in bud, linear, up to 12 mm wide.	NOVARTIS
Title Spikelets - line drawing Caption Spikelets 4 mm long, strongly compressed, ovate, usually 3-flowered. Copyright NOVARTIS	Spikelets - line drawing	Spikelets 4 mm long, strongly compressed, ovate, usually 3-flowered.	NOVARTIS
Title Inflorescence - line drawing Caption Inflorescence digitate, composed of 4-8 spreading spikes. Spikes 1.5-6 cm long, on maturity often somewhat recurved, greenish-yellow or pallid. Copyright NOVARTIS	Inflorescence - line drawing	Inflorescence digitate, composed of 4-8 spreading spikes. Spikes 1.5-6 cm long, on maturity often somewhat recurved, greenish-yellow or pallid.	NOVARTIS

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd.

Preferred Common Name

• crowfoot grass

Other Scientific Names

• Aegilops saccharinum Walter
• Chloris guineensis Schumach. and Thonn
• Chloris mucronata Michx.
• Chloris prostrata (Willd.) Poir.
• Cynosurus aegyptius Linn.
• Dactyloctenium aegyptiacum Willd.
• Dactyloctenium aegyptium var. mucronatum (L.) Willd
• Dactyloctenium aegyptius var. mucronatum (Michx.) Lanza and Mattei
• Dactyloctenium figarei De Not.
• Dactyloctenium meridionale Ham.
• Dactyloctenium mpuetense De Wild.
• Eleusine aegyptia (L.) Pers. Richt
• Eleusine cruciata Elliott
• Eleusine prostrata Spreng.
• Rabdochloa mucronata (Michx.) P.Beauv.

International Common Names

• English: beach wiregrass; coast button grass; crow's foot; duck grass; Egyptian crowfoot grass; Egyptian grass; finger comb grass
• Spanish: estrella de mar; pata de gallo; yerba egipcia; zacate egipcio
• French: chiendent patte-de-poule
• Chinese: long zhao mao

Local Common Names

• Australia: coast button grass
• Brazil: grama-de-dedo-egípcia; grama-egípcia ; mao de sapo; mão-de-sapo; três-dedos
• Colombia: estrella del mar; paja de palma; tres dedos
• Cuba: cepillito; pata de gallina; zanca de mulo
• Egypt: naim el salib; rigel el herbaya
• India: madana; makra
• Indonesia: sapabang babi
• Indonesia/Java: soeket dringoan
• Japan: tatsunotsumegaya
• Lebanon: rigel ul herbayah
• Malaysia: Egyptian finger grass
• Mauritius: chiendent
• Mexico: pata de gallo; pata de pollo; zacate egipcio; zacate Egipto
• Myanmar: didok chio; myet-le-gra
• Peru: pata de gallina falsa
• Philippines: alam; damong balang
• Puerto Rico: krus-krusan; yerba egipcia
• South Africa: gewone hoenderspoor; hoenderspoorgras; natalweek
• Sri Lanka: puta tana
• Sudan: tapik djalak; um assabia
• Taiwan: ai-ji-jr-shu-tsau
• Thailand: ya-pak-khwai
• USA/Hawaii: beach wiregrass
• Vietnam: co chan ga

EPPO code

• DTTAE (Dactyloctenium aegyptium)

Summary of Invasiveness

Producing large quantities of seeds, D. aegyptium is a pioneer grass that quickly colonizes disturbed areas with light sandy soils, often near to coasts or where water accumulates. It is a common component of weed floras throughout the tropics but is rarely reported as an aggressive weed on its own. It is not on federal or state noxious weed lists in the USA and is not recorded on the ISSG database but is recorded by PIER (2016) as invasive on a number of Pacific and American islands including French Polynesia Islands, Micronesia, the Northern Mariana Islands and Hawaii. It is also listed as invasive on islands in the Mediterranean, the USA, Mexico, Costa Rica, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands and the Lesser Antilles (Vibrans, 2009; Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council, 2011;Chacón and Saborío, 2012; Burg et al., 2012; Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2015; DAISIE, 2016; USDA-NRCS, 2016).

