Sphaeropsis sapinea
(Sphaeropsis blight)

Pictures

Top of page

Identity

Top of page

Preferred Scientific Name

• Sphaeropsis sapinea (Fr.) Dyko & B. Sutton 1980

Preferred Common Name

• Sphaeropsis blight

Other Scientific Names

• Botryodiplodia pinea (Desm.) Petr. 1922
• Diplodia conigena Desm. 1846
• Diplodia pinastri Grove 1916
• Diplodia pinea (Desm.) J. Kickx F. 1867
• Granulodiplodia sapinea (Fr.) M. Morelet & Lanier 1973
• Macrophoma pinea (Desm.) Petr. & Syd. 1926
• Macrophoma sapinea (Fr.) Petr. 1962
• Phoma pinastri Lév.
• Sphaeria pinea Desm. 1842
• Sphaeropsis ellisii Sacc. 1884
• Sphaeropsis pinastri (Lév.) Sacc. 1884

International Common Names

• English: dieback: pine; Diplodia blight; Diplodia canker; Diplodia shoot blight; Diplodia tip blight; shoot blight: conifers; shoot dieback: conifers; Sphaeropsis canker; Sphaeropsis shoot blight; Sphaeropsis tip blight; tip blight: conifers; twig blight: conifers; whorl canker: pine
• Spanish: marchitez de los brotes del pino
• French: deperissement des pousses du pin

Local Common Names

• Germany: Triebspitzenkrankheit: Kiefer

EPPO code

• DIPDPI (Diplodia pinea)

Summary of Invasiveness

Top of page Detailed studies of invasion are lacking, but disease has developed rapidly and resulted in severe damage where the fungus was presumably introduced with pines into the southern hemisphere. Relatively recent reports of severe damage in areas of the north-central USA may also be indicative of invasion and proliferation there. Distribution on cones, seed, diseased seedlings or colonized tree stems after harvest, on or in asymptomatic tree parts, and by insects, could facilitate expansion of geographic range.

Taxonomic Tree

Top of page

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Fungi
•         Phylum: Ascomycota
•             Subphylum: Pezizomycotina
•                 Class: Lecanoromycetes
•                     Subclass: Lecanoromycetidae
•                         Order: Lecanorales
•                             Family: Acarosporaceae
•                                 Genus: Sphaeropsis
•                                     Species: Sphaeropsis sapinea

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Top of page Additional synonymy of the genus and/or species are presented in Petrak (1961), Punithalingam and Waterston (1970) and Sutton (1980). Denman et al. (2000) proposed that Diplodia should be used instead of Sphaeropsis. Phylogenetic studies have placed Sphaeropsis sapinea among Botryosphaeria species and related anamorphic fungi (Diplodia, Sphaeropsis, Lasiodiplodia) having pigmented conidia (Jacobs and Rehner, 1998; Denman et al., 2000; Zhou and Stanosz, 2001). Analyses of molecular markers allow differentiation of distinct groups that were first referred to as A and B morphotypes (Palmer et al., 1987) within S. sapinea sensu lato (Stanosz et al., 1999; Zhou and Stanosz, 2001; Zhou et al., 2001). Burgess et al. (2001) also differentiated a third group (referred to as the C morphotype), and De Wet et al. (2003) subsequently treated the B group as a discrete taxon, naming it Diplodia scrobiculata. It has been similarly demonstrated that the fungus referred to as Diplodia pinea f.sp. cupressi (or Sphaeropsis sapinea f.sp. cupressi) is also quite distinct from S. sapinea (Swart et al., 1993; Stanosz et al., 1998; Zhou and Stanosz, 2001; Zhou et al., 2001).

Description

Top of page Features of S. sapinea have been described and illustrated by Punithalingam and Waterston (1970) and Sutton (1980). Pycnidial conidiomata are dark, solitary or aggregated, immersed to erumpent, ovoid (up to approximately 250 µm diam.), and ostiolate. When produced on autoclaved needles placed on culture media, conidiomata may be superficial. Necks of conidiomata may be elongated when produced on such needles or produced on or in media. Conidiogenous cells are 15-20 µm long. Conidia are ovoid to obovoid, rounded at the apex and may be blunt or truncate at the base, initially hyaline to yellowish becoming dark brown, usually 0-1 (but may be 3 or more) septate, thick-walled and approximately 30-45 x 10-16 µm. Conidia may be smooth or exhibit pits in conidial walls, a character that is highly variable (Swart et al., 1993). Microconidia that are hyaline, cylindrical with rounded ends, aseptate, 2.5-6 x 1-2 µm may also be produced (Wingfield and Knox-Davies, 1980).

Distribution

Top of page S. sapinea (under this name or its numerous synonyms) has been reported from many areas within the natural ranges of its hosts and the regions into which they have been introduced and are cultivated. However, many occurrences probably have not been reported in readily available literature. Other reports do not clearly indicate the location(s) of collection. In addition, identifications are sometimes poorly documented and it is possible that other fungi with similar pigmented conidia have been identified as S. sapinea. In other cases, identification is made only to genus (Sphaeropsis or Diplodia) level. Although the origin of S. sapinea is unknown, it was probably introduced to many regions with the movement of host material. It is probable that the known distribution of the fungus will continue to expand as it is further spread or detected in areas where it is not yet confirmed.

Distribution Table

Top of page

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 30 Mar 2020

Risk of Introduction

Top of page S. sapinea is not listed as a quarantine organism by the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO).

Hosts/Species Affected

Top of page The host range is compiled from numerous sources reporting anecdotal observations, field surveys, indexes, checklists, as well as those describing experimental studies in detail. Reports may not be supported by careful characterization or isolation of the pathogen, and therefore erroneous information could be included. Sources also often do not provide information about the incidence or severity of disease symptoms on the host(s) mentioned. In addition, because differentiation of Sphaeropsis scrobiculata and the fungus referred to as Diplodia pinea f.sp. cupressi or S. sapinea f.sp. cupressi have been relatively recent, these two fungi have probably been included in some reports of hosts of S. sapinea.

High incidence and severity of disease have been reported on native Pinus banksiana, P. ponderosa and P. resinosa in nurseries, plantations, windbreaks, and some natural stands in the north-eastern, north-central and plains states of the USA and adjacent Canada. When grown as ornamentals, in windbreaks, or for Christmas trees, the exotic species Pinus mugo, P. nigra and P. sylvestris may also be severely damaged in the same regions. In Europe, P. nigra may be severely damaged. Economic damage has occurred in exotic plantings of Pinus radiata and P. patula in the southern hemisphere.

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

Top of page

Growth Stages

Top of page Flowering stage, Fruiting stage, Post-harvest, Pre-emergence, Seedling stage, Vegetative growing stage

Symptoms

Top of page A variety of symptoms are exhibited by cones, seed and young seedlings in response to colonization by S. sapinea. Female cones may be killed before full development, becoming dark, shrunken and deformed. Symptoms resulting from in vitro inoculation range from reduced germination to death of seed of several Central American pine species (Rees and Webber, 1988). Radicles of germinants were shortened, thickened and discoloured, and if killed became flaccid and brown. Similarly, Fisher (1941) noted reduced germination and radicle decay for Pinus resinosa and P. ponderosa.

Palmer and Nicholls (1985) noted shoot blight of 1-year-old red pine seedlings evidenced by dead terminal buds and upper needles and symptoms on older seedlings including death of new shoots during shoot expansion and needle elongation. Exudation of resin droplets may be the first symptom of infection on either needles or succulent stems. Needles become discoloured and are often killed without elongating beyond fascicle sheaths. Water-soaked, purplish-brown stem lesions may expand as stems become stunted, curled, hardened, resin-encrusted and necrotic (Chou, 1976). Seedlings in nurseries and recently planted seedlings and saplings may be killed by Sphaeropsis collar rot (Palmer and Nicholls, 1985; Stanosz and Cummings Carlson, 1996), characterized by discoloured, necrotic bark and dark discoloration of wood in the lower stem and root collar. Foliage on the entire seedling or sapling becomes chlorotic, desiccated and brown as the stem is girdled.

Initial symptoms of shoot blight on established trees resemble those on seedlings, but symptoms become more severe as colonization progresses. The fungus proceeds from killed shoot tips or diseased cones into woody stems to cause cankers (Waterman, 1943; Chou, 1976). Exudation of resin may be copious and dead needles are often retained. On younger stems, smooth bark may be depressed and turn brown as it dies. The underlying wood may be stained green to brown to blue to black and be resin-soaked. Older cankers may be bounded by callus. Entire branches or whorls of branches may be killed as the pathogen progressively invades, and substantial dieback or dead tops can result. Subsequent forking or branching of diseased leaders may result in substantial defect (Currie and Toes, 1978).

