Dactyloctenium aegyptium (crowfoot grass)

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Picture

Title

Caption

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Leaves and inflorescences - colour illustration

D. aegyptium is a grass, with characteristic 'bird's foot' digitate inflorescence, up to 50 cm tall.

NOVARTIS

Leaf and ligule - line drawing

Ligule membraneous, ca 1 mm long, ciliolate along the upper edge; leaf blades flat when mature, rolled when in bud, linear, up to 12 mm wide.

NOVARTIS

Spikelets - line drawing

Spikelets 4 mm long, strongly compressed, ovate, usually 3-flowered.

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Inflorescence - line drawing

Inflorescence digitate, composed of 4-8 spreading spikes. Spikes 1.5-6 cm long, on maturity often somewhat recurved, greenish-yellow or pallid.

NOVARTIS

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd.

Preferred Common Name

crowfoot grass

Other Scientific Names

Aegilops saccharinum Walter
Chloris guineensis Schumach. and Thonn
Chloris mucronata Michx.
Chloris prostrata (Willd.) Poir.
Cynosurus aegyptius Linn.
Dactyloctenium aegyptiacum Willd.
Dactyloctenium aegyptium var. mucronatum (L.) Willd
Dactyloctenium aegyptius var. mucronatum (Michx.) Lanza and Mattei
Dactyloctenium figarei De Not.
Dactyloctenium meridionale Ham.
Dactyloctenium mpuetense De Wild.
Eleusine aegyptia (L.) Pers. Richt
Eleusine cruciata Elliott
Eleusine prostrata Spreng.
Rabdochloa mucronata (Michx.) P.Beauv.

International Common Names

English: beach wiregrass; coast button grass; crow's foot; duck grass; Egyptian crowfoot grass; Egyptian grass; finger comb grass
Spanish: estrella de mar; pata de gallo; yerba egipcia; zacate egipcio
French: chiendent patte-de-poule
Chinese: long zhao mao

Local Common Names

Australia: coast button grass
Brazil: grama-de-dedo-egípcia; grama-egípcia ; mao de sapo; mão-de-sapo; três-dedos
Colombia: estrella del mar; paja de palma; tres dedos
Cuba: cepillito; pata de gallina; zanca de mulo
Egypt: naim el salib; rigel el herbaya
India: madana; makra
Indonesia: sapabang babi
Indonesia/Java: soeket dringoan
Japan: tatsunotsumegaya
Lebanon: rigel ul herbayah
Malaysia: Egyptian finger grass
Mauritius: chiendent
Mexico: pata de gallo; pata de pollo; zacate egipcio; zacate Egipto
Myanmar: didok chio; myet-le-gra
Peru: pata de gallina falsa
Philippines: alam; damong balang
Puerto Rico: krus-krusan; yerba egipcia
South Africa: gewone hoenderspoor; hoenderspoorgras; natalweek
Sri Lanka: puta tana
Sudan: tapik djalak; um assabia
Taiwan: ai-ji-jr-shu-tsau
Thailand: ya-pak-khwai
USA/Hawaii: beach wiregrass
Vietnam: co chan ga

EPPO code

DTTAE (Dactyloctenium aegyptium)

Summary of Invasiveness

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Producing large quantities of seeds, D. aegyptium is a pioneer grass that quickly colonizes disturbed areas with light sandy soils, often near to coasts or where water accumulates. It is a common component of weed floras throughout the tropics but is rarely reported as an aggressive weed on its own. It is not on federal or state noxious weed lists in the USA and is not recorded on the ISSG database but is recorded by PIER (2016) as invasive on a number of Pacific and American islands including French Polynesia Islands, Micronesia, the Northern Mariana Islands and Hawaii. It is also listed as invasive on islands in the Mediterranean, the USA, Mexico, Costa Rica, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands and the Lesser Antilles (Vibrans, 2009; Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council, 2011;Chacón and Saborío, 2012; Burg et al., 2012; Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2015; DAISIE, 2016; USDA-NRCS, 2016).

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Monocotyledonae
Order: Cyperales
Family: Poaceae
Genus: Dactyloctenium
Species: Dactyloctenium aegyptium

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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Dactyloctenium aegyptium belongs to the tribe Eragrostideae, (Poaceae: Subfamily Chloridoideae). The genus Dactyloctenium comprises 12 species distributed primarily across Africa and Asia (Stevens, 2012; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016). The species was originally designated as Cynosurus aegyptius by Linnaeus (1753). Willdenow misspelled the specific epithet as "aegyptiacus," but this is simply an orthographical error. The name was later corrected by Beauvoir and now the accepted name is Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd.

Description

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D. aegyptium is a grass, with characteristic 'bird's foot' digitate inflorescence, up to 50 cm tall.

Annual, never stoloniferous. Culms up to 50 cm tall, up to 5 noded, geniculately ascending, usually rooting from the lower nodes, thus giving the plants a pseudo-stoloniferous appearance, not rarely forming radiate mats, branched from the lower nodes; internodes cylindrical, glabrous, smooth, striate, exserted above, variable in length; nodes thickened and glabrous. Young shoots cylindrical or rounded. Leaf-sheaths keeled, up to 5 cm long, rather lax, striate, tuberculately hairy on the keel or quite glabrous; ligule membranous, about 1 mm long, ciliolate along the upper edge; leaf blades flat when mature, rolled when in bud, linear, tapering to a fine point, up to 20 cm long and 12 mm wide, with 3-5 primary nerves on either side of the midrib, glaucous, usually more or less densely tuberculately hairy along the margins and the keel, less conspicuously so on the adaxial surface towards the tip.

