Lygodium flexuosum (maidenhair creeper)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Introductions
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Impact: Biodiversity
- Social Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw.
Preferred Common Name
- maidenhair creeper
Other Scientific Names
- Hydroglossum flexuosum (L.) Willd.
- Ophioglossum flexuosum L.
- Ramondia flexuosa (L.) Mirb.
International Common Names
- German: Bogenkletterfarn
Local Common Names
- China: qu zhou hai jin sha
- India: kopow-lota
- Malaysia: akar sidin; ribu-ribu gajah
- Vietnam: bong bong
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageL. flexuosum is a climbing fern from the tropical and subtropical regions of Asia and Australia (Yadav et al., 2012). Although it is not listed as invasive in native habitats, it is reported as a weed of rice fields, rubber, oil palm and tea plantations (USDA-APHIS-PPQ, 2009). It is reported as invasive in rice fields in Asia (Araflora, 2019). Although there is little information available about the species in general, it shares traits with other Lygodium species that are invasive. These traits are: massive production of wind-dispersed spores; self-compatible gametophytes; tolerance to fire; fast growth; and high photosynthetic rate (USDA-APHIS-PPQ, 2009). L. flexuosum is classified as one of the 15 species with great invasive potential in the USA (Yadav et al., 2012).
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Pteridophyta
- Class: Filicopsida
- Family: Schizaeaceae
- Genus: Lygodium
- Species: Lygodium flexuosum
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageLygodium is a small genus of climbing ferns with about 35 species, mostly with a pantropical distribution and with a few species extending into temperate areas (Flora Mesoamericana, 2019). The genus comes from the Greek word ‘lygodes’ meaning flexible, in reference to its twining rachis (Flora of North America, 2019). All species of the genus have an elongated climbing rachis with indefinite growth, often reaching lengths of several metres.
Description
Top of pageThe following description is from Flora of China (2019):
Rhizome shortly creeping and densely covered with roots, stipes very close together; apex of rhizome covered with dark brown to nearly black hairs. Juvenile fronds once or twice dichotomous, each branch bearing a single pinna deeply palmately 3-7-lobed, lobes almost equal, base of whole pinna cordate, margins serrate and sometimes crenately lobed. Rachis of scandent fronds narrowly winged, flattened and puberulent on adaxial surface between wings; primary rachis branches up to 3 mm (lower ones longest), dormant apex covered with pale brown hairs; secondary rachis branches pinnate to somewhat bipinnate, narrowly ovate to deltoid in outline, commonly ca. 15 × 8 cm; sterile pinnae of lower branches palmate, often 5-lobed, base strongly cordate; higher secondary branches bearing 3-5 (sometimes up to 7) pinnae on each side and an apical one, apical and lower pinnae asymmetrical or ± lobed at base, lowest of branches with 2 or 3(-6) separate quaternary pinnae at base; sterile pinnae 3-10 × 8-15 mm above lobed base, margin serrate, apex subacute, lower pinnae stalked, upper pinnae sessile, lamina rather thin; costae usually with scattered long hairs, less often with dense short hairs, veins often with scattered short hairs on abaxial surface, lamina sometimes similarly hairy; fertile pinnae smaller than sterile pinnae, sorophores 3-5 mm (rarely up to 10 mm), at apices of small triangular lobes; indusia glabrous or with a few hairs like those of abaxial surface of lamina; spores finely evenly verrucose.