Severe crown symptoms and tree death may follow hailstorms, drought or pruning. Zwolinski et al. (1990b) estimated loss of as much as half the live foliage, death of 50-80% of leaders, and up to almost 20% tree mortality in Pinus radiata plantations in South Africa in the months after a hail event. Chou (1987) described crown wilt of P. radiata associated with the colonization and killing of inner bark, the extensive invasion and blue staining of wood, and subsequent desiccation. Grey to blue to black staining of wood may occur in freshly cut logs and green lumber (Young, 1937; Kreber et al., 2001) and also in roots colonized by S. sapinea (Wingfield and Knox-Davies, 1980).

List of Symptoms/Signs

Top of page

Biology and Ecology

Top of page S. sapinea overwinters as conidia in pycnidia or mycelium in needles, shoots, branches and cones. Debris can be a source of inoculum for long periods (Zhou et al., 1997) and conidia release is common whenever the weather is moist (Brookhouser and Peterson, 1971; Swart et al., 1987a; Palmer et al., 1988) and they are distributed by rain or insects. Germination is rapid and penetration can occur through stomata on elongating needles (Brookhouser and Peterson, 1971) and directly through intact surfaces of succulent, expanding shoot tips (Chou, 1978). Penetration can also occur through wounds, including those produced by pruning branches from large trees (Chou and MacKenzie, 1988). Symptom development on young needles and succulent shoots is rapid, with visible lesions and wilting of affected organs within days to weeks of infection.

Altered host condition strongly influences the incidence and severity of disease. Field observations include long association of outbreaks with drought (Nicholls and Ostry, 1990). Experimental data from studies of potted trees (Bachi and Peterson, 1985; Chou, 1987; Blodgett et al., 1997a) and established plantation trees (Blodgett et al., 1997b) for which water status has been manipulated, support the importance of low host water potential in the induction of susceptibility. Outbreaks have also been associated with altered host nutrition (De Kam et al., 1991; Van Dijk et al., 1992; Stanosz and Trobaugh, 1996). The effects of tree age and seasonal conditioning on host susceptibility have also been observed (Chou, 1977, 1982).

The often sudden development of disease can in part be explained by the discovery that S. sapinea can persist on or in its hosts in the absence of any obvious symptoms. Virulent isolates of the pathogen have been obtained from various organs of naturally infected but asymptomatic pines including Pinus banksiana, P. nigra, P. patula, P. resinosa, P. sylvestris and P. radiata (Smith et al., 1996; Stanosz et al., 1997; Flowers et al., 2001). The fungus has also been re-isolated from wounded and inoculated seedlings of several other conifer species on which symptoms were not produced (Blodgett and Stanosz, 1999). Using naturally infected, potted P. resinosa seedlings, Stanosz et al. (2001) demonstrated that water stress can release S. sapinea from quiescence to result in rapid disease development and seedling mortality, thus proving the potential of S. sapinea to act as a latent pathogen sensu Mussell (1980).

Natural enemies

Top of page

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Top of page Natural Dispersal

Conidia of S. sapinea are released under moist conditions and disseminated by rainsplash or wind-driven rain. Thick-walled conidia are very durable and could remain not germinated but viable for long periods on seed, debris, other plants, wood products, etc. Feci et al. (2002) demonstrated that conidia are carried by the cone bug Gastrodes grossipes, which is associated with cones of Pinus nigra in Italy.

Movement in Trade/Transport

In trade, the pathogen could be moved on or in cones, seed, any above- or below-ground organ of colonized seedlings or larger trees or their parts, logs, green lumber, and chips, bark or mulch. The ability of S. sapinea to persist asymptomatically on or in trees and tree parts provides additional potential for movement.

Plant Trade

Top of page

Impact

Top of page Whether or not losses have been expressed in economic terms, significant damage has been caused by S. sapinea in a variety of situations. Palmer and Nicholls (1985) reported loss of 35% of 1-year-old red pine seedlings in a Wisconsin nursery (loss of more than 1 million seedlings). In the same state, mortality of newly planted or established red pine saplings during a drought year was as great as 95% in some plantations. Lower stems and root collars frequently yielded S. sapinea, which proliferates to rapidly girdle and kill many trees under these conditions (Stanosz and Cummings Carlson, 1996; Stanosz et al., 2001). Nicholls and Ostry (1990) reported tree mortality in Pinus banksiana and P. resinosa plantations ranging from 2 to 51% in Minnesota and Wisconsin, and indicated that S. sapinea was consistently associated with dead trees. Trees in windbreaks also have been severely damaged in central USA (Peterson and Wysong, 1968).

Losses in the production of Pinus radiata in the southern hemisphere have been reported in more detail. Zwolinski et al. (1990a) quantified the losses resulting from a post-hail outbreak of dieback induced by S. sapinea affecting approximately 2000 ha of mostly P. radiata in the Cape Province of South Africa. The timber loss in compartments prematurely harvested was about 28% of the volume and 55% of the value of potential production. The percentage volume loss increased with plantation age, with the greatest losses recorded on good quality sites. Great losses were also documented for a P. radiata stand affected by S. sapinea in New Zealand (Currie and Toes, 1978). There was a close association between the severity of dieback, tree malformation, and loss in merchantable tree volume. A reduction of 63% in merchantable tree volume was estimated. In contrast, despite a high incidence of top death in some (usually younger) stands of P. radiata in north-eastern Victoria, Australia, the overall effect on tree growth and on volume and value of merchantable wood was small (Wright and Marks, 1970). The volume of degraded wood in this study ranged from 0.5 to 5.5% of the possible volume.

Economic Impact

Top of page Whether or not losses have been expressed in economic terms, significant damage has been caused by S. sapinea in a variety of situations. Palmer and Nicholls (1985) reported loss of 35% of 1-year-old red pine seedlings in a Wisconsin nursery (loss of more than 1 million seedlings). In the same state, mortality of newly planted or established red pine saplings during a drought year was as great as 95% in some plantations. Lower stems and root collars frequently yielded S. sapinea, which proliferates to rapidly girdle and kill many trees under these conditions (Stanosz and Cummings Carlson, 1996; Stanosz et al., 2001). Nicholls and Ostry (1990) reported tree mortality in Pinus banksiana and P. resinosa plantations ranging from 2 to 51% in Minnesota and Wisconsin, and indicated that S. sapinea was consistently associated with dead trees. Trees in windbreaks also have been severely damaged in central USA (Peterson and Wysong, 1968).

Losses in the production of Pinus radiata in the southern hemisphere have been reported in more detail. Zwolinski et al. (1990a) quantified the losses resulting from a post-hail outbreak of dieback induced by S. sapinea affecting approximately 2000 ha of mostly P. radiata in the Cape Province of South Africa. The timber loss in compartments prematurely harvested was about 28% of the volume and 55% of the value of potential production. The percentage volume loss increased with plantation age, with the greatest losses recorded on good quality sites. Great losses were also documented for a P. radiata stand affected by S. sapinea in New Zealand (Currie and Toes, 1978). There was a close association between the severity of dieback, tree malformation, and loss in merchantable tree volume. A reduction of 63% in merchantable tree volume was estimated. In contrast, despite a high incidence of top death in some (usually younger) stands of P. radiata in north-eastern Victoria, Australia, the overall effect on tree growth and on volume and value of merchantable wood was small (Wright and Marks, 1970). The volume of degraded wood in this study ranged from 0.5 to 5.5% of the possible volume.

Environmental Impact

Top of page Information on environmental impacts to natural environments is lacking.

Diagnosis

Top of page Tentative diagnosis of S. sapinea is accomplished by recognition of pycnidia with conidia (Punithalingam and Waterston, 1970; Sutton, 1980). Pycnidia commonly occur on or in colonized needles, shoots, cones and bark of woody stems and roots. It is possible to isolate S. sapinea from colonized tissues and from conidia streaked onto culture media. Isolation has been facilitated by use of an amended malt extract medium (20 g Difco agar, 10 g Difco malt extract, 50 mg rose bengal, 10 mg active ingredient (a.i.) benodanil, 1 mg a.i. chlorothalonil, 1 mg o-phenylphenol and 1 L water) (Swart et al., 1987b). Water agar amended with tannic acid has also been used to efficiently culture S. sapinea from asymptomatic shoots (20 g Difco agar, 5 g tannic acid and 1 L water) (Blodgett et al., 2003). Pycnidia and conidia form in colonies produced on a water agar, malt extract agar, potato dextrose agar and other media, and on autoclaved conifer needles placed on the surface of culture media. Incubation of cultures in the light enhances the production of pycnidia.