Inflorescence digitate, composed of 4-8 spreading spikes. Spikes 1.5-6 cm long, on maturity often somewhat recurved, greenish-yellow or pallid; rachis keeled, smooth near the base, scaberulous towards the apex, tip mucroniform and curved. Spikelets 4 mm long, strongly compressed, ovate, solitary, sessile, patent alternately left and right on the ventral side of the axis; dense, forming a very flat comb, usually 3-flowered; lower florets bisexual, the upper florets rudimentary; axis without terminal stipe. Lower glume 2 mm long and 2 mm wide, ovate in profile, 1-nerved, sharply keeled, keel scabrid; upper glume 2 mm long excluding the 1.5-2 mm-long awn, oblong in profile, 1-nerved, sharply keeled, keel scabrid. Rachilla slender. Lemmas 3-4 mm wide, the upper smaller in dimensions (but similar), folded about the keel which is scabrid, broadly ovate in profile, lateral nerves delicate and indistinct; uppermost lemma epaleate. Paleas about 3 mm long, 2-nerved, keels scabrid, dorsally concave, shortly bifid at the apex. Three anthers, pale-yellow, 0.3-0.5 mm long, anther cells somewhat remote, with a conspicuous connective. Caryopsis sub-triangular or sub-quadrate, laterally compressed, rugose, light-brown, apex truncate, never convex, remains of pericarp at times visible. (Fisher and Schweickerdt, 1941).

Plant Type

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Annual
Grass / sedge
Herbaceous
Seed propagated
Vegetatively propagated

Distribution

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Described as native to the Old World tropics, D. aegyptium has a pantropical distribution, with some extensions in the subtropics (PIER, 2016). Natural populations occur in Africa, the Arabian Peninsula and tropical and temperate Asia. It was introduced in Europe, North, Central and South America, the West Indies, Australia, and on a number of islands in the Pacific (Holm et al., 1979; Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012; Clayton et al., 2016; DAISIE, 2016; USDA-ARS, 2016).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 10 Feb 2022