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Monocotyledonae
•                     Order: Cyperales
•                         Family: Poaceae
•                             Genus: Dactyloctenium
•                                 Species: Dactyloctenium aegyptium

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Dactyloctenium aegyptium belongs to the tribe Eragrostideae, (Poaceae: Subfamily Chloridoideae). The genus Dactyloctenium comprises 12 species distributed primarily across Africa and Asia (Stevens, 2012; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016). The species was originally designated as Cynosurus aegyptius by Linnaeus (1753). Willdenow misspelled the specific epithet as "aegyptiacus," but this is simply an orthographical error. The name was later corrected by Beauvoir and now the accepted name is Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd. 

Description

D. aegyptium is a grass, with characteristic 'bird's foot' digitate inflorescence, up to 50 cm tall.

Annual, never stoloniferous. Culms up to 50 cm tall, up to 5 noded, geniculately ascending, usually rooting from the lower nodes, thus giving the plants a pseudo-stoloniferous appearance, not rarely forming radiate mats, branched from the lower nodes; internodes cylindrical, glabrous, smooth, striate, exserted above, variable in length; nodes thickened and glabrous. Young shoots cylindrical or rounded. Leaf-sheaths keeled, up to 5 cm long, rather lax, striate, tuberculately hairy on the keel or quite glabrous; ligule membranous, about 1 mm long, ciliolate along the upper edge; leaf blades flat when mature, rolled when in bud, linear, tapering to a fine point, up to 20 cm long and 12 mm wide, with 3-5 primary nerves on either side of the midrib, glaucous, usually more or less densely tuberculately hairy along the margins and the keel, less conspicuously so on the adaxial surface towards the tip.

Inflorescence digitate, composed of 4-8 spreading spikes. Spikes 1.5-6 cm long, on maturity often somewhat recurved, greenish-yellow or pallid; rachis keeled, smooth near the base, scaberulous towards the apex, tip mucroniform and curved. Spikelets 4 mm long, strongly compressed, ovate, solitary, sessile, patent alternately left and right on the ventral side of the axis; dense, forming a very flat comb, usually 3-flowered; lower florets bisexual, the upper florets rudimentary; axis without terminal stipe. Lower glume 2 mm long and 2 mm wide, ovate in profile, 1-nerved, sharply keeled, keel scabrid; upper glume 2 mm long excluding the 1.5-2 mm-long awn, oblong in profile, 1-nerved, sharply keeled, keel scabrid. Rachilla slender. Lemmas 3-4 mm wide, the upper smaller in dimensions (but similar), folded about the keel which is scabrid, broadly ovate in profile, lateral nerves delicate and indistinct; uppermost lemma epaleate. Paleas about 3 mm long, 2-nerved, keels scabrid, dorsally concave, shortly bifid at the apex. Three anthers, pale-yellow, 0.3-0.5 mm long, anther cells somewhat remote, with a conspicuous connective. Caryopsis sub-triangular or sub-quadrate, laterally compressed, rugose, light-brown, apex truncate, never convex, remains of pericarp at times visible. (Fisher and Schweickerdt, 1941).

Plant Type

Distribution

Described as native to the Old World tropics, D. aegyptium has a pantropical distribution, with some extensions in the subtropics (PIER, 2016). Natural populations occur in Africa, the Arabian Peninsula and tropical and temperate Asia. It was introduced in Europe, North, Central and South America, the West Indies, Australia, and on a number of islands in the Pacific (Holm et al., 1979; Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012; Clayton et al., 2016; DAISIE, 2016; USDA-ARS, 2016).

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

Although this annual grass now has a pan-tropical distribution, few records exist on its introduction and consequent spread. It was introduced in Morocco in 1980 via contaminated crop seed and subsequently became a major weed in many areas by 1996 (Tanji and Taleb, 1997). In the Americas, D. aegyptium was introduced by accident and spread as a weed in maize and other crops (Bogdan, 1977). In Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands it was first reported in 1876 (Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2015). In Australia it was introduced in the 1860s to be used as a sand stabilizer and now can be found across Western Australia, Northern Territory, South Australia, Queensland, New South Wales, Christmas Island and Cocos Island (AusGrass2, 2016).