The analysis of molecular markers allows confirmation of S. sapinea. Differences in ITS and 5.8S rDNA sequences among S. sapinea and closely related species are small (Zhou and Stanosz, 2001). Comparison of inter simple sequence repeat fingerprints of genomic DNA, however, allows differentiation of S. sapinea from Diplodia scrobiculata (formerly differentiated as the B morphotype or B group of S. sapinea) (De Wet et al., 2003) as well as other species of Botryosphaeria and related anamorphic fungi with pigmented conidia (Zhou et al., 2001). Restriction enzyme analysis of ribosomal DNA sequences also differentiated isolates of S. sapinea from those of D. scrobiculata (Hausner et al., 1999). Identification of isolates as S. sapinea or D. scrobiculata can also be accomplished by polymerase chain reaction amplification of random amplified polymorphic DNA markers specific to each species (Stanosz et al., 1999).

Detection and Inspection

Top of page Although sometimes recognizable as characteristic, symptoms vary and are not unique, and S. sapinea may be present in tree parts also damaged by other fungal pathogens, insects or abiotic agents. Discoloration of wood colonized in living trees or after felling is also not distinctive.

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

Top of page Identical shoot blight symptoms can be induced on a variety of conifer hosts (Blodgett and Stanosz, 1997; Blodgett and Stanosz, 1999) by the recently described, closely related, and morphologically similar pathogen Diplodia scrobiculata (De Wet et al., 2003) that was formerly differentiated as the B morphotype or B group of S. sapinea (Palmer et al., 1987). In addition, symptoms caused by other fungal pathogens of shoots (e.g., Sirococcus conigenus), by insects (e.g., the pine shoot moth Dioryctria resinosella) and abiotic agents (e.g., frost) can be similar. Sapwood staining caused by S. sapinea is not so distinctive as to easily be differentiated from that caused by other fungi.

Prevention and Control

Top of page

Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Phytosanitary Measures

Specific information is lacking regarding the effectiveness of measures to disinfest seed, or treat logs or lumber, to prevent movement of S. sapinea.

Cultural Control and Sanitary Methods

The removal and destruction of colonized shoots, branches and cones can prevent further invasion of a diseased tree and reduce the availability of inoculum for further spread. Host species should not be used for windbreaks in nurseries and it may be desirable to remove significantly damaged trees from production areas. Excessive pruning should be avoided and pruning and shearing should be limited to dry weather when inoculum is less available. The association of disease with water stress (Nicholls and Ostry, 1990; Blodgett et al., 1997a, b) and altered nutrition (De Kam et al., 1991; Van Dijk et al., 1992; Stanosz and Trobaugh, 1996) suggests that maintaining favourable moisture status and avoiding excesses in nitrogen may reduce the incidence and/or severity of disease. Less susceptible or non-host species should be considered for sites with a history of unacceptable damage.

Host-Plant Resistance

The incidence and severity of symptoms varies among host species. The most damaged species are found among the two- and three-needled 'hard pines' (subgenus Diploxylon); five-needled 'soft pines' (subgenus Haploxylon) and non-pine hosts are generally less susceptible. Within the former group, non-wounded Pinus resinosa seedlings inoculated with conidia in greenhouse trials exhibited a lower incidence and less severe symptoms than Pinus banksiana seedlings (Blodgett and Stanosz, 1997). Ranked from greatest to least severity of symptoms in response to wounding and inoculation of terminal shoots with S. sapinea were Pinus sylvestris, P. resinosa, Picea pungens, Pinus mugo, Pseudotsuga menziesii and Abies balsamea (Blodgett and Stanosz, 1999). Differences in responses of pine species cultivated in South Africa to inoculation with S. sapinea were quantified by Swart et al. (1988). In a growth chamber experiment, inoculated seedlings of Pinus kesiya, P. pinaster and P. radiata exhibited greater frequencies of dead shoots than those of P. elliottii, P. patula and P. taeda. On trees inoculated in the field, a greater frequency of shoot death and longer cambial lesions occurred for P. radiata than for P. elliottii and P. pinaster.

Variation in host response to S. sapinea has also been observed within species. Burdon et al. (1982) studied responses of inoculated progenies of parents selected for freedom from S. sapinea-associated shoot dieback on a site of very high disease incidence. As a group these progenies showed a lower incidence of disease than control seedlots, and there was also considerable variation among these progenies. Gerhold et al. (1994) noted differences in response to inoculation among varieties of P. sylvestris seedlings. Variation in disease tolerance between provenances and among families of Pinus greggii following natural infection by S. sapinea has also been reported (Smith et al., 2002).

Chemical Control

Fungicide applications have reduced the incidence of shoot blight and may be appropriate for nurseries, Christmas tree plantations, ornamental plantings and windbreaks (Van Der Westhuizen, 1968; Schweitzer and Sinclair, 1976; Peterson, 1977; Palmer et al., 1986; Stanosz and Smith, 1996). Stanosz and Smith (1996) found similar efficacy of thiophanate methyl and chlorothalonil on Pinus resinosa seedlings. However, asymptomatic persistence of virulent strains of S. sapinea can occur on or in hosts in spite of fungicide use (Stanosz et al., 1997). Proliferation of S. sapinea in raw logs and freshly sawn lumber has been suppressed by treatment with methyl bisthiocyanate and 2-n-octyl-4-isothiazolin-3-one (Kreber et al., 2001).

References

Top of page

András K; József T; László K; Tibor S, 2009. Chemical control of pathogens Dothistroma septospora (Dorog.) Morlet and Sphaeropsis sapinea Dyko & Sutton in young European black pine (Pinus nigra) stands. (Vegyszeres védekezés a Dothistroma septospora (Dorog.) morlet és Sphaeropsis sapinea Dyko & Sutton kórokozók ellen fiatal feketefenyo´´ (Pinus nigra) állományban.) Növényvédelem, 45(4):225-230.

Anon., 1942. Principales enfermedades parasitarias que fueron objeto de consulta en el primer semester de 1942. Bol. Sandid. Veg., Santiago 2: unnumbered pages.

Anon., 1966. List of important diseases and pests of economic plants in Japan, 591pp. Tokyo: Nihon Tokushu Noyaku Seizo K.K.

Bachi PR; Peterson JL, 1985. Enhancement of Sphaeropsis sapinea stem invasion of pines by water deficits. Plant Disease, 69(9):798-799

Bega RV; Smith RS Jr; Martinez AP; Davis CJ, 1978. Severe damage to Pinus radiata and P. pinaster by Diplodia pinea and Lophodermium spp. on Molokai and Lanai in Hawaii. Plant Disease Reporter, 62(4):329-311

Bettucci L; Simeto S; Alonso R; Lupo S, 2004. Endophytic fungi of twigs and leaves of three native species of Myrtaceae in Uruguay. Sydowia, 56(1):8-23.

Birch TTC, 1936. Diplodia pinea in New Zealand. New Zealand State Forest Service Bulletin No. 8.

Blodgett JT; Bonello P; Stanosz GR, 2003. An effective medium for isolating Sphaeropsis sapinea from asymptomatic pines. Forest Pathology, 33:395-404.

Blodgett JT; Kruger EL; Stanosz GR, 1997. Effects of moderate water stress on disease development by Sphaeropsis sapinea on red pine. Phytopathology, 87(4):422-428; 33 ref.

Blodgett JT; Kruger EL; Stanosz GR, 1997. Sphaeropsis sapinea and water stress in a red pine plantation in central Wisconsin. Phytopathology, 87(4):429-434; 37 ref.

Blodgett JT; Stanosz GR, 1997. Sphaeropsis sapinea morphotypes differ in aggressiveness, but both infect nonwounded red or jack pines. Plant Disease, 81(2):143-147; 22 ref.

Blodgett JT; Stanosz GR, 1999. Differences in aggressiveness of Sphaeropsis sapinea RAPD marker group isolates on several conifers. Plant Disease, 83(9):853-856; 31 ref.

Brookhouser LW; Peterson GW, 1971. Infection of Austrian, Scots and Ponderosa Pines by Diplodia pinea. Phytopathology 61 (4), (409-14). [16 refs.].

Burdon RD; Currie D; Chou CKS, 1982. Response to inoculation with Diplodia pinea in progenies of apparently resistant trees of Pinus radiata. Australasian Plant Pathology, 11(4):37-38

Burgess T; Wingfield BD; Wingfield MJ, 2001. Comparison of genotypic diversity in native and introduced populations of Sphaeropsis sapinea isolated from Pinus radiata. Mycological Research, 105(11):1331-1339; 44 ref.

Butin H, 1984. Damage to shoot tips of Scots pine caused by Diplodia pinea. [Triebspitzenschaden an Pinus sylvestris, verursacht durch Sphaeropsis sapinea (= Diplodia pinea).] Allgemeine Forstzeitschrift, No. 50, 1256-1257; 9 ref.