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Africa
Algeria	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Quezel and Santa (1962)
Angola	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Holm et al. (1979)
Benin	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Holm et al. (1979)
Botswana	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Gibbs-Russel et al. (1990)
Burkina Faso	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Holm et al. (1979)
Burundi	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
Cabo Verde	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Lima and Duclos (2001)
Cameroon	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
Central African Republic	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
Chad	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
Congo, Democratic Republic of the	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
Congo, Republic of the	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
Côte d'Ivoire	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Holm et al. (1979)
Djibouti	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
Egypt	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Holm et al. (1979)
Eritrea	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
Eswatini	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Gibbs-Russel et al. (1990)
Ethiopia	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Holm et al. (1979)
Gabon	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
Gambia	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
Ghana	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Holm et al. (1979)
Guinea	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Holm et al. (1979)
Guinea-Bissau	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
Kenya	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Clayton et al. (1974)
Liberia	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
Libya	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Keith (1965)
Madagascar	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) MOBOT (2004)
Malawi	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
Mali	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Holm et al. (1979)
Mauritania	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Holm et al. (1979)
Mauritius	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Holm et al. (1979)
Morocco	Present	Introduced	1980	Invasive	Tanji and Taleb (1997)
Mozambique	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Holm et al. (1979)
Namibia	Present	Introduced			Gibbs-Russel et al. (1990)
Niger	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Holm et al. (1979)
Nigeria	Present	Introduced			Holm et al. (1979) Gabuin et al. (2014)
Réunion	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
Rwanda	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
Saint Helena	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Senegal	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
Seychelles	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2016)
Sierra Leone	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
Somalia	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
South Africa	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Gibbs-Russel et al. (1990)
Sudan	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Braun et al. (1991)
Tanzania	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Clayton et al. (1974)
-Zanzibar Island	Absent, Eradicated				Clayton et al. (1974)
Togo	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
Tunisia	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Bonnet and Barratte (1896)
Uganda	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Clayton et al. (1974)
Zambia	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) CABI (Undated)
Zimbabwe	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Drummond (1984)
Asia
Afghanistan	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
Bahrain	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2016) Chaudhary et al. (1981)
Bangladesh	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Holm et al. (1979)
Cambodia	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
China	Present	Native			Flora of China Editorial Committee (2016) Holm et al. (1979)
-Fujian	Present	Native			Flora of China Editorial Committee (2016)
-Guangdong	Present	Native			Flora of China Editorial Committee (2016)
-Guizhou	Present	Native			Flora of China Editorial Committee (2016)
-Hainan	Present	Native			Flora of China Editorial Committee (2016)
-Sichuan	Present	Native			Flora of China Editorial Committee (2016)
-Yunnan	Present	Native			Flora of China Editorial Committee (2016)
-Zhejiang	Present	Native			Flora of China Editorial Committee (2016)
Cocos Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	PIER (2016)
India	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2016) Holm et al. (1979) Duary and Mukherjee (2013) Kiran and Rao (2013) Munirathnam and Kumar (2014) Rashtra Vardhana (2017)
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
-Andhra Pradesh	Present	Introduced			Ushakumari et al. (2001) Kiran and Rao (2013) Munirathnam and Kumar (2014)
-Assam	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Shukla (1996)
-Bihar	Present	Introduced			Shukla (1996)
-Delhi	Present	Introduced			Shukla (1996)
-Gujarat	Present				Rao et al. (2001)
-Haryana	Present	Introduced			Yadav et al. (2002)
-Himachal Pradesh	Present	Introduced			Shukla (1996)
-Jammu and Kashmir	Present	Introduced			Shukla (1996)
-Karnataka	Present	Introduced			Shukla (1996)
-Kerala	Present	Introduced			Musthafa and Potty (2001)
-Madhya Pradesh	Present	Introduced			Shukla (1996)
-Maharashtra	Present	Introduced			Shukla (1996)
-Meghalaya	Present	Introduced			Shukla (1996)
-Nagaland	Present	Introduced			Shukla (1996)
-Odisha	Present	Introduced			Shukla (1996)
-Punjab	Absent, Eradicated				Sharma and Khosla (1989) Muhammad Tauseef et al. (2012) Jabbar et al. (2016)
-Rajasthan	Present	Introduced			Sharma and Bhunia (1999)
-Tamil Nadu	Present	Introduced			Shukla (1996)
-Uttar Pradesh	Present	Introduced			Shukla (1996) Rashtra Vardhana (2017)
-West Bengal	Present	Introduced			Shukla (1996) Duary and Mukherjee (2013)
Indonesia	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Holm et al. (1979)
-Java	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
-Lesser Sunda Islands	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
-Maluku Islands	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
-Sulawesi	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
-Sumatra	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
Iran	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
Iraq	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Bor (1968)
Israel	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2016)
Japan	Present	Introduced			Koyama (1987) Clayton et al. (2016)
-Ryukyu Islands	Present	Introduced			Koyama (1987)
Kazakhstan	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
Kuwait	Present	Introduced			Boulos (1988)
Laos	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Waterhouse (1993)
Lebanon	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
Malaysia	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) CABI (Undated)
Myanmar	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Holm et al. (1979)
Nepal	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Dangol (2001)
Oman	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Chaudhary et al. (1981)
Pakistan	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Holm et al. (1979) Muhammad Tauseef et al. (2012) Jabbar et al. (2016) Zeeshan Ahmad et al. (2016)
Palestine	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
Philippines	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Holm et al. (1979)
Qatar	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2016) Batanouny (1981)
Saudi Arabia	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Migahid (1974)
Singapore	Present	Introduced			Waterhouse (1993)
South Korea	Present	Introduced	2002		Seebens et al. (2017) Clayton et al. (2016)
Sri Lanka	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Holm et al. (1979)
Taiwan	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Holm et al. (1979)
Thailand	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Noda et al. (1985)
Turkey	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Davis (1985)
United Arab Emirates	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Chaudhary et al. (1981)
Vietnam	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Ho-Minh (1969)
Yemen	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) Chaudhary et al. (1981)
Europe
Belgium	Present	Introduced	1882		Seebens et al. (2017) DAISIE (2016)
Cyprus	Present	Introduced		Invasive	DAISIE (2016) Seebens et al. (2017)
Czechia	Present	Introduced			DAISIE (2016)
Greece	Present	Introduced		Invasive	DAISIE (2016) Halàcsy (1904)
Italy	Present	Introduced		Invasive	DAISIE (2016) Arcangeli (1894)
-Sicily	Present	Introduced		Invasive	DAISIE (2016)
Poland	Present	Introduced	1899		Seebens et al. (2017)
Portugal	Present				CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Madeira	Present	Introduced		Invasive	DAISIE (2016) Seebens et al. (2017) CABI (Undated)
Spain	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
North America
Anguilla	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Antigua and Barbuda	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Aruba	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Burg et al. (2012)