Plant Type
Top of pageHerbaceous
Perennial
Seed / spore propagated
Vegetatively propagated
Vine / climber
Distribution
Top of pageL. flexuosum is a climbing fern native to the tropics and subtropics of South-East Asia and Oceania (India Biodiversity Portal, 2019). Outside its native range, it is only reported in Nigeria and Guyana (Pemberton and Ferriter, 1998; Nwosu, 2002). A report from Jamaica is a misidentification of a L. microphyllum specimen (Pemberton and Ferriter, 1998). The species is reported from Asia, Africa, Oceania and South America (Pemberton and Ferriter, 1998; Koh et al., 2002; USDA-APHIS-PPQ, 2009; Yadav et al., 2012; Flora of China, 2019; Flora of Karnataka, 2019; The DNA of Singapore, 2019).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 17 Dec 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Nigeria | Present | Introduced | |||||
Asia |
|||||||
Bhutan | Present | Native | |||||
China | Present | Native | |||||
-Fujian | Present | Native | |||||
-Guangdong | Present | Native | |||||
-Guangxi | Present | Native | |||||
-Guizhou | Present | Native | |||||
-Hainan | Present | Native | |||||
-Hunan | Present | Native | |||||
-Yunnan | Present | Native | |||||
India | Present | Native | |||||
-Karnataka | Present | Native | |||||
-Kerala | Present | Native | |||||
-Madhya Pradesh | Present | Native | |||||
Indonesia | Present | Native | |||||
Japan | Present | Native | South | ||||
Malaysia | Present | Native | |||||
Myanmar | Present | Native | |||||
Nepal | Present | Native | |||||
Philippines | Present | Native | |||||
Singapore | Present | Native | Common | ||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Native | |||||
Thailand | Present | Native | |||||
Vietnam | Present | Native | |||||
North America |
|||||||
Jamaica | Absent, Invalid presence record(s) | A misidentification of L. microphyllum | |||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | Native | |||||
-Northern Territory | Present | Native | |||||
-Queensland | Present | Native | |||||
-Western Australia | Present | Native | |||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | Native | |||||
South America |
|||||||
Guyana | Present | Introduced | 1992 | As naturalized | |||
Venezuela | Present | Introduced | 2017 |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageL. flexuosum is only reported as introduced in Nigeria and Guyana (Pemberton and Ferriter, 1998; Nwosu, 2002). No details for its means of introduction are available for either country. The species is used as an ornamental and in the production of baskets, hats and bags, which could be the pathways for moving into these countries (USDA-APHIS-PPQ, 2009; Araflora, 2019). It can spread into nearby areas through wind-borne spores and vegetatively through its rhizomes (Yadav et al., 2012).
Introductions
Top of pageIntroduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reason | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
Guyana | 1992 | Yes | No | Pemberton and Ferriter (1998) |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageL. flexuosum is only known from two countries outside its native range, but without any details available (Pemberton and Ferriter, 1998; Nwosu, 2002). There is limited information about the species in general to properly assess its risk of introduction. At present, L. flexuosum is regarded with a medium to high risk of introduction, because it shares some biological traits with other Lygodium species that are invasive (Yadav et al., 2012). L. flexuosum is considered by USDA-APHIS-PPQ (2009) as having a high risk of introduction into the USA due to its use in the production of baskets, hats and bags and its availability as an ornamental on Internet websites.
Habitat
Top of pageL. flexuosum is a climbing fern reported in moist, open places, climbing over shrubs, teak and bamboo forest, coastal plains, secondary forests, moist deciduous and semideciduous forests; from sea level to altitudes of 1500 m (Yadav et al., 2012; Flora of Karnataka, 2019; India Biodiversity Portal, 2019; Useful Tropical Plants, 2019). It does not grow well in shaded forests (Useful Tropical Plants, 2019).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageL. flexuosum is considered as an agricultural weed in its native range (USDA-APHIS-PPQ, 2009). It is reported as a weed of rice fields, rubber, oil palm and tea plantations. It competes with other species for resources and obstructs harvesting operations (USDA-APHIS-PPQ, 2009). It is also reported as lowering rice yields (Yadav et al., 2012). No further details are given.
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pagePlant name | Family | Context | References |
---|---|---|---|
Camellia sinensis (tea) | Theaceae | Main | |
Elaeis guineensis (African oil palm) | Arecaceae | Main | |
Hevea brasiliensis (rubber) | Euphorbiaceae | Main | |
Oryza sativa (rice) | Poaceae | Main |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome numbers reported for L. flexuosum are n=58, 60; with a 4x polyploidy and sexual sporophyte production (Yadav et al., 2012).
Reproductive Biology
L. flexuosum reproduces by spores, through its rhizomes and by serpentine layering (Yadav et al., 2012; Useful Tropical Plants, 2019).
Physiology and Phenology
Chandra (1963) reports the spores of L. flexuosum as remaining viable for a long time. The spores germinate within 2 weeks of sowing (Russell-Smith and Lee, 1992).
Longevity
L. flexuosum is a perennial fern (Russell-Smith and Lee, 1992).
Environmental Requirements
There is very little information available about the environmental requirements of L. flexuosum. The species when planted in a shaded position will climb into open areas. It prefers neutral to slightly acid soils and it is reported as not growing well in limestone soils in Vietnam (Thin, 1997; Useful Tropical Plants, 2019). Yadav et al. (2012) reports the species as able to grow on moist or swampy soils of any quality.
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Preferred | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
26 | 24 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 725 | 4000 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- impeded
Soil reaction
- acid
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Siamusotima aranea | Herbivore | Plants|Stems | to species | Solis et al. (2005) |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageSiamusotima aranea is a stem-boring moth reported from L. flexuosum (Solis et al., 2005).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageNatural Dispersal
The spores of L. flexuosum are wind dispersed (Russell-Smith and Lee, 1992; Yadav et al., 2012). The species can also spread through its rhizomes growth and by climbing over vegetation (Yadav et al., 2012).