Cabras A; Mannoni MA; Serra S; Andolfi A; Fiore M; Evidente A, 2006. Occurrence, isolation and biological activity of phytotoxic metabolites produced in vitro by Sphaeropsis sapinea, pathogenic fungus of Pinus radiata. European Journal of Plant Pathology, 115(2):187-193. http://springerlink.metapress.com/link.asp?id=100265

Cedeno L; Carrero C; Franco W; Torres Lezama A, 2001. Sphaeropsis sapinea associated with shoot blight, dieback and canker on stems, branches and roots of Caribbean pine in Venezuela. Interciencia, 26(5):210-215; 36 ref.

Chandrasrikul A, 1962. A preliminary host list of plant diseases in Thailand. Technical Bulletin 6. Bangkok, Thailand: Department of Agriculture.

Chen C; Chang H, 1966. Pine tip blight in Taiwan. Plant Protection Bulletin 8:169-172.

Chou CKS, 1976. A shoot dieback in Pinus radiata caused by Diplodia pinea. 1. Symptoms, disease development, and isolation of pathogen. New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science, 6(1):72-79

Chou CKS, 1977. Effect of tree age on Diplodia pinea infection of Pinus radiata. Plant Disease Reporter, 61(2):101-103

Chou CKS, 1978. Penetration of young stems of Pinus radiata by Diplodia pinea. Physiological Plant Pathology, 13(2):189-192

Chou CKS, 1982. Susceptibility of Pinus radiata seedlings to infection by Diplodia pinea as affected by pre-inoculation conditions. New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science, 12(3):438-441; 6 ref.

Chou CKS, 1987. Crown wilt of Pinus radiata associated with Diplodia pinea infection of woody stems. European Journal of Forest Pathology, 17(7):398-411

Chou CKS; MacKenzie M, 1988. Effect of pruning intensity and season on Diplodia pinea infection of Pinus radiata stem through pruning wounds. European Journal of Forest Pathology, 18(7):437-444

Currie D; Toes E, 1978. Stem volume loss due to severe Diplodia infection in a young Pinus radiata stand. New Zealand Journal of Forestry, 23(1):143-148

Curtis KM, 1930. A dieback of Pinus radiata and P. muricata caused by the fungus Botryodiplodia pinea (Desm.) Petr. Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, 56:52-57.

Davison EM; Tay FCS; Peroni D, 1991. Sphaeropsis sapinea on pines in Western Australia. Australian Plant Pathology, 20(1):31

De Carvalho I, 1948. Relacao preliminar de dofncas encontradas em plantes e insectos com anatacoes fitopatologicas. Coloia de Mocambique, Reporticao de Agricultura, Seccao de Micologia.

De Wet J; Burgess T; Slippers B; Presig O; Wingfield B; Wingfield MJ, 2003. Multiple gene genealogies and microsatellite markers reflect relationships between morphotypes of Sphaeropsis sapinea and distinguish a new species of Diplodia. Mycological Research, 107:557-566.

Denman S; Crous P; Taylor JE; Kang J; Pascoe I; Wingfield MJ, 2000. An overview of the taxonomic history of Botryosphaeria, and a re-evaluation of its anamorphs based on morphology and ITS rDNA phylogeny. Studies in Mycology, 45:129-140.

Dennis RWG; Reid DA; Spooner B, 1977. The fungi of the Azores. Kew Bulletin, 32(1):85-136

Dijk HFG van; Gaag M van der; Perik PJM; Roelofs JGM, 1992. Nutrient availability in Corsican pine stands in the Netherlands and the occurrence of Sphaeropsis sapinea: a field study. Canadian Journal of Botany, 70(4):870-875

Diminic D; Jurc M, 1999. Some aspects of Sphaeropsis sapinea presence on Austrian pine in Croatia and Slovenia. Phyton (Horn), 39(3):231-234; 10 ref.

Dogmus-Lehtijärvi HT; Lehtijärvi A; Karaca G; Aday AG, 2007. Sphaeropsis sapinea Dyko & Sutton associated with shoot blight on Pinus brutia Ten. in Southwestern Turkey. Acta Silvatica & Lignaria Hungarica [Foliage, shoot and stem diseases of forest trees. Proceedings of the conference of IUFRO Working Party 7.02.02, Sopron, Hungary, 21-26 May 2007.], Special:95-99. http://aslh.nyme.hu/fileadmin/dokumentumok/fmk/acta_silvatica/cikkek/VolE3-2007/11_dogmus_et_al.pdf

Engesser R, 2002. Red pines in the valleys of Reuss and Limmat. (Rote Föhren im Reuss- und Limmattal.) Informationsblatt Forschungsbereich Wald, No.12:5-6.

Farr DF; Bills GF; Chamuris GP; Rossman AY, 1989. Fungi on Plants and Plant Products in the United States. St. Paul, Minnesota, USA: APS Press, 1252 pp.

Feci E; Battisti A; Capretti P; Tegli S, 2002. An association between the fungus Sphaeropsis sapinea and the cone bug Gastrodes grossipes in cones of Pinus nigra in Italy. Forest Pathology, 32(4/5):241-247; 20 ref.

Fisher PL, 1941. Germination reduction and radicle decay of conifers caused by certain fungi. Repr. from J. agric. Res. 62 (87-95). [Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S.D.A.].

Flowers J; Nuckles E; Hartman J; Vaillancourt L, 2001. Latent infection of Austrian and Scots pine tissues by Sphaeropsis sapinea. Plant Disease, 85(10):1107-1112; 25 ref.

Fraedrich SW; Miller T, 1995. Mycoflora associated with slash-pine seeds from cones collected at seed orchards and cone-processing facilities in the south-eastern USA. European Journal of Forest Pathology, 25(2):73-82; 38 ref.

Fraedrich SW; Miller T; Zarnoch SJ, 1994. Factors affecting the incidence of black seed rot in slash pine. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 24(8):1717-1725

Franceschini A; Linaldeddu BT; Deriu L, 2006. Sphaeropsis sapinea associated to dieback of Pinus radiata in Sardinia. (Sphaeropsis sapinea associata a disseccamenti di Pinus radiata in Sardegna.) Informatore Fitopatologico, 56(1):54-58.

Gerhold HD; Rhodes HLH; Wenner NG, 1994. Screening Pinus sylvestris for resistance to Sphaeropsis sapinea. Silvae Genetica, 43(5/6):333-338; 17 ref.

Gezahgne A; Roux J; Wingfield MJ, 2003. Diseases of exotic Eucalyptus and Pinus species in Ethiopian plantations. South African Journal of Science, 99(1/2):29-33; 37 ref.

Ginns JH, 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada, 1960-1980. Ottawa, Canada; Canadian Government Publishing Centre1813:416..

Hausner G; Hopkin AA; Davis CN; Reid J, 1999. Variation in culture and rDNA among isolates of Sphaeropsis sapinea from Ontario and Manitoba. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology, 21(3):256-264; 24 ref.

Hedgecock GG, 1932. Notes on the distribution of some fungi associated with diseases of conifers. Plant Disease Reporter, 16:28-42.

Hunt RS, 1969. Pinus sabiniana and Pinus muricata as hosts for Diplodia pinea in California. Plant Dis. Reptr. 53 (8), (675-7). [10 refs.].

IMI Herbarium, 1900-. Herbarium specimen. International Mycological Institute (now CABI Bioscience) Herbarium. Egham, UK: CABI Bioscience.

IMI, 1992. Diplodia pinea. Distribution Maps of Plant Diseases, No. 459, edition 2. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Jacobs KA; Rehner SA, 1998. Comparison of cultural and morphological characters and ITS sequences in anamorphs of Botryosphaeria and related taxa. Mycologia, 90(4):601-610; 35 ref.

James R, 1984. Tip blight of ponderosa pine seedlings at the Fantasy Farms Nursery, Peck, Idaho. USDA Forest Service, Cooperative Forestry and Pest Management, Northern Region, Missoula, Montana, Rep. 84-3.

Jankovský L; Palovcíková D, 2003. Dieback of Austrian pine - the epidemic occurrence of Sphaeropsis sapinea in southern Moravia. Journal of Forest Science, 49(8):389-394.

Ju RuiTing; Xu Ying; Yi JianPing; Yan Wei; Du YuZhou, 2005. The method of pest risk analysis of urban greening and its application. Acta Phytophylacica Sinica, 32(2):179-184.