Bahamas	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Barbados	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Belize	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016) MOBOT (2004)
Bonaire, Saint Eustatius and Saba
-Bonaire	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Burg et al. (2012)
-Saba	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Burg et al. (2012)
-Sint Eustatius	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Burg et al. (2012)
British Virgin Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodríguez (2015)	Anegada, Guana, Tortola, Virgin Gorda
Cayman Islands	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Costa Rica	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Chacón and Saborío (2012) MOBOT (2004)
Cuba	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Curaçao	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Burg et al. (2012)
Dominica	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Dominican Republic	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
El Salvador	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016) Holm et al. (1979)
Grenada	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Guadeloupe	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Guatemala	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016) MOBOT (2004)
Haiti	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Honduras	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016) MOBOT (2004)
Jamaica	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012) Anon (1964)
Martinique	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Mexico	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Vibrans (2009)
Montserrat	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Nicaragua	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016) MOBOT (2004)
Panama	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Puerto Rico	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodríguez (2015) Holm et al. (1979)
Saint Kitts and Nevis	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Saint Lucia	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Sint Maarten	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Burg et al. (2012)
Trinidad and Tobago	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012) Anon (1964)
U.S. Virgin Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodríguez (2015)	St Croix, St John, St Thomas
United States	Present				Holm et al. (1979)
-Alabama	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2004)
-Arizona	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2004)
-Arkansas	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2004)
-California	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2016)
-Colorado	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2004)
-Florida	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2004) Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council (2011)
-Georgia	Present				USDA-NRCS (2004)
-Hawaii	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Haselwood and Motter (1966) Holm et al. (1977) PIER (2016) Seebens et al. (2017)
-Illinois	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2004)
-Louisiana	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2016)
-Maine	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2004)
-Maryland	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2004)
-Massachusetts	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2004)
-Mississippi	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2004)
-New Jersey	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2004)
-New Mexico	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2004)
-New York	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2004)
-North Carolina	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2004)
-Ohio	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2004)
-Pennsylvania	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2004)
-South Carolina	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2004)
-Tennessee	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2016)
-Texas	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2004)
-Virginia	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2004)
Oceania
American Samoa	Present	Introduced			PIER (2016)
Australia	Present				CABI (Undated a) Blanche et al. (2003) Seebens et al. (2017)	Present based on regional distribution.
-New South Wales	Present	Introduced			AusGrass2 (2016)
-Northern Territory	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016) Blanche et al. (2003)
-Queensland	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
-Western Australia	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016) PPSWA (2004)
Christmas Island	Present	Introduced		Invasive	PIER (2016)
Cook Islands	Present	Introduced			PIER (2004)
Federated States of Micronesia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	PIER (2016)	Kosrae Island
Fiji	Present	Introduced		Invasive	PIER (2016)
French Polynesia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	PIER (2016) Florence et al. (2013)	Invasive on several islands
Guam	Present	Introduced		Invasive	PIER (2016)
Kiribati	Present	Introduced		Invasive	PIER (2016) PIER (2004)	Tarawa Atoll
Marshall Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	PIER (2016)
Nauru	Present	Introduced		Invasive	PIER (2016)
New Caledonia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	PIER (2016) MacKee (1994)
New Zealand	Present				James et al. (2011)
Niue	Present	Introduced		Invasive	PIER (2016)
Northern Mariana Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	PIER (2016)
Palau	Present	Introduced		Invasive	PIER (2016)
Papua New Guinea	Present	Introduced		Invasive	PIER (2016) Henty (1969) Clayton et al. (2016)
Samoa	Present	Introduced			PIER (2004)
Solomon Islands	Present	Introduced			PIER (2004)
Tonga	Present	Introduced			PIER (2004)
Tuvalu	Present	Introduced			PIER (2004)
U.S. Minor Outlying Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	PIER (2016)	Wake Island, Johnston Atoll
-Midway Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	PIER (2016)
Vanuatu	Present	Introduced			PIER (2004)
Wallis and Futuna	Present	Introduced		Invasive	PIER (2016)
South America
Argentina	Present, Widespread	Introduced			CABI (Undated)	Buenos Aires, Catamarca, Chaco, Córdoba, Formosa, Jujuy, La Pampa, La Rioja, Mendoza, Salta, Santiago del Estero, Santa Fe, San Juan, San Luis, Tucumán; Original citation: Zuloaga et al. (2008)
Bolivia	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Brazil
-Alagoas	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	Filgueiras and Valls (2015)	Naturalized
-Amapa	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	Filgueiras and Valls (2015)	Naturalized
-Bahia	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	Filgueiras and Valls (2015)	Naturalized
-Ceara	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	Filgueiras and Valls (2015)	Naturalized
-Espirito Santo	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	Filgueiras and Valls (2015)	Naturalized
-Goias	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	Filgueiras and Valls (2015)	Naturalized
-Maranhao	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	Filgueiras and Valls (2015)	Naturalized
-Mato Grosso	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	Filgueiras and Valls (2015)	Naturalized
-Mato Grosso do Sul	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	Filgueiras and Valls (2015)	Naturalized
-Minas Gerais	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	Filgueiras and Valls (2015)	Naturalized
-Para	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	Filgueiras and Valls (2015)	Naturalized
-Paraiba	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	Filgueiras and Valls (2015)	Naturalized
-Pernambuco	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	Filgueiras and Valls (2015)	Naturalized
-Piaui	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	Filgueiras and Valls (2015)	Naturalized
-Rio de Janeiro	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	Filgueiras and Valls (2015)	Naturalized
-Rio Grande do Norte	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	Filgueiras and Valls (2015)	Naturalized
-Rio Grande do Sul	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	Filgueiras and Valls (2015)	Naturalized
-Roraima	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	Filgueiras and Valls (2015)	Naturalized
-Santa Catarina	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	Filgueiras and Valls (2015)	Naturalized
-Sao Paulo	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	Filgueiras and Valls (2015)	Naturalized
-Sergipe	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	Filgueiras and Valls (2015)	Naturalized
-Tocantins	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	Filgueiras and Valls (2015)	Naturalized
Colombia	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Ecuador	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
-Galapagos Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
French Guiana	Present	Introduced			Funk et al. (2007)
Guyana	Present	Introduced			Funk et al. (2007)
Paraguay	Present	Introduced			CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Zuloaga et al. (2008)
Peru	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Suriname	Present	Introduced			Funk et al. (2007)
Uruguay	Present	Introduced			CABI (Undated)	Montevideo; Original citation: Zuloaga et al. (2008)
Venezuela	Present	Introduced			Funk et al. (2007)