Risk of Introduction

The risk of introduction of D. aegyptium is moderate to high. In some areas of Asia and Africa, it is widely used as forage and therefore new introductions are probable (Manidool, 1992). Inspections of shipments of grain and vegetable seed entering Canada have occasionally identified seed of D. aegyptium, indicating the potential for further accidental movement of this species around the world.

Habitat

D. aegyptium grows as a weed in arable lands and waste places including those near the sea. It prefers light sandy soils in open sunny places that are dry or somewhat moist. Within its native range in East Africa, this species can be found at elevations from sea level to 2100 m (Clayton et al., 1974). It becomes established in disturbed areas, particularly agricultural fields in tropical and warm temperate areas. In Hawaii, it usually occurs on sand where it has become partially stabilized, on lava, along roadsides, and in other dry, exposed, disturbed areas (PIER, 2004). It is also known from riparian areas in the Sonora Desert of Arizona, USA (Van Devender, 1997). It is also a common weed in disturbed sites, open grounds, and roadsides. In Australia, it is common in disturbed areas but also present in open Eucalyptus forest on a variety of soils, and on coastal dunes (AusGrass2, 2016).

Habitat List

Hosts/Species Affected

D. aegyptium is a ubiquitous weed in many cropping systems around the world. Holm et al. (1977) classified the degree of importance of D. aegyptium on crops in different countries, in decreasing level of severity, as follows: a serious weed of cotton in Thailand; a principal weed of cotton in Australia, Kenya, Mozambique, Nigeria, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda and USA, of sugarcane in India, the Philippines and Taiwan, of groundnuts in the Gambia and USA, of maize in Ghana and India and of rice in Sri Lanka and India; a common weed of rice in Indonesia, Nigeria and the Philippines, of coffee in Kenya and Tanzania and of tea in Taiwan and it occurs in bananas, pawpaws, cassava, citrus, sweet potatoes and millet in countries of Africa, Asia and Central America.

D. aegyptium has also been recorded in the weed flora of the following crops: aubergines in India; black gram (Vigna mungo) in Bangladesh and India; cassava in the Philippines; chickpeas in India; chillies (Capsicum) in India; cotton in Brazil, South China, India, Nepal, Thailand, USA and Zambia; cowpeas in India; finger millet (Eleusine coracana) in India; groundnuts in Bangladesh, Ghana, India, Senegal and USA; maize in India, Nigeria, Pakistan, Philippines and USA; jute in India; mint in India; mung beans (Vigna radiata) in India; okras in Nigeria; pawpaws in the Philippines; pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) in Burkina Faso, Mali and India; pigeon peas in India; potatoes in the Philippines; rice (transplanted) in India, Indonesia and Pakistan; rice (upland) in Cameroon, Gambia, India and Nigeria; sesame in India; sorghum in Australia, India; soyabeans in Ghana, India, Côte d'Ivoire, Pakistan, Senegal; sugarcane in India, Taiwan and Peru; sweet potatoes in the Philippines, Taiwan and USA; tobacco in India; wheat in Bangladesh and India; yams in India and the Philippines.

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

Biology and Ecology

Genetics

Cytogenetic studies for D. aegyptium have reported chromosome numbers varied from 2n = 20, 36, 40, to 2n=48 for plants growing in areas within and outside its native distribution range (Hatch, 2003; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016).

Physiology and Phenology

D. aegyptium is a C₄ grass. In warm regions it flowers all year round. In China, it has been recorded flowering and fruiting from May to October (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016). In summer rainfall areas of South Africa, flowering occurs from January to April (van Oudtshoorn, 1999). This species germinates over a range of 15 to 40°C, with the optimum germination of accessions from USA occurring at 30°C. Total germination is greatest in an alternating 20 and 35°C temperature regime. Emergence is similar when seed is on the soil surface or buried at depths of 0.5 or 1 cm. Germination decreases with burial depth, and no seed emerges from 10 cm (Burke et al., 2003).

Reproductive Biology

D. aegyptium is an annual grass that produces spikelets with flowers pollinated by wind. One plant can produce up to 66,000 seeds that, after 19 years, still attained 5% germination (Holm et al., 1977).  This species spreads mainly by seeds but also has creeping or spreading stems that root at the lower nodes.