Juhásová G; Adamcíková K; Kobza M, 2006. Sphaeropsis tip blight disease of Austrian pine in urban greenery. Zahradnictví (Horticultural Science), 33(1):11-15. http://www.cazv.cz

Kam M de; Versteegen CM; Burg J van den; Werf DC van der, 1991. Effects of fertilization with ammonium sulphate and potassium sulphate on the development of Sphaeropsis sapinea in Corsican pine. Netherlands Journal of Plant Pathology, 97(5):265-274

Karadzic D, 1983. Needle diseases of black pine (Pinus nigra Arn.). Zastita Bilja, 34(3):329-342

Kaya AGA; Lehtijärvi A; Kaya Ö; Dogmus-Lehtijärvi T, 2014. First report of Diplodia pinea on Pseudotsuga menziesii in Turkey. Plant Disease, 98(5):689. http://apsjournals.apsnet.org/loi/pdis

Kizikelashvili OG, 1984. Distribution of some fungus diseases of Pitsunda pine in its habitat. Mikologiya i Fitopatologiya, 18(4):330-333

Kluge E, 1963. Douglas Fir seedling tip disease. Sozial. Forstw., Berl. 13 (8), (249-51). 4 refs.

Koltay A, 2001. Review of Austrian pine disease caused by shoot blight in Hungary. (A Magyarországi feketefenyo? hajtáspusztulás történeti áttekintése.) Erdészeti Kutatások, 90:247-254.

Kreber B; Kimberley M; Eden D; Chittenden C; Waals Jvan der; Wakeling R; Dorset I, 2001. Arrest of fungal pre-infections in raw logs and freshly sawn lumber of radiata pine using Sentry. Forest Products Journal, 51(10):66-72; 23 ref.

Lawrence E, 1951. Report of the Acting Director of Agriculture. Rep. Dep. Agric. Nyasald, 1949.

Linaldeddu BT; Deidda A; Scanu B; Franceschini A; Alves A; Abdollahzadeh J; Phillips AJL, 2016. Phylogeny, morphology and pathogenicity of Botryosphaeriaceae, Diatrypaceae and Gnomoniaceae associated with branch diseases of hazelnut in Sardinia (Italy). European Journal of Plant Pathology, 146(2):259-279. http://rd.springer.com/journal/10658

López Castilla RA; Duarte Casanova A; Guerra Rivero C; Cruz Escoto H; Triguero Issasi N, 2002. Forest nursery pest management in Cuba. Proceedings - Rocky Mountain Research Station, USDA Forest Service [Western Forest and Conservation Nursery Association Conference, Kailua-Kona, Hawaii, USA, 22-25 August 2000.], No.RMRS-P-24:213-218.

Luley CJ; Gleason ML, 1988. Diplodia canker (Sphaeropsis sapinea) of Abies concolor in Iowa. Plant Disease, 72(1):79

Lundquist JE, 1987. A history of five forest diseases in South Africa. South African Forestry Journal, No. 140:51-59

Madar Z; Kimchi M; Solel Z, 1996. First report of Sphaeropsis sapinea on Aleppo pine in Israel. Plant Disease, 80(3):343; 1 ref.

May LC, 1964. Molestias de coniferas ocorrentes no estado de São Paulo. Silvicult. São Paolo, 3:221-245.

Milijasevic T, 1994. Sphaeropsis blight in Yugoslavia. In: Capretti P, Heiniger U, Stephan R, eds. Shoot and Foliage Diseases in Forest Trees. Proc. of Joint Meeting of IUFRO Working Parties S2.06.02 and S2.06.04, June 1994, Valombrosa, Italy. Firenze, Italy: Inst. Patologia Zoologia Forestale e Agaria, Univ. degli Studi di Firenze, 273.

Milijasevic T, 2009. The effect of Sphaeropsis sapinea on conifer decline in Serbia and Montenegro. (Uticaj patogene gljive Sphaeropsis sapinea na izumiranje cetinarskih vrsta u Srbiji i Crnoj Gori.) Radovi Sumarskog Fakulteta Univerziteta u Sarajevu, 39(1):35-51.

Millikan CR; Anderson RD, 1957. Dead-top of Pinus spp. in Victorian plantations. Aust. For. 21 (1), (4-14 + 5 photos). 10 refs.

Mohali S; Encinas O; Mora N, 2002. Blue stain in Pinus oocarpa and Azadirachta indica woods in Venezuela. (Manchado azul en madera de Pinus oocarpa y Azadirachta indica en Venezuela.) Fitopatología Venezolana, 15(2):30-32.

Molin N; Persson M; Persson S, 1961. Root parasites on forest tree seedlings. Some exploratory tests of the resistance of germinant seedlings and the virulence of some potential parasites. Medd. Skogsforskn Inst. Stockh., 49:1-16.

Moore WC, 1959. British parasitic fungi. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 430 pp.

Mussell H, 1980. Tolerance to disease. In: Horsfall JG, Cowling EB, eds. Plant Disease: An Advanced Treatise. Vol. 5. How plants defend themselves. New York, USA: Academic Press, 39-52.

Nattrass RM, 1961. Host lists of Kenya fungi and bacteria. Mycological Papers, 81:1-46.

Nicholls TH; Ostry ME, 1990. Sphaeropsis sapinea cankers on stressed red and jack pines in Minnesota and Wisconsin. Plant Disease, 74(1):54-56

Oliva J; Boberg J; Stenlid J, 2013. First report of Sphaeropsis sapinea on Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and Austrian pine (P. nigra) in Sweden. New Disease Reports, 27:23. http://www.ndrs.org.uk/article.php?id=027023

Oliveira ALF, 1944. Um fungo parasita do Pinus halepensis, Miller. Agros, 27:158-164.

Orieux L; Felix S, 1968. List of Plant Diseases in Mauritius. Phytopthological Papers, No. 7. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Palmer MA; McRoberts RE; Nicholls TH, 1988. Sources of inoculum of Sphaeropsis sapinea in forest tree nurseries. Phytopathology, 78(6):831-835

Palmer MA; Nicholls TH, 1985. Shoot blight and collar rot of Pinus resinosa caused by Sphaeropsis sapinea in forest tree nurseries. Plant Disease, 69(9):739-740

Palmer MA; Nicholls TH; Croghan CF, 1986. Fungicidal control of shoot blight caused by Sphaeropsis sapinea on red pine nursery seedlings. Plant Disease, 70(3):194-196

Palmer MA; Stewart EL; Wingfield MJ, 1987. Variation among isolates of Sphaeropsis sapinea in the north central United States. Phytopathology, 77(6):944-948

Peterson GW, 1977. Infection, epidemiology, and control of Diplodia blight of Austrian ponderosa and Scots pines. Phytopathology, 67(4):511-514

Peterson GW; Wysong DS, 1968. Diplodia [pinea] tip blight of Pines in the central Great Plains: damage and control. Plant Dis. Reptr. 52 (5), (359-60). [7 refs.].

Petrak F, 1961. Macrophoma sapinea in the Pine forests of Lower Austria. Sydowia, Horn 15 (1/6), (1962), (309-16). 63 refs.

Petri L, 1942. Rassegna dei casi fitopatologici osservati nel 1941. Boll. Staz. Pat. veg. Roma, NS, 22:1-62.

Prikryl Z; Cízková D, 2007. An analysis of fungi species in the arboretum Kostelec nad Cernými lesy. (Analýza druhového spektra hub v arboretu Kostelec nad Cernými lesy.) Zprávy Lesnického Výzkumu, 52(Special Issue):1-7.

Prodan I, 1935. Diplodia pinea (Desm.) Kickx in Rumänien. Bul. Inf. Grad. bot. Cluj, 14:240-243.

Punithalingham E; Waterston JM, 1970. Diplodia pinea. No. 273 in: Descriptions of Pathogenic Fungi and Bacteria. Kew, UK: Commonwealth Mycological Institute.

Reddy MAR; Puri YN; Singh S; Pandey PC, 1975. Disease situation in Indian forests II. Potentially dangerous foliage diseases. Indian Phytopathology, 28(1):41-45

Rees AA; Webber JF, 1988. Pathogenicity of Sphaeropsis sapinea to seed, seedlings and saplings of some Central American pines. Transactions of the British Mycological Society, 91(2):273-277

Riley EA, 1960. A revised list of plant diseases in Tanganyika Territory. Mycological Papers, 75:1-42.

Rodger GJ, 1942. Annual report for the year ended 30th June, 1941. South Australia: Woods and Forests Department.

Sanchez D, 1967. Diseases in nurseries of Pinus elliottii and Araucaria angustifolia in Paraguay. Fitopatologia, Santiago 2 (3), (27-8). [3 refs.].

Saravi Cisneros R, 1950. El marchitamiento de los Pinos provocado por ’Diplodia pinea’ Kickx en la Provincia de Buenos Aires (Argentina). Rev. Fac. Agron. La Plata, Ser. 3, 27:163-179.