History of Introduction and Spread

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Although this annual grass now has a pan-tropical distribution, few records exist on its introduction and consequent spread. It was introduced in Morocco in 1980 via contaminated crop seed and subsequently became a major weed in many areas by 1996 (Tanji and Taleb, 1997). In the Americas, D. aegyptium was introduced by accident and spread as a weed in maize and other crops (Bogdan, 1977). In Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands it was first reported in 1876 (Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2015). In Australia it was introduced in the 1860s to be used as a sand stabilizer and now can be found across Western Australia, Northern Territory, South Australia, Queensland, New South Wales, Christmas Island and Cocos Island (AusGrass2, 2016).

Risk of Introduction

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The risk of introduction of D. aegyptium is moderate to high. In some areas of Asia and Africa, it is widely used as forage and therefore new introductions are probable (Manidool, 1992). Inspections of shipments of grain and vegetable seed entering Canada have occasionally identified seed of D. aegyptium, indicating the potential for further accidental movement of this species around the world.

Habitat

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D. aegyptium grows as a weed in arable lands and waste places including those near the sea. It prefers light sandy soils in open sunny places that are dry or somewhat moist. Within its native range in East Africa, this species can be found at elevations from sea level to 2100 m (Clayton et al., 1974). It becomes established in disturbed areas, particularly agricultural fields in tropical and warm temperate areas. In Hawaii, it usually occurs on sand where it has become partially stabilized, on lava, along roadsides, and in other dry, exposed, disturbed areas (PIER, 2004). It is also known from riparian areas in the Sonora Desert of Arizona, USA (Van Devender, 1997). It is also a common weed in disturbed sites, open grounds, and roadsides. In Australia, it is common in disturbed areas but also present in open Eucalyptus forest on a variety of soils, and on coastal dunes (AusGrass2, 2016).

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural grasslands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Riverbanks	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Deserts	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Littoral		Coastal areas	Present, no further details

Hosts/Species Affected

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D. aegyptium is a ubiquitous weed in many cropping systems around the world. Holm et al. (1977) classified the degree of importance of D. aegyptium on crops in different countries, in decreasing level of severity, as follows: a serious weed of cotton in Thailand; a principal weed of cotton in Australia, Kenya, Mozambique, Nigeria, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda and USA, of sugarcane in India, the Philippines and Taiwan, of groundnuts in the Gambia and USA, of maize in Ghana and India and of rice in Sri Lanka and India; a common weed of rice in Indonesia, Nigeria and the Philippines, of coffee in Kenya and Tanzania and of tea in Taiwan and it occurs in bananas, pawpaws, cassava, citrus, sweet potatoes and millet in countries of Africa, Asia and Central America.

D. aegyptium has also been recorded in the weed flora of the following crops: aubergines in India; black gram (Vigna mungo) in Bangladesh and India; cassava in the Philippines; chickpeas in India; chillies (Capsicum) in India; cotton in Brazil, South China, India, Nepal, Thailand, USA and Zambia; cowpeas in India; finger millet (Eleusine coracana) in India; groundnuts in Bangladesh, Ghana, India, Senegal and USA; maize in India, Nigeria, Pakistan, Philippines and USA; jute in India; mint in India; mung beans (Vigna radiata) in India; okras in Nigeria; pawpaws in the Philippines; pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) in Burkina Faso, Mali and India; pigeon peas in India; potatoes in the Philippines; rice (transplanted) in India, Indonesia and Pakistan; rice (upland) in Cameroon, Gambia, India and Nigeria; sesame in India; sorghum in Australia, India; soyabeans in Ghana, India, Côte d'Ivoire, Pakistan, Senegal; sugarcane in India, Taiwan and Peru; sweet potatoes in the Philippines, Taiwan and USA; tobacco in India; wheat in Bangladesh and India; yams in India and the Philippines.

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context	References
Abelmoschus esculentus (okra)	Malvaceae	Other
Arachis hypogaea (groundnut)	Fabaceae	Main
Cajanus cajan (pigeon pea)	Fabaceae	Other
Camellia sinensis (tea)	Theaceae	Main
Capsicum frutescens (chilli)	Solanaceae	Other
Carica papaya (pawpaw)	Caricaceae	Other
Cicer arietinum (chickpea)	Fabaceae	Other
Citrus	Rutaceae	Other
Coffea (coffee)	Rubiaceae	Main
Corchorus (jutes)	Tiliaceae	Other
Dioscorea (yam)	Dioscoreaceae	Other
Eleusine coracana (finger millet)	Poaceae	Other
Glycine max (soyabean)	Fabaceae	Other
Gossypium (cotton)	Malvaceae	Main	Muhammad et al. (2012)
Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato)	Convolvulaceae	Other
Manihot esculenta (cassava)	Euphorbiaceae	Other
Mentha (mints)	Lamiaceae	Other
Musa x paradisiaca (plantain)	Musaceae	Other
Oryza sativa (rice)	Poaceae	Main	Kiran and Rao (2013); Duary and Mukherjee (2013); Jabbar et al. (2016); Munirathnam and Kumar (2014)
Panicum miliaceum (millet)	Poaceae	Other
Pennisetum glaucum (pearl millet)	Poaceae	Other
Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane)	Poaceae	Main	Munirathnam and Kumar (2014)
Sesamum indicum (sesame)	Pedaliaceae	Other
Solanum melongena (aubergine)	Solanaceae	Other
Solanum tuberosum (potato)	Solanaceae	Other
Sorghum bicolor (sorghum)	Poaceae	Other
Triticum (wheat)	Poaceae	Other
Triticum aestivum (wheat)	Poaceae	Other
Vigna radiata (mung bean)	Fabaceae	Other
Vigna unguiculata (cowpea)	Fabaceae	Other
Zea mays (maize)	Poaceae	Main	Zeeshan et al. (2016)

Biology and Ecology

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Genetics

Cytogenetic studies for D. aegyptium have reported chromosome numbers varied from 2n = 20, 36, 40, to 2n=48 for plants growing in areas within and outside its native distribution range (Hatch, 2003; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016).