Accidental Introduction
Although there are no details of the introduction of L. flexuosum to Nigeria and Guyana; it is possible that it was brought in accidentally by its use in the production of baskets, hats or bags (Yadav et al., 2012).
Intentional Introduction
L. flexuosum is cultivated at some parts of its range; with reports of it being sold at nurseries and online (Huttleston, 1972; USDA-APHIS-PPQ, 2009).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Botanical gardens and zoos | At the permanent collection of a Botanic Garden in India | Yes | Yes | Sharma and Goel (1994) |
Crop production | It might be dispersed by agricultural practices as it is a weed of various crops | Yes | Yes | USDA-APHIS-PPQ (2009) |
Escape from confinement or garden escape | No information available but it is a possibility as it is used as an ornamental. | Yes | Yadav et al. (2012) | |
Forage | The species is foraged locally for medicinal practices and to manufacture various articles. | Yes | Yadav et al. (2012) | |
Garden waste disposal | No information available but it could be a possibility as it is reported an ornamental | Yes | Yadav et al. (2012) | |
Horticulture | No information available but it could be a possibility as it is reported an ornamental | Yes | Yadav et al. (2012) | |
Internet sales | Available at nurseries and on Internet websites. | Yes | Yes | USDA-APHIS-PPQ (2009) |
Medicinal use | It is used for traditional medicinal purposes | Yes | Yadav et al. (2012) | |
Nursery trade | It is sold at nurseries | Yes | Yes | USDA-APHIS-PPQ (2009) |
Ornamental purposes | Used as an ornamental | Yes | Yes | USDA-APHIS-PPQ (2009) |
People foraging | It is foraged for medicinal purposes | Yes | USDA-APHIS-PPQ (2009) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Debris and waste associated with human activities | No information available but it could be a possibility as it is reported as cultivated as an ornamental | Yes | Yadav et al. (2012) | |
It is sold on the Internet as an ornamental | Yes | Yes | USDA-APHIS-PPQ (2009) | |
Mulch, straw, baskets and sod | It is used to make baskets | Yes | Yadav et al. (2012) | |
Soil, sand and gravel | No information available but it could be a possibility as it is used as an ornamental | Yes | USDA-APHIS-PPQ (2009) | |
Wind | No information available but it could be a possibility as it is used as an ornamental | Yes | Yes | USDA-APHIS-PPQ (2009) |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Positive |
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Positive |
Human health | Positive |
Economic Impact
Top of pageL. flexuosum is an agricultural weed in its native range (USDA-APHIS-PPQ, 2009). It is reported as causing reductions of rice yields, interfering with harvesting operations of rubber trees and oil palm plantations, and competing with tea plants for resources.
Environmental Impact
Top of pageVery little information is available on the effects of L. flexuosum in natural habitats. It is reported as a weed of natural lowlands in Asia, without further details (Yadav et al., 2012).
Impact: Biodiversity
Top of pageApart from the effects of L. flexuosum on cultivated species (USDA-APHIS-PPQ, 2009), there are no reports of the species effects on the biodiversity of an area.
Social Impact
Top of pageThere are no reports of toxicity related to the consumption of L. flexuosum but many ferns contain thiaminase which can deprive the body of the vitamin B complex. Cooking the leaves will destroy the thiaminase (Useful Tropical Plants, 2019).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Invasive in its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Tolerant of shade
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Gregarious
- Reproduces asexually
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - shading
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Top of pageEconomic Value
L. flexuosum is used as an ornamental, being available in nurseries and on Internet websites (Huttleston, 1972; USDA-APHIS-PPQ, 2009). The stems are used in the production of different articles such as baskets, boxes, hats and bags (The DNA of Singapore, 2019; Useful Tropical Plants, 2019).
Social Benefit
Some of the medicinal uses reported for L flexuosum are to treat female infertility, gonorrhoea, herpes, ringworm, loss of appetite, sleeplessness, chills, night sweats, inflammation, fractured bones, scabies, ulcers, eczema, cuts, haemorrhoids, rheumatism, jaundice, sprains, carbuncles, and as an expectorant, a pain killer and a diuretic (Puri, 1970; Siddiqui et al., 1989; Colfer et al., 1997; Nwosu, 2002; Yadav et al., 2012; The DNA of Singapore, 2019). In India, L flexuosum is used in Ayurveda medicinal practices (Yadav et al., 2012). Extracts of the species have hepatoprotective, antibacterial, antiproliferative and apoptotic properties (Yadav et al., 2012).