Schweitzer DJ; Sinclair WA, 1976. Diplodia tip blight on Austrian Pine controlled by benomyl. Plant Disease Reporter, 60(3):269-270

Shen BK, 1990. Pine die-back disease found in Jiangsu Province. Forest Pest and Disease, No. 1:47

Siang CT; Yuan SZ; Meng FR; Jiang JQ, 1981. Studies on the Diplodia shoot blight of Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica. Journal of North Eastern Forestry Institute, China, No. 2, 1-10; 1 pl.; 5 ref.

Smith H; Coutinho TA; Wolfaardt FW; Wingfield MJ, 2002. Relative susceptibility of northern and southern provenances of Pinus greggii to infection by Sphaeropsis sapinea. Forest Ecology and Management, 166(1/3):331-336; 12 ref.

Smith H; Wingfield MJ; Crous PW; Coutinho TA, 1996. Sphaeropsis sapinea and Botryosphaeria dothidea endophytic in Pinus spp. and Eucalyptus spp. in South Africa. South African Journal of Botany, 62(2):86-88; 32 ref.

Stanosz GR; Blodgett JT; Smith DR; Kruger EL, 2001. Water stress and Sphaeropsis sapinea as a latent pathogen of red pine seedlings. New Phytologist, 149(3):531-538; 55 ref.

Stanosz GR; Carlson JC, 1996. Association of mortality of recently planted seedlings and established saplings in red pine plantations with Sphaeropsis collar rot. Plant Disease, 80(7):750-753; 36 ref.

Stanosz GR; Smith DR, 1996. Evaluation of fungicides for control of Sphaeropsis shoot blight of red pine nursery seedlings. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 26(3):492-497; 15 ref.

Stanosz GR; Smith DR; Guthmiller MA; Stanosz JC, 1997. Persistence of Sphaeropsis sapinea on or in asymptomatic shoots of red and jack pines. Mycologia, 89(4):525-530; 37 ref.

Stanosz GR; Swart WJ; Smith DR, 1998. Similarity between fungi identified as Diplodia pinea f.sp. cupressi in Israel and Botryosphaeria stevensii or Diplodia mutila on Juniperus in the United States. European Journal of Forest Pathology, 28(1):33-42; 26 ref.

Stanosz GR; Swart WJ; Smith DR, 1999. RAPD marker and isozyme characterization of Sphaeropsis sapinea from diverse coniferous hosts and locations. Mycological Research, 103(9):1193-1202; 48 ref.

Stanosz GR; Trobaugh J, 1996. Can fertilization with paper mill waste sludge threaten forest health and productivity? Shoot blight and canker found in treated red pine stands. Pulp & Paper Canada, 97(5):24-27; 41 ref.

Stiki A, 1994. Crown wilt of Pinus associated to Sphaeropsis sapinea infection of woody stems. In: Capretti P, Heiniger U, Stephan R, eds. Shoot and Foliage Diseases in Forest Trees. Proc. of Joint Meeting of IUFRO Working Parties S2.06.02 and S2.06.04, June 1994, Valombrosa, Italy. Firenze, Italy: Inst. Patologia Zoologia Forestale e Agaria, Univ. degli Studi di Firenze, 254-262.

Strouts RG; Rose DR; Reffold TC; Redfern DB; Gregory SC; Pratt JE; Gibbs JN; Greig BJW; Hickman IT, 1985. Pathology. Report on Forest Research for the year ended March 1985 London, UK; Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 33-36

Su KJ; Tan SS; Deng Q, 1991. Studies on symptoms and causative agents of dieback of exotic pines in China. Forest Pest and Disease, No. 1:2-5

Sutton BC, 1980. The Coelomycetes. Fungi imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli and stromata. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Swart WJ; Wingfield MJ; Grant WS, 1993. Comparison of Sphaeropsis sapinea and Sphaeropsis sapinea f.sp. cupressi. Mycological Research, 97(10):1253-1260

Swart WJ; Wingfield MJ; Knox-Davies PS, 1987. Conidial dispersal of Sphaeropsis sapinea in three climatic regions of South Africa. Plant Disease, 71(11):1038-1040

Swart WJ; Wingfield MJ; Knox-Davies PS, 1987. Selective medium for isolating Sphaeropsis sapinea. Phytopathology, 77(10):1387-1389

Swart WJ; Wingfield MJ; Knox-Davies PS, 1988. Relative susceptibility to Sphaeropsis sapinea of six Pinus spp. cultivated in South Africa. European Journal of Forest Pathology, 18(3-4):184-189

Tobisch J, 1938. Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Pilzflora von Kärten. V. Ost. Bot. Z., 87:273-315.

Tokár F; Krekulová E, 2005. Structure, quality, production, LAI and dendrochronology of 100 years old Austrian pine (Pinus nigra Arnold) stand. Journal of Forest Science, 51(2):67-76.

Torres JJ, 1964. Estudio de una micosis del Pino Carrasco que afecta a algunas repoblaciones de la provincial de Córdoba. An. Inst. for. Invest. Exp., 36:103-108.

Treigiene A, 2000. Coelomycetes in Lithuania. 2. Diplodia, Microdiplodia, and Sphaeropsis genera. (Lietuvos gaubtagryb?iai (Coelomycetes). 2. Diplodia, Microdiplodia ir Sphaeropsis gentys.) Botanica Lithuanica, 6(3):323-334.

Van Der Westhuizen GCA, 1968. Some aspects of the biology of Diplodia pinea in relation to its control by fungicides. South African Forestry Journal, 65:6-14.

Viennot-Bourgin G; Ale-Agha N; Ershad D, 1970. Les champignons parasites de l’Iran (nouvelle contribution). Annls Phytopath., 2:689-734.

Vujanovic V; St-Arnaud M; Neumann PJ, 2000. Susceptibility of cones and seeds to fungal infection in a pine (Pinus spp.) collection. Forest Pathology, 30(6):305-320; 65 ref.

Walla JA, 1979. Diplodia pinea found in North Dakota. Plant Disease Reporter, 63(6):464

Waterman AM, 1943. Diplodia pinea the cause of a disease of hard Pines. Phytopathology 33 (1018-31).

Wet Jde; Wingfield MJ; Coutinho TA; Wingfield BD, 2000. Characterization of Sphaeropsis sapinea isolates from South Africa, Mexico, and Indonesia. Plant Disease, 84(2):151-156; 39 ref.

Whiteside JO, 1966. A revised list of plant diseases in Rhodesia. Kirkia, 5:87-196.

Wingfield MJ; Knox-Davies PS, 1980. Association of Diplodia pinea with a root disease of pines in South Africa. Plant Disease (formerly Plant Disease Reporter), 64(2):221-223

Wright JP; Marks GC, 1970. Loss of merchantable wood in Radiata Pine associated with infection by Diplodia pinea. Aust. For. 34 (2), (107-19). [3 refs.].

Wu XiaoQin; Xiong DaBin, 2006. RAPD analysis on genetic relationships among Sphaeropsis sapinea isolates. Journal of Nanjing Forestry University (Natural Sciences Edition), 30(1):13-16. http://njlydxxb.periodicals.net.cn/default.html

Young HE, 1936. The species of Diplodia affecting forest trees in Queensland. Queensland Agricultural Journal, 46:310-327.

Young HE, 1937. The prevention of blue stain in hoop pine logs. Australian Institute of Agricultural Science, 3:160-162.

Zhong XP; Liang ZC, 1990. Diplodia and Botryodiplodia root rot of pines. Journal of South China Agricultural University, 11(1):43-49

Zhou S; Stanosz JC; Stanosz GR, 1997. Logging debris may provide inoculum of Sphaeropsis sapinea for its establishment in next rotation of Pinus resinosa. Phytopathology, 87:S109.

Zhou Shiguo; Smith DR; Stanosz GR, 2001. Differentiation of Botryosphaeria species and related anamorphic fungi using Inter Simple or Short Sequence Repeat (ISSR) fingerprinting. Mycological Research, 105(8):919-926; 42 ref.

Zhou ShiGuo; Stanosz GR, 2001. Relationships among Botryosphaeria species and associated anamorphic fungi inferred from the analyses of ITS and 5.8S rDNA sequences. Mycologia, 93(3):516-527; 62 ref.

Zwolinski JB; Swart WJ; Wingfield MJ, 1990. Economic impact of a post-hail outbreak of dieback induced by Sphaeropsis sapinea. European Journal of Forest Pathology, 20(6-7):405-411

Zwolinski JB; Swart WJ; Wingfield MJ, 1990. Intensity of dieback induced by Sphaeropsis sapinea in relation to site conditions. European Journal of Forest Pathology, 20:167-174.