Environmental Requirements

D. aegyptium occurs from sea level to 2100 m in areas receiving 400-1500 mm rainfall annually (Clayton et al., 1974; Manidool, 1992). It is a common weed of disturbed places such as cultivated lands, gardens and roadsides, usually where additional water collects. It is adapted to a wide range of soil types but is particularly well suited to disturbed areas on sands to sandy loam soils. Salt tolerant ecotypes have been reported in Nigeria (Adu et al., 1994). It does not stand prolonged flooding (Manidool, 1992). D. aegyptium is one of the most drought-resistant African grasses as it can quickly grow and seed during the wet season (Heuzé et al., 2015).

Climate

Air Temperature

Rainfall

Rainfall Regime

Soil Tolerances

Soil drainage

• free

Soil reaction

• acid
• neutral

Soil texture

• light
• medium

Special soil tolerances

• saline

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Natural Dispersal

D. aegyptium spreads primarily by seeds but it also has creeping or spreading stems which root at the lower nodes (Holm et al., 1977). Dispersal is likely to be in water run-off, by wind, and by seed-eating insects, birds and mammals.

Accidental Introduction

Because D. aegyptium grows as a weed in agricultural lands and in disturbed sites, its seeds can be carried in soil on tractors and implements from site to site. This species has been dispersed as a contaminant in crop seed as a weed in crops (Bogdan, 1977).

Pathway Causes

Pathway Vectors

Plant Trade

Wood Packaging

Impact Summary

Economic Impact

D. aegyptium is a ubiquitous weed in many cropping systems around the world; the level of infestation and damage caused vary according to crop and location.

Holm et al. (1977) classified the degree of importance of D. aegyptium on crops in different countries, in decreasing level of severity, as follows: a serious weed of cotton in Thailand; a principal weed of cotton in Australia, Kenya, Mozambique, Nigeria, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda and the USA, of sugarcane in India, the Philippines and Taiwan, of groundnuts in the Gambia and the USA, of maize in Ghana and India and of rice in Sri Lanka and India; a common weed of rice in Indonesia, Nigeria and the Philippines, of coffee in Kenya and Tanzania and of tea in Taiwan and it occurs in bananas, pawpaws, cassava, citrus, sweet potatoes and millet in countries of Africa, Asia and Central America. It has been noted in the weed flora of many other crops.

Data on yield loss caused by D. aegyptium alone is scarce, as it usually occurs as one of several weeds infesting fields. However, yield losses of 40% have been reported in aromatic grasses, Cymbopogon winterianus, C. flexuosus and C. martinii, infested with D. aegyptium (Singh et al., 1991).

The weed has been reported to be an alternate host of the Rice tungro virus and of rice bug in Asia (IRRI, 2004).

Environmental Impact

D. aegyptium is an environmental weed occurring in many countries across tropical and subtropical regions (Clayton et al., 2016). It has been listed as a weed and invasive species in Greece, Italy, Madeira, the United States, Mexico, Costa Rica, the Galapagos Islands, the Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, and on many islands in the Lesser Antilles and the Pacific Ocean (Villaseñor and Espinosa-Garcia, 2004; Vibrans, 2009; Chacón and Saborío, 2012; Burg et al., 2012; Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2015; DAISIE, 2016; PIER, 2016; USDA-NRCS, 2016). In Florida (USA) it is listed as an invasive grass that is increasing in abundance and is starting to displace native vegetation (Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council, 2011). In Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands it invades primarily ruderal areas, secondary forests and coastal sites (Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2015). In Mexico it is invading coastal areas, negatively impacting native coastal vegetation (Villaseñor and Espinosa-Garcia, 2004; Vibrans, 2009). In the Galapagos Islands it is invading dry coastal areas (Charles Darwin Foundation, 2008).

Threatened Species

Social Impact

There are no reports of D. aegyptium causing any social impacts.