L flexuosum is also used as an ornamental, especially to cover unattractive structures, and to provide shade. The stems are used to manufacture baskets, hats, handbags, fancy boxes and to tie rice bundles (The DNA of Singapore, 2019; Useful Tropical Plants, 2019).
The young fronds are eaten as a vegetable (The DNA of Singapore, 2019). L flexuosum is used as famine food, forage for cattle, for making ‘bidi’ (a type of hand rolled cigarette) and as part of religious beliefs in India (Yadav et al., 2012).
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Fodder/animal feed
Drugs, stimulants, social uses
- Religious
- Smoking
Environmental
- Amenity
General
- Botanical garden/zoo
- Ritual uses
- Sociocultural value
Human food and beverage
- Emergency (famine) food
- Vegetable
Materials
- Baskets
- Miscellaneous materials
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Ornamental
- garden plant
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageL. flexuosum is similar to L. microphyllum and L. japonicum. The bases of the pinnules are articulate in L. microphyllum, whereas in L. flexuosum and L. japonicum the pinnules are not articulate. L. japonicum has subdimorphic sterile and fertile pinnae, with pinnules 4-6 mm wide, whereas L. flexuosum has monomorphic pinnae and pinnules 1-3 cm wide. The pinnules of L. microphyllum are smaller than L. flexuosum and L. japonicum (Flora of China, 2019).
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Early Warning Systems
Although L. flexuosum is not present in the USA, it is listed as a Federal Noxious Weed due to the similarity of some traits present in L. japonicum and L. microphyllum, both invasive climbing ferns (Hutchinson and Lageland, 2010). The USA government has issued a Federal Import Quarantine Order to prevent the importation from all countries of any part of L. flexuosum capable of propagation, including plants, spores and leaves (Yadav et al., 2012).
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
Top of pageMore information is needed about the biology, environmental requirements and the effects of L. flexuosum over natural habitats. Further information on its effects on agriculture are also required.
References
Top of pageAraflora, 2019. Schipol, Netherlands: Araflora.https://www.araflora.com/
Chandra P, 1963. The gametophytes of Lygodium circinatum (Burm.) Sw. and L. flexuosum (L.) Sw. Current Science, 32(1), 34-35.
Flora of Karnataka, 2019. Digital Flora of Karnataka. Karnataka, india: Indian Institute of Science.http://florakarnataka.ces.iisc.ac.in/hjcb2/herbsheet.php?id=143&cat=3
Huttleston DG, 1972. Fern sources in the United States: 1972. American Fern Journal, 62(1), 9-15.
Pemberton, RW, Ferriter, AP, 1998. Old World climbing fern (Lygodium microphyllum), a dangerous invasive weed in Florida. American Fern Journal, 88(4), 165-175.
Puri HS, 1970. Indian pteridophytes used in folk remedies. American Fern Journal, 60(4), 137-143.
Russell-Smith J, Lee AH, 1992. Plant populations and monsoon rain forest in the Northern Territory, Australia. Biotropica, 24(4), 471-487.
Sharma SC, Goel AK, 1994. The National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI) Botanic Garden - a national facility for India. Botanic Gardens Conservation News, 2(3), 59-62.
The DNA of Singapore, 2019. The Digital Nature Archive (DNA) of Singapore. Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum.https://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/dna/organisms/details/585
Thin NN, 1997. The vegetation of Cucphuong National Park, Vietnam. SIDA, Contributions to Botany, 17(4), 719-759.
Distribution References
Flora of Karnataka, 2019. Digital Flora of Karnataka., Karnataka, india: Indian Institute of Science. http://florakarnataka.ces.iisc.ac.in/hjcb2/herbsheet.php?id=143&cat=3
Pemberton RW, Ferriter AP, 1998. Old World climbing fern (Lygodium microphyllum), a dangerous invasive weed in Florida. American Fern Journal. 88 (4), 165-175.
The DNA of Singapore, 2019. The Digital Nature Archive (DNA) of Singapore., Singapore: Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum. https://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/dna/organisms/details/585
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
Araflora | https://www.araflora.com/ | |
Digital Flora of Karnataka | http://florakarnataka.ces.iisc.ac.in/hjcb2/herbsheet.php?id=143&cat=3 | |
India Biodiversity Portal | http://indiabiodiversity.org/species/list | |
The DNA of Singapore | https://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/dna/organisms/details/585 | |
Useful Tropical Plants | http://tropical.theferns.info/ |
Contributors
Top of page31/10/19 Original text by:
Jeanine Vélez-Gavilán, University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez, Puerto Rico
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