Distribution References

András K, József T, László K, Tibor S, 2009. Chemical control of pathogens Dothistroma septospora (Dorog.) Morlet and Sphaeropsis sapinea Dyko & Sutton in young European black pine (Pinus nigra) stands. (Vegyszeres védekezés a Dothistroma septospora (Dorog.) morlet és Sphaeropsis sapinea Dyko & Sutton kórokozók ellen fiatal feketefenyő (Pinus nigra) állományban.). Növényvédelem. 45 (4), 225-230.

Anon, 1966. List of important diseases and pests of economic plants in Japan., Tokyo, Japan: Nihon Tokushu Noyaku Seizo K.K. 591 pp.

Bega R V, Smith R S Jr, Martinez A P, Davis C J, 1978. Severe damage to Pinus radiata and P. pinaster by Diplodia pinea and Lophodermium spp. on Molokai and Lanai in Hawaii. Plant Disease Reporter. 62 (4), 329-311.

Bettucci L, Simeto S, Alonso R, Lupo S, 2004. Endophytic fungi of twigs and leaves of three native species of Myrtaceae in Uruguay. Sydowia. 56 (1), 8-23.

Birch T T C, 1936. New Zealand State Forest Service Bulletin,

Burgess T, Wingfield B D, Wingfield M J, 2001. Comparison of genotypic diversity in native and introduced populations of Sphaeropsis sapinea isolated from Pinus radiata. Mycological Research. 105 (11), 1331-1339. DOI:10.1017/S0953756201005056

Butin H, 1984. Damage to shoot tips of Scots pine caused by Diplodia pinea. (Triebspitzenschäden an Pinus sylvestris, verursacht durch Sphaeropsis sapinea (= Diplodia pinea).). Allgemeine Forstzeitschrift. 1256-1257.

CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI

Cabras A, Mannoni M A, Serra S, Andolfi A, Fiore M, Evidente A, 2006. Occurrence, isolation and biological activity of phytotoxic metabolites produced in vitro by Sphaeropsis sapinea, pathogenic fungus of Pinus radiata. European Journal of Plant Pathology. 115 (2), 187-193. http://springerlink.metapress.com/link.asp?id=100265 DOI:10.1007/s10658-006-9006-7

Carvalho I de, 1948. [English title not available]. (Relacao preliminar de dofncas encontradas em plantes e insectos com anatacoes fitopatologicas.). In: Coloia de Mocambique, Reporticao de Agricultura, Seccao de Micologia.

CHANDRASRIKUL A, 1962. A preliminary host list of plant diseases in Thailand. Tech. Bull. Dep, Agric. 23 pp.

Chen C, Chang H, 1966. Pine tip blight in Taiwan. In: Plant Protection Bulletin, 8 169-172.

Curtis K M, 1930. A dieback of Pinus radiata and P. muricata caused by the fungus Botryodiplodia pinea (Desm.) Petr. Transactions of the New Zealand Institute. 52-57.

Davison E M, Tay F C S, Peroni D, 1991. Sphaeropsis sapinea on pines in Western Australia. Australian Plant Pathology. 20 (1), 31.

Dennis R W G, Reid D A, Spooner B, 1977. The fungi of the Azores. Kew Bulletin. 32 (1), 85-136. DOI:10.2307/4117263

Diminić D, Jurc M, 1999. Some aspects of Sphaeropsis sapinea presence on Austrian pine in Croatia and Slovenia. In: Phyton (Horn) [Special issue: 2nd Slovenian symposium on plant physiology with international participation, Gozd Martuljek, Slovenia, September 30-October 2, 1998.], 39 (3) [ed. by Vilhar B, Grill D, Guttenberger H]. 231-234.

Doğmuș-Lehtıjärvı H T, Lehtıjärvı A, Karaca G, Aday A G, 2007. Sphaeropsis sapinea Dyko & Sutton associated with shoot blight on Pinus brutia Ten. in Southwestern Turkey. Acta Silvatica & Lignaria Hungarica. 95-99. http://aslh.nyme.hu/fileadmin/dokumentumok/fmk/acta_silvatica/cikkek/VolE3-2007/11_dogmus_et_al.pdf

Engesser R, 2002. Red pines in the valleys of Reuss and Limmat. (Rote Föhren im Reuss- und Limmattal.). Informationsblatt Forschungsbereich Wald. 5-6.

Farr D F, Bills G F, Chamuris G P, Rossman A Y, 1989. Fungi on plants and plant products in the United States. St. Paul, Minnesota, USA: APS Press. viii + 1252 pp.

Fraedrich S W, Miller T, Zarnoch S J, 1994. Factors affecting the incidence of black seed rot in slash pine. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 24 (8), 1717-1725. DOI:10.1139/x94-222

Franceschini A, Linaldeddu B T, Deriu L, 2006. Sphaeropsis sapinea associated to dieback of Pinus radiata in Sardinia. (Sphaeropsis sapinea associata a disseccamenti di Pinus radiata in Sardegna.). Informatore Fitopatologico. 56 (1), 54-58.

Gezahgne A, Roux J, Wingfield M J, 2003. Diseases of exotic Eucalyptus and Pinus species in Ethiopian plantations. South African Journal of Science. 99 (1/2), 29-33.

Ginns J H, 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada, 1960-1980. Ottawa, Canada: Canadian Government Publishing Centre. x + 416pp.

Hedgecock G G, 1932. Notes on the distribution of some fungi associated with diseases of conifers. Plant Disease Reporter. 28-42.

Herb IMI, Undated. Specimen record from the collection in the Herb IMI Database., Kew, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://www.herbimi.info/herbimi/home.htm

Hunt R S, 1969. Pinus sabiniana and Pinus muricata as hosts for Diplodia pinea in California. Plant Disease Reporter. 53 (8), 675-7.

James R, 1984. Tip blight of ponderosa pine seedlings at the Fantasy Farms Nursery, Peck, Idaho., Northern Region, Missoula, Montana, Rep. USDA Forest Service, Cooperative Forestry and Pest Management. 84-3.

Jankovský L, Palovčíková D, 2003. Dieback of Austrian pine - the epidemic occurrence of Sphaeropsis sapinea in southern Moravia. Journal of Forest Science. 49 (8), 389-394.

Ju RuiTing, Xu Ying, Yi JianPing, Yan Wei, Du YuZhou, 2005. The method of pest risk analysis of urban greening and its application. Acta Phytophylacica Sinica. 32 (2), 179-184.

Juhásová G, Adamčíková K, Kobza M, 2006. Sphaeropsis tip blight disease of Austrian pine in urban greenery. Zahradnictví (Horticultural Science). 33 (1), 11-15. http://www.cazv.cz

Karadžić D, 1983. Needle diseases of black pine (Pinus nigra Arn.). (Bolesti četina crnog bora (Pinus nigra Arn.).). Zaštita Bilja. 34 (3), 329-342.

Kaya A G A, Lehtİjärvİ A, Kaya Ö, Doğmuș-Lehtİjärvİ T, 2014. First report of Diplodia pinea on Pseudotsuga menziesii in Turkey. Plant Disease. 98 (5), 689. http://apsjournals.apsnet.org/loi/pdis DOI:10.1094/PDIS-07-13-0765-PDN

Kizikelashvili O G, 1984. Distribution of some fungus diseases of Pitsunda pine in its habitat. Mikologiya i Fitopatologiya. 18 (4), 330-333.

Kluge E, 1963. Douglas Fir seedling tip disease. Sozialistische Forstwirtschaft. 13 (8), 249-51.

Koltay A, 2001. Review of Austrian pine disease caused by shoot blight in Hungary. (A Magyarországi feketefenyő hajtáspusztulás történeti áttekintése.). Erdészeti Kutatások. 247-254.

Lawrence E, 1951. Annual Report Department of Agriculture Nyasaland, 1949. Nyasaland:

Linaldeddu B T, Deidda A, Scanu B, Franceschini A, Alves A, Abdollahzadeh J, Phillips A J L, 2016. Phylogeny, morphology and pathogenicity of Botryosphaeriaceae, Diatrypaceae and Gnomoniaceae associated with branch diseases of hazelnut in Sardinia (Italy). European Journal of Plant Pathology. 146 (2), 259-279. http://rd.springer.com/journal/10658 DOI:10.1007/s10658-016-0912-z

López Castilla R A, Duarte Casanova A, Guerra Rivero C, Cruz Escoto H, Triguero Issasi N, 2002. Forest nursery pest management in Cuba. In: Proceedings - Rocky Mountain Research Station, USDA Forest Service. Fort Collins, USA: Rocky Mountain Research Station. 213-218.

