Diaporthe eres (apple leaf, branch and fruit fungus)

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Symptoms

Diaporthe eres (apple leaf, branch and fruit fungus); symptoms, causing a walnut canker.

©Xienli Fan

Symptoms

Diaporthe eres (apple leaf, branch and fruit fungus); Symptoms of Diaporthe eres infection, causing a walnut canker.

©Xinlei Fan

Conidiomata

Diaporthe eres (apple leaf, branch and fruit fungus); habit of conidiomata on branches of a walnut tree.

©Xienli Fan

Conidiomata

Diaporthe eres (apple leaf, branch and fruit fungus); habit of conidiomata on branches of a walnut tree. (Note scale)

©Xienli Fan

Section of conidioma

Diaporthe eres (apple leaf, branch and fruit fungus); transverse section of conidioma. (Note scale).

©Xienli Fan

Section through conidioma

Diaporthe eres (apple leaf, branch and fruit fungus); longitudinal section through conidioma. (Note scale)

©Xienli Fan

Conidia

Diaporthe eres (apple leaf, branch and fruit fungus); conidia (α type). (Note scale).

©Xienli Fan

Conidiophores and conidia

Diaporthe eres (apple leaf, branch and fruit fungus); conidiophores and conidia. (Note scale)

©Xienli Fan

Colonies on PDA

Diaporthe eres (apple leaf, branch and fruit fungus); colonies on PDA, after 30 days.

©Xienli Fan

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Diaporthe eres Nitschke

Preferred Common Name

apple leaf, branch and fruit fungus

Other Scientific Names

Diaporthe biguttusis Y.H. Gao & L. Cai
Diaporthe camptothecicola C.M. Tian & Qin Yang
Diaporthe camptothecicola Y.H. Gao & L. Cai
Diaporthe conorum (Desm.) Niessl
Diaporthe controversa (Desm.) Nitschke
Diaporthe ellipicola C.M. Tian & Qin Yang
Diaporthe ellipicola Y.H. Gao & L. Cai
Diaporthe longicicola C.M. Tian & Qin Yang
Diaporthe longicicola Y.H. Gao & L. Cai
Diaporthe mahothocarpus (Y.H. Gao, W. Sun & L. Cai) Y.H. Gao & L. Cai
Diaporthe mali Miura
Diaporthe momicola Dissan., J.Y. Yan, Xing H. Li & K.D. Hyde
Diaporthe occulta (Fuckel) Nitschke
Diaporthe perniciosa Marchal
Phoma conorum Sacc.
Phoma controversa Sacc.
Phoma mali Schulzer & Sacc.
Phoma oblonga Desm.
Phoma occulta Sacc., non Desm.
Phomopsis conorum (Sacc.) Died.
Phomopsis controversa Traverso
Phomopsis cotoneastri Punith.
Phomopsis mali (Schulzer & Sacc.) Roberge
Phomopsis oblonga (Desm.) Höhnel (anamorph)
Phomopsis occulta (Sacc.) Traverso
Phomopsis perniciosa Grove
Phomopsis scobina Höhnel
Phomopsis velata (Sacc.) Traverso (Anamorph)
Sphaeria conorum Desm.
Sphaeria controversa Desm.
Valsa occulta Fuckel

International Common Names

English: bark canker of pome fruit; dieback of conifers; dieback of fruit trees; fungal canker of pome fruit; phyllostictosis; rough bark of apple; storage rot of apple
Spanish: chancro de la corteza de los frutales; quemadura fomopsiana del peral
French: chancre de l'ecorce des arbres fruitiers; chancre du pommier

EPPO code

DIAPER (Diaporthe eres)

Summary of Invasiveness

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Diaporthe eres was first reported on twigs of Ulmus sp. in Germany and is a plant pathogen, endophyte or saprobe. This species causes plant disease in Juglans regia, Castanea mollissima, Prunus persica, Vitis vinifera, J. cinerea, Hordeum sp. and Vaccinium corymbosum; it is an endophyte in Aralia elata, Citrus and elms [Ulmus]. D. eres also causes diseases in forest plants and fruit crops resulting in losses for natural ecosystems and commercial crops.

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Ascomycota
Subphylum: Pezizomycotina
Class: Sordariomycetes
Subclass: Sordariomycetidae
Order: Diaporthales
Family: Diaporthaceae
Genus: Diaporthe
Species: Diaporthe eres

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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The genus Diaporthe (Diaporthaceae, Diaporthales, Diaporthomycetidae, Sordariomycetes, Pezizomycotina, Ascomycota) is distributed worldwide and consists mainly of endophytes, plant pathogens and saprobes (Gomes et al., 2013; Udayanga et al., 2014; Fan et al., 2018). Several species are host-specific, which has influenced the taxonomy of the genus (Udayanga et al., 2011). The type species of Diaporthe, D. eres, mainly causes plant diseases and is an endophytic fungus in several plant species from Asia, North America and Europe (Gomes et al., 2013; Udayanga et al., 2014; Fan et al., 2018) and according to some reports also plant species from South America and Oceania (Udayanga et al., 2014; Sessa et al., 2017). D. eres is mostly reported in temperate regions and the species is considered “a pathogen with plant health inspection and quarantine significance” (Udayanga et al., 2014).

D. eres was first described by Nitschke in 1870 on twigs of Ulmus sp. in Germany. Udayanga et al. (2014) designated the lectotype (MBT178528) and epitype (BPI: 892912) and provided a description, a phylogenetic inference and a discussion about the species included in the D. eres complex. Rossman et al. (2014) proposed the conservation of the name D. eres against 21 competing names based on historical importance and scientific studies. The authors also included brief information about the asexual morph, Phomopsis velata (Sacc.) Traverso, which was introduced by Bubak in 1905 and treated as a synonym of D. eres. Several names have been related to D. eres and some synonyms are listed in the Index Fungorum (http://www.indexfungorum.org/) and MycoBank databases (http://www.mycobank.org/).