Risk and Impact Factors

• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
• Highly mobile locally
• Has high reproductive potential
• Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year

• Negatively impacts agriculture
• Reduced native biodiversity

• Competition - monopolizing resources
• Competition
• Pest and disease transmission

• Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
• Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
• Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant

Uses

 D. aegyptium is widely used as forage and is relished by all types of ruminants (Manidool, 1992). Although D. aegyptium is a palatable pioneer grass that can quickly colonize disturbed areas, it seldom forms an important component of natural grassland and in Southern Africa is not considered a valuable grazing grass (van Oudtshoorn, 1999). It has been used as a cereal substitute in times of famine in parts of Africa and India, but it is not very palatable and is not cultivated for this purpose (van Oudtshoorn, 1999). This species makes excellent hay (Manidool, 1992). In Perth, Western Australia, it has been used as a lawn species (PPSWA, 2004). In Haryana, India, the grass is reported to provide fuel, fodder and stabilizes soil in natural woodland and plantations (Jalota et al., 2000). D. aegyptium is used as a stabilizer of sandy soils in Australia and for erosion control elsewhere (Heuzé et al., 2015).

Uses List

Animal feed, fodder, forage

• Fodder/animal feed
• Forage

Environmental

• Erosion control or dune stabilization
• Soil conservation

Human food and beverage

• Cereal
• Emergency (famine) food

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

• Traditional/folklore

Detection and Inspection

D. aegyptium is usually identified initially by the characteristic 'bird's foot' arrangement of the inflorescence with 4-8 spreading spikes. It is sometimes found as seed during inspections of seed samples.

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

D. aegyptium may be readily confused with D. giganteum, although this plant is usually taller (culms up to 150 cm) and more robust than D. aegyptium. The anthers of D. aegyptium are 0.3-0.5 mm long, with the connective tissue clearly visible; they are 1.5-2.5 mm long in D. giganteum, with the connective tissue invisible.

Prevention and Control

Cultural Control

The following practices are useful in weed management of annual grasses such as D. aegyptium: early weeding to correspond with peaks of germination; weeding during the critical period of the crop that is infested; weeding before maturation of weed seeds, to prevent dissemination; preparation of a weed-free seedbed; rotation of crops; and the use of living or dead organic mulches (Maillet, 1991).

IPM Programmes

Intercropping with leafy crops is used extensively to suppress weed growth. In India, pigeon pea/soyabean intercropping and application of fluchloralin with inter-row cultivation have been used (Nimje, 1993). In India, intercropping of sorghum with cowpeas, green gram (Vigna radiata), groundnuts and soyabeans suppressed the growth of D. aegyptium and increased sorghum yields (Abraham and Singh, 1986).

Growers of aromatic grasses, Cymbopogon winterianus, C. flexuosus and C. martinii, used an organic mulch, of the mint pulp after extraction, to suppress weeds including D. aegyptium; they also used chemical control. Applying mulch or using oxyfluorfen gave fresh weight and oil yields of mint equivalent to control plots that were maintained free of weeds by hand weeding (Singh et al., 1991).

Pannu et al. (1988) found that the type of irrigation and crop geometry had no effect on weed levels in groundnuts in India; however, hand weeding combined with fluchloralin application gave weed control (combined treatments were more effective than when used alone).

Land preparation methods affect the development of D. aegyptium. In Pakistan, Majid et al. (1986) found that deep chiselling and tied ridge sowing gave effective weed reduction and the highest grain yields of maize.

In upland rice, preparation of a stale seedbed, ploughing with post-emergence propanil, and hand weeding are methods that have been used to control D. aegyptium (Moorthy, 1992).

Chemical Control

The following chemicals and combinations of chemicals have been used to control D. aegyptium. Atrazine, atrazine-terbutryn, atrazine-simazine, fluchloralin and linuron. Foliar-applied propanil and paraquat. Soil treatments with pebulate, EPTC, nitralin, trifluralin, DCPA [chlorthal], diuron, fluometuron and prometryn have also been used (Soerjani et al., 1987)

In rice, EPTC, oxadiazon, pendimethalin, propanil and trifluralin have all been used (Soerjani et al., 1987).

In maize, metolachlor and atrazine have been used (Shad et al., 1993).

Diuron and ametryn have been used in pawpaw orchards in the Philippines (Mendoza and Mercado, unda). Metolachlor was used to control D. aegyptium and other weeds in intercropped black gram and sesame (Tewari et al., 1993). Quizalofop-ethyl was used in cotton in the USA (Hammes, 1986).

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Contributors

11/11/16 Updated by:

Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

Distribution Maps