Physiology and Phenology

D. aegyptium is a C₄grass. In warm regions it flowers all year round. In China, it has been recorded flowering and fruiting from May to October (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016). In summer rainfall areas of South Africa, flowering occurs from January to April (van Oudtshoorn, 1999). This species germinates over a range of 15 to 40°C, with the optimum germination of accessions from USA occurring at 30°C. Total germination is greatest in an alternating 20 and 35°C temperature regime. Emergence is similar when seed is on the soil surface or buried at depths of 0.5 or 1 cm. Germination decreases with burial depth, and no seed emerges from 10 cm (Burke et al., 2003).

Reproductive Biology

D. aegyptium is an annual grass that produces spikelets with flowers pollinated by wind. One plant can produce up to 66,000 seeds that, after 19 years, still attained 5% germination (Holm et al., 1977). This species spreads mainly by seeds but also has creeping or spreading stems that root at the lower nodes.

Environmental Requirements

D. aegyptium occurs from sea level to 2100 m in areas receiving 400-1500 mm rainfall annually (Clayton et al., 1974; Manidool, 1992). It is a common weed of disturbed places such as cultivated lands, gardens and roadsides, usually where additional water collects. It is adapted to a wide range of soil types but is particularly well suited to disturbed areas on sands to sandy loam soils. Salt tolerant ecotypes have been reported in Nigeria (Adu et al., 1994). It does not stand prolonged flooding (Manidool, 1992). D. aegyptium is one of the most drought-resistant African grasses as it can quickly grow and seed during the wet season (Heuzé et al., 2015).

Climate

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Climate	Status	Description
Af - Tropical rainforest climate	Preferred	> 60mm precipitation per month
Am - Tropical monsoon climate	Preferred	Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25]))
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer	Preferred	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate	Preferred	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer	Preferred	Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter	Preferred	Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters)
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year	Preferred	Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year

Air Temperature

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit
Mean annual temperature (ºC)	18	26
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC)	30	32
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC)	1	22

Rainfall

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit	Description
Dry season duration	1	5	number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall
Mean annual rainfall	520	1500	mm; lower/upper limits

Rainfall Regime

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Bimodal
Summer

Soil Tolerances

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Soil drainage

free

Soil reaction

acid
neutral

Soil texture

light
medium

Special soil tolerances

saline

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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Natural Dispersal

D. aegyptium spreads primarily by seeds but it also has creeping or spreading stems which root at the lower nodes (Holm et al., 1977). Dispersal is likely to be in water run-off, by wind, and by seed-eating insects, birds and mammals.

Accidental Introduction

Because D. aegyptium grows as a weed in agricultural lands and in disturbed sites, its seeds can be carried in soil on tractors and implements from site to site. This species has been dispersed as a contaminant in crop seed as a weed in crops (Bogdan, 1977).

Pathway Causes

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Cause	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Escape from confinement or garden escape	Contaminant in crops and crop seeds	Yes	Yes	Heuzé et al. (2015)
Forage	Used as fodder and for hay production	Yes	Yes	Heuzé et al. (2015)
Habitat restoration and improvement	Planted as soil stabilizer	Yes	Yes	AusGrass2 (2016)

Pathway Vectors

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Vector	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Debris and waste associated with human activities	Contaminant in crops and crop seeds	Yes	Yes	Heuzé et al. (2015)
Machinery and equipment	Seeds	Yes	Yes	Holm et al. (1977)
Soil, sand and gravel	Seeds	Yes	Yes	Holm et al. (1977)
Land vehicles	Seeds	Yes	Yes	Holm et al. (1977)
Water	Seeds		Yes	Holm et al. (1977)
Wind	Seeds		Yes	Holm et al. (1977)

Plant Trade

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Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport	Pest stages	Borne internally	Borne externally	Visibility of pest or symptoms
True seeds (inc. grain)				Pest or symptoms usually visible to the naked eye

Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Bark
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx
Fruits (inc. pods)
Growing medium accompanying plants
Leaves
Roots
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches
Wood

Wood Packaging

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Wood Packaging not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Loose wood packing material
Non-wood
Processed or treated wood
Solid wood packing material with bark
Solid wood packing material without bark

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Animal/plant collections	None
Animal/plant products	None
Biodiversity (generally)	Negative
Crop production	Negative
Economic/livelihood	Positive and negative
Environment (generally)	Positive and negative
Forestry production	None
Human health	None
Livestock production	Positive
Native fauna	None
Native flora	Negative
Rare/protected species	None
Tourism	None
Trade/international relations	None
Transport/travel	None

Economic Impact

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D. aegyptium is a ubiquitous weed in many cropping systems around the world; the level of infestation and damage caused vary according to crop and location.

Holm et al. (1977) classified the degree of importance of D. aegyptium on crops in different countries, in decreasing level of severity, as follows: a serious weed of cotton in Thailand; a principal weed of cotton in Australia, Kenya, Mozambique, Nigeria, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda and the USA, of sugarcane in India, the Philippines and Taiwan, of groundnuts in the Gambia and the USA, of maize in Ghana and India and of rice in Sri Lanka and India; a common weed of rice in Indonesia, Nigeria and the Philippines, of coffee in Kenya and Tanzania and of tea in Taiwan and it occurs in bananas, pawpaws, cassava, citrus, sweet potatoes and millet in countries of Africa, Asia and Central America. It has been noted in the weed flora of many other crops.