Luley C J, Gleason M L, 1988. Diplodia canker (Sphaeropsis sapinea) of Abies concolor in Iowa. Plant Disease. 72 (1), 79. DOI:10.1094/PD-72-0079E

Lundquist J E, 1987. A history of five forest diseases in South Africa. South African Forestry Journal. 51-59.

Madar Z, Kimchi M, Solel Z, 1996. First report of Sphaeropsis sapinea on Aleppo pine in Israel. Plant Disease. 80 (3), 343. DOI:10.1094/PD-80-0343A

MAY LUIZA C, 1964. Diseases of conifers in the State of São Paulo. (Molestias de coniferas ocorrentes no estado de Sao Paulo.). Silvicult. Sao Paulo. 221-245.

Milijasevic T, 1994. Sphaeropsis blight in Yugoslavia. In: Shoot and Foliage Diseases in Forest Trees [Proc. of Joint Meeting of IUFRO Working Parties S2.06.02 and S2.06.04, June 1994, Valombrosa, Italy], [ed. by Capretti P, Heiniger U, Stephan R]. Firenze, Italy: Inst Patologia Zoologia Forestale e Agaria, Univ degli Studi di Firenze. 273.

Mohali S, Encinas O, Mora N, 2002. Blue stain in Pinus oocarpa and Azadirachta indica woods in Venezuela. (Manchado azul en madera de Pinus oocarpa y Azadirachta indica en Venezuela.). Fitopatología Venezolana. 15 (2), 30-32.

MOLIN N , PERSSON MARJA, PERSSON S, 1961. Root parasites on forest tree seedlings. Some exploratory tests of the resistance of germinant seedlings and the virulence of some potential parasites. Medd, SkogsforsknInst. 49 (1), 1-16 pp.

Nattrass R M, 1961. Host lists of Kenya fungi and bacteria. Mycological Papers. 46 pp.

Oliva J, Boberg J, Stenlid J, 2013. First report of Sphaeropsis sapinea on Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and Austrian pine (P. nigra) in Sweden. New Disease Reports. 23. http://www.ndrs.org.uk/article.php?id=027023 DOI:10.5197/j.2044-0588.2013.027.023

Oliveira A L F, 1944. A parasitic fungus on Pinus halepensis Miller. (Um fungo parásita do Pinos halepensis, Miller.). Agros. 27 (3-6), 158-164 pp.

Orieux L, Felix S, 1968. List of plant diseases in Mauritius. In: Phytopathological Papers, Kew, Surrey, UK: Commonwealth Mycological Institute. 48 pp.

Peterson G W, Wysong D S, 1968. Diplodia [pinea] tip blight of Pines in the central Great Plains: damage and control. Plant Disease Reporter. 52 (5), 359-60.

Petri L, 1942. Bollettino della R. Stazione di Patologia Vegetale, Rome, Italy: Regia Stazione di Patologia Vegetale di Roma. 22 (1), 1-62.

Přikryl Z, Čížková D, 2007. An analysis of fungi species in the arboretum Kostelec nad Cernými lesy. (Analýza druhového spektra hub v arboretu Kostelec nad Černými lesy.). Zprávy Lesnického Výzkumu. 52 (Special Issue), 1-7.

Prodan I, 1935. Diplodia pinea (Desm.) Kickx in Romania. (Diplodia pinea (Desm.) Kickx in Rumänien.). Bul. Inf. Grad, bot. Cluj. 240-243.

Punithalingham E, Waterston JM, 1970. Diplodia pinea. No. 273. In: Descriptions of Pathogenic Fungi and Bacteria, Kew, UK: Commonwealth Mycological Institute.

Rees A A, Webber J F, 1988. Pathogenicity of Sphaeropsis sapinea to seed, seedlings and saplings of some Central American pines. Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 91 (2), 273-277.

Riley E A, 1960. A revised list of plant diseases in Tanganyika Territory. In: Mycological Papers, 42 pp.

Rodger G J, 1942. Annual Report for the year ended 30th June, 1941. South Australia, Australia: Woods and Forests Department.

Sanchez D, 1967. Diseases in nurseries of Pinus elliottii and Araucaria angustifolia in Paraguay. Fitopatologia, Chile. 2 (3), 27-8.

Saravi Cisneros R, 1950. Die-back of Pine caused by D. pinea in the province of Buenos Aires, Argentina. (El marchitamiento de los pinos provocado por Diplodia pinea Kickx en la provincia de Buenos Aires (Argentina).). Revista de la Facultad de Agronomia, Universidad Nacional de La Plata. 163-79.

Shen B K, 1990. Pine die-back disease found in Jiangsu Province. Forest Pest and Disease. 47.

Siang C T, Yuan S Z, Meng F R, Jiang J Q, 1981. Studies on the Diplodia shoot blight of Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica. Journal of North-Eastern Forestry Institute, China. 1-10.

Stanosz G R, Swart W J, Smith D R, 1999. RAPD marker and isozyme characterization of Sphaeropsis sapinea from diverse coniferous hosts and locations. Mycological Research. 103 (9), 1193-1202. DOI:10.1017/S0953756299008382

Stiki A, 1994. Crown wilt of Pinus associated to Sphaeropsis sapinea infection of woody stems. In: Shoot and Foliage Diseases in Forest Trees [Proc. of Joint Meeting of IUFRO Working Parties S2.06.02 and S2.06.04, June 1994, Valombrosa, Italy], [ed. by Capretti P, Heiniger U, Stephan R]. Firenze, Italy: Inst Patologia Zoologia Forestale e Agaria, Univ. degli Studi di Firenze. 254-262.

Strouts R G, Rose D R, Reffold T C, Redfern D B, Gregory S C, Pratt J E, Gibbs J N, Greig B J W, Hickman I T, 1985. Report on Forest Research for the year ended March 1985. London, UK: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. 33-36.

Su K J, Tan S S, Deng Q, 1991. Studies on symptoms and causative agents of dieback of exotic pines in China. Forest Pest and Disease. 2-5.

Sutton B C, 1980. The Coelomycetes. Fungi imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli and stromata. Kew, UK: Commonwealth Mycological Institute. 696 pp.

Tobisch J, 1938. [English title not available]. (Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Pilzflora von Kärten.). V. Ost. Bot. Z. 273-315.

Tokár F, Krekulová E, 2005. Structure, quality, production, LAI and dendrochronology of 100 years old Austrian pine (Pinus nigra Arnold) stand. Journal of Forest Science. 51 (2), 67-76.

TORRES JUAN J, 1964. Study of a mycosis of Pinus halepensis affecting some reforestation areas in Córdoba province. (Estudio de una micosis del Pino Carrasco que afecta a algunas repoblaciones de la provincia de Córdoba.). An. Inst. For. Invest. Exp., Madrid. 36 (9), 103-108.

Treigienė A, 2000. Coelomycetes in Lithuania. 2. Diplodia, Microdiplodia, and Sphaeropsis genera. (Lietuvos gaubtagrybšiai (Coelomycetes). 2. Diplodia, Microdiplodia ir Sphaeropsis gentys.). Botanica Lithuanica. 6 (3), 323-334.

UK, CAB International, 1969. Diplodia pinea. [Distribution map]. In: Distribution Maps of Plant Diseases, Wallingford, UK: CAB International. Map 459.

VIENNOT-BOURGIN G, ALE-AGHA N, ERSHAD D, 1970. Parasitic fungi of Iran (new contribution). (Les champignons parasites de l'Iran (nouvelle contribution).). Annales de Phytopathologie. 2 (4), 689-734.

Walla J A, 1979. Diplodia pinea found in North Dakota. Plant Disease Reporter. 63 (6), 464.

Waterman A M, 1943. Diplodia pinea the cause of a disease of hard Pines. Phytopathology. 1018-31.

Whiteside J O, 1966. A revised list of plant diseases in Rhodesia. Kirkia. 5 (2), 87-196.

Wright J P, Marks G C, 1970. Loss of merchantable wood in Radiata Pine associated with infection by Diplodia pinea. Australian Forestry. 34 (2), 107-19.

Wu XiaoQin, Xiong DaBin, 2006. RAPD analysis on genetic relationships among Sphaeropsis sapinea isolates. Journal of Nanjing Forestry University (Natural Sciences Edition). 30 (1), 13-16. http://njlydxxb.periodicals.net.cn/default.html

YOUNG H E, 1936. The species of Diplodia affecting forest trees in Queensland. Queensland Agricultural Journal. 46 (3), 310-327 pp.

Zhong X P, Liang Z C, 1990. Diplodia and Botryodiplodia root rot of pines. Journal of South China Agricultural University. 11 (1), 43-49.

Distribution Maps

Top of page