Data on yield loss caused by D. aegyptium alone is scarce, as it usually occurs as one of several weeds infesting fields. However, yield losses of 40% have been reported in aromatic grasses, Cymbopogon winterianus, C. flexuosus and C. martinii, infested with D. aegyptium (Singh et al., 1991).

The weed has been reported to be an alternate host of the Rice tungro virus and of rice bug in Asia (IRRI, 2004).

Environmental Impact

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D. aegyptium is an environmental weed occurring in many countries across tropical and subtropical regions (Clayton et al., 2016). It has been listed as a weed and invasive species in Greece, Italy, Madeira, the United States, Mexico, Costa Rica, the Galapagos Islands, the Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, and on many islands in the Lesser Antilles and the Pacific Ocean (Villaseñor and Espinosa-Garcia, 2004; Vibrans, 2009; Chacón and Saborío, 2012; Burg et al., 2012; Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2015; DAISIE, 2016; PIER, 2016; USDA-NRCS, 2016). In Florida (USA) it is listed as an invasive grass that is increasing in abundance and is starting to displace native vegetation (Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council, 2011). In Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands it invades primarily ruderal areas, secondary forests and coastal sites (Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2015). In Mexico it is invading coastal areas, negatively impacting native coastal vegetation (Villaseñor and Espinosa-Garcia, 2004; Vibrans, 2009). In the Galapagos Islands it is invading dry coastal areas (Charles Darwin Foundation, 2008).

Threatened Species

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Threatened Species	Conservation Status	Where Threatened	Mechanism	References
Calidris canutus (red knot)	NT (IUCN red list: Near threatened); USA ESA listing as threatened species	Florida	Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2013)
Panicum fauriei (Carter's panicgrass)	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Competition (unspecified)	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2011)
Scaevola coriacea (dwarf naupaka)	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Competition (unspecified)	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010a)
Sesbania tomentosa	National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Competition - monopolizing resources; Ecosystem change / habitat alteration	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010b)

Social Impact

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There are no reports of D. aegyptium causing any social impacts.

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Proved invasive outside its native range
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Highly mobile locally
Has high reproductive potential
Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year

Impact outcomes

Negatively impacts agriculture
Reduced native biodiversity

Impact mechanisms

Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition (unspecified)
Pest and disease transmission

Likelihood of entry/control

Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant

Uses

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D. aegyptium is widely used as forage and is relished by all types of ruminants (Manidool, 1992). Although D. aegyptium is a palatable pioneer grass that can quickly colonize disturbed areas, it seldom forms an important component of natural grassland and in Southern Africa is not considered a valuable grazing grass (van Oudtshoorn, 1999). It has been used as a cereal substitute in times of famine in parts of Africa and India, but it is not very palatable and is not cultivated for this purpose (van Oudtshoorn, 1999). This species makes excellent hay (Manidool, 1992). In Perth, Western Australia, it has been used as a lawn species (PPSWA, 2004). In Haryana, India, the grass is reported to provide fuel, fodder and stabilizes soil in natural woodland and plantations (Jalota et al., 2000). D. aegyptium is used as a stabilizer of sandy soils in Australia and for erosion control elsewhere (Heuzé et al., 2015).

Uses List

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Animal feed, fodder, forage

Fodder/animal feed
Forage

Environmental

Erosion control or dune stabilization
Soil conservation

Human food and beverage

Cereal
Emergency (famine) food

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

Traditional/folklore

Detection and Inspection

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D. aegyptium is usually identified initially by the characteristic 'bird's foot' arrangement of the inflorescence with 4-8 spreading spikes. It is sometimes found as seed during inspections of seed samples.

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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D. aegyptium may be readily confused with D. giganteum, although this plant is usually taller (culms up to 150 cm) and more robust than D. aegyptium. The anthers of D. aegyptium are 0.3-0.5 mm long, with the connective tissue clearly visible; they are 1.5-2.5 mm long in D. giganteum, with the connective tissue invisible.

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Cultural Control

The following practices are useful in weed management of annual grasses such as D. aegyptium: early weeding to correspond with peaks of germination; weeding during the critical period of the crop that is infested; weeding before maturation of weed seeds, to prevent dissemination; preparation of a weed-free seedbed; rotation of crops; and the use of living or dead organic mulches (Maillet, 1991).

IPM Programmes

Intercropping with leafy crops is used extensively to suppress weed growth. In India, pigeon pea/soyabean intercropping and application of fluchloralin with inter-row cultivation have been used (Nimje, 1993). In India, intercropping of sorghum with cowpeas, green gram (Vigna radiata), groundnuts and soyabeans suppressed the growth of D. aegyptium and increased sorghum yields (Abraham and Singh, 1986).

Growers of aromatic grasses, Cymbopogon winterianus, C. flexuosus and C. martinii, used an organic mulch, of the mint pulp after extraction, to suppress weeds including D. aegyptium; they also used chemical control. Applying mulch or using oxyfluorfen gave fresh weight and oil yields of mint equivalent to control plots that were maintained free of weeds by hand weeding (Singh et al., 1991).

Pannu et al. (1988) found that the type of irrigation and crop geometry had no effect on weed levels in groundnuts in India; however, hand weeding combined with fluchloralin application gave weed control (combined treatments were more effective than when used alone).

Land preparation methods affect the development of D. aegyptium. In Pakistan, Majid et al. (1986) found that deep chiselling and tied ridge sowing gave effective weed reduction and the highest grain yields of maize.

In upland rice, preparation of a stale seedbed, ploughing with post-emergence propanil, and hand weeding are methods that have been used to control D. aegyptium (Moorthy, 1992).

Chemical Control

The following chemicals and combinations of chemicals have been used to control D. aegyptium. Atrazine, atrazine-terbutryn, atrazine-simazine, fluchloralin and linuron. Foliar-applied propanil and paraquat. Soil treatments with pebulate, EPTC, nitralin, trifluralin, DCPA [chlorthal], diuron, fluometuron and prometryn have also been used (Soerjani et al., 1987)

In rice, EPTC, oxadiazon, pendimethalin, propanil and trifluralin have all been used (Soerjani et al., 1987).

In maize, metolachlor and atrazine have been used (Shad et al., 1993).

Diuron and ametryn have been used in pawpaw orchards in the Philippines (Mendoza and Mercado, unda). Metolachlor was used to control D. aegyptium and other weeds in intercropped black gram and sesame (Tewari et al., 1993). Quizalofop-ethyl was used in cotton in the USA (Hammes, 1986).

References

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Abdul Majid, Muhammad Shafiq, Muzaffar Iqbal, 1986. Deep tillage and sowing techniques in maize production under high rainfed conditions. Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Research, 7(3):181-185

Abraham CT, Singh SP, 1986. Control weeds in row crops by intercropping with legumes. Indian Farming, 36(9):33-34

Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm

Adu AA, Yeo AR, Okusanya OT, 1994. The response to salinity of a population of Dactyloctenium aegyptium from a saline habitat in southern Nigeria. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 10(2):219-228

Anon, 1964. Weeds of the West Indies and Mauritius. Essex, UK: May and Baker.

Arcangeli G, 1894. Compendio della flora Italiana. Roma: Ermano Loescher Torino.

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Batanouny KH, 1981. Ecology and the flora of Qatar. Qatar: University of Qatar, Centre for Scientific and Applied Research.

Bogdan AV, 1977. Tropical pasture and fodder plants. London, UK, Longman Group Limited, xiii +474 pp.

Bonnet EP, Barratte G, 1896. Catalogue raisonné des plantes vasculaires de la Tunisie, Paris.

Bor NL, 1968. Gramineae Vol 9. In: Townsend CC, Guest E, Al-Kawi A, eds. Flora of Iraq.

Boulos L, 1988. The weed flora of Kuwait. Kuwait: Kuwait University.

Braun M, Burgstaller H, Hamdoun AM, Walter H, 1991. Common Weeds of Central Sudan. Eschborn, Germany: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH.

Burg WJ van der, Freitas J de, Debrot AO, Lotz LAP, 2012. Naturalised and invasive alien plant species in the Caribbean Netherlands: status distribution, threats, priorities and recommendations. Report of a joint IMARES/CARMABI/PRI project. Wageningen, Netherland: Plant Research International, 82 pp. http://www.ciasnet.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/C185-11%20Invasive%20plants%20Dutch%20Caribbean.pdf

Burke IC, Thomas WE, Spears JF, Wilcut JW, 2003. Influence of environmental factors on after-ripened crowfootgrass (Dactyloctenium aegyptium) seed germination. Weed Science, 51(3):342-347; 38 ref.

CFIA, 2004. Canadian Food Inspection Agency World Wide Web site at http://www.inspection.gc.ca.

Chacón E, Saborío G, 2012. Red Interamericana de Información de Especies Invasoras, Costa Rica. San José, Costa Rica: Asociación para la Conservación y el Estudio de la Biodiversidad. http://invasoras.acebio.org

Charles Darwin Foundation, 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Galapagos, Ecuador: Charles Darwin Foundation

Chaudhary SA, Parker C, Kasasian L, 1981. Weeds of Central, Southern and Eastern Arabian Peninsula. Tropical Pest Management, 27(2):181-190.

Clayton WD, Govaerts R, Harman KT, Williamson H, Vorontsova M, 2016. World Checklist of Poaceae. Richmond, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/

Clayton WD, Phillips SM, Renvoize SA, 1974. Flora of Tropical East Africa. Gramineae (Part 2). London, UK: Crown Agents.

DAISIE, 2016. Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe. European Invasive Alien Species Gateway.. www.europe-aliens.org/default.do

Dangol DR, 2001. Phytosociology of weeds of cotton in Kumber Farm, Bardiya, Western Nepal. Indian Journal of Weed Science, 33(3/4):160-163; 5 ref.

Davis PH, 1985. Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands, Vol 9. UK: Edinburgh University Press.

Drummond RB, 1984. Arable Weeds of Zimbabwe. Harare, Zimbabwe: Agricultural Research Trust of Zimbabwe.

Duary, B., Mukherjee, A., 2013. Distribution pattern of predominant weeds in wet season and their management in West Bengal, India. In: The role of weed science in supporting food security by 2020. Proceedings of the 24th Asian-Pacific Weed Science Society Conference, Bandung, Indonesia, October 22-25, 2013 [The role of weed science in supporting food security by 2020. Proceedings of the 24th Asian-Pacific Weed Science Society Conference, Bandung, Indonesia, October 22-25, 2013], [ed. by Bakar, B. H., Kurniadie, D., Tjitrosoedirdjo, S.]. Bandung, Indonesia: Weed Science Society of Indonesia. 191-199.

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Links to Websites

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Website	URL	Comment
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway	https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.

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11/11/16 Updated by:

Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

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Dactyloctenium aegyptium (crowfoot grass)

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