Phylogenetic analysis is an essential tool to differentiate between different species and introduce new taxa because of similar morphological features shared by several Diaporthe species and related species (Fan et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2018). A group of closely related species based on morphology or phylogenetic analyses is called a complex group. Complex groups are also present in the genus Diaporthe and the D. eres complex is an important species-group (Udayanga et al., 2014; Fan et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2018). Recently, Yang et al. (2018) classified the species in this complex (e.g. D. biguttusis; D. camptothecicola; D. ellipicola; D. longicicola; D. mahothocarpus; D. momicola) as synonyms of D. eres based on phylogenetic analyses and the lack of morphological differences.

Description

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The following description is from Udayanga et al. (2014):

Perithecia: on dead twigs, 200–300 μm diameter, black, globose, subglobose or irregular, densely clustered in groups, deeply immersed in host tissue with tapering necks, 300–700 μm long protruding through substrata. Asci: (39–)48.5–58.5(−61) μm × (6.5–)7–9(−11) μm, unitunicate, 8-spored, sessile, elongate to clavate. Ascospores: (11–)12.5–14.5(−15.5) × 3–4 μm, hyaline, two-celled, often 4-guttulate, with larger guttules at the center and smaller ones at the ends, elongated to elliptical. Pycnidia: on alfalfa twigs, 200–250 μm diam, globose, embedded in tissue, erumpent at maturity, with 200–300 μm long, black, elongated neck, often with yellowish, conidial cirrus extruding from ostiole, walls parenchymatous, consisting of 3–4 layers of medium brown textura angularis. Conidiophores: 10–15 × 2–3 μm, hyaline, smooth, unbranched, ampulliform, straight to sinuous. Conidiogenous cells: 0.5–1 μm diam, phialides, cylindrical, terminal, slightly tapering towards the apex. Paraphyses: absent. Alpha conidia: (6–)6.5–8.5(−9) × 3–4 μm, abundant in culture and on alfalfa twigs, aseptate, hyaline, smooth, ovate to ellipsoidal, often biguttulate, base sub-truncate. Beta conidia: (18–)22–28(29) × 1–1.5 μm, formed in culture and alfalfa stems in some isolates, aseptate, hyaline, smooth, fusiform to hooked, base sub-truncate.

Cultural characteristics from Udayanga et al. (2014) and Fan et al. (2018): incubated in the dark at 25°C for 1 week, colonies on PDA fast-growing, 5.5 ± 0.2 mm/day (n = 8), white, aerial, fluffy or felty mycelium, reverse dark pigmentation developing in the centre; production abundant, black stromata at maturity, conidiomata irregularly distributed over agar surface.

Distribution

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Diaporthe eres has a worldwide distribution in temperate regions. However, some reports also list the species in South America and Australia (Udayanga et al., 2014). Several plant species, including native plants and crops, have been affected by D. eres (Gomes et al., 2013; Udayanga et al., 2014; Fan et al., 2018; Abramczyk et al., 2018)

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 12 May 2022

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Reference
Africa
South Africa	Present	Moyo et al. (2016)
Asia
China	Present	Fan XinLei et al. (2018) Zhang et al. (2018) Song et al. (2019) Zheng XiangRong et al. (2020)
-Anhui	Present	Bai et al. (2017)
-Beijing	Present	Yang Qin et al. (2018) Dissanayake et al. (2015) Fan XinLei et al. (2018) Zhu HaiYan et al. (2019)
-Fujian	Present	Bai Qing et al. (2015)
-Gansu	Present	Fan XinLei et al. (2018)
-Guangxi	Present	Gao YaHui et al. (2016) Dissanayake et al. (2015) Huang Feng et al. (2015)
-Hebei	Present	Dissanayake et al. (2015)
-Heilongjiang	Present	Yang Qin et al. (2018) Wu et al. (2012) Manawasinghe et al. (2019)
-Henan	Present	Sun et al. (2020) Fan XinLei et al. (2018)
-Hubei	Present	Dissanayake et al. (2017) Bai Qing et al. (2015) Bai et al. (2017) Manawasinghe et al. (2019)
-Jiangsu	Present	Zhao YuQiang et al. (2019)
-Jiangxi	Present	Bai Qing et al. (2015) Huang Feng et al. (2015) Gao YaHui et al. (2016)
-Jilin	Present	Manawasinghe et al. (2019)
-Liaoning	Present	Manawasinghe et al. (2019)
-Ningxia	Present	Fan XinLei et al. (2018)
-Shaanxi	Present	Yang Qin et al. (2018)
-Shandong	Present	Song et al. (2019) Wang et al. (2011) Dhanushka Udayanga et al. (2014) Bai Qing et al. (2015) Dissanayake et al. (2015) Gong Sai et al. (2017) Zhang et al. (2018)
-Sichuan	Present	Fan XinLei et al. (2018) Gao YaHui et al. (2016) Manawasinghe et al. (2019)
-Zhejiang	Present	Yang Qin et al. (2018) Dissanayake et al. (2015) Huang Feng et al. (2015)
Georgia	Present	Battilani et al. (2018)
India	Present	Verma et al. (2007)
-Jammu and Kashmir	Present	Khan et al. (2011)
-Uttar Pradesh	Present	Verma et al. (2007)
Iran	Present	Mirabolfathy and Ershad (2004)
Japan	Present, Localized	EPPO (2022) Kobayashi and Ito (1957) Dhanushka Udayanga et al. (2014)
-Hokkaido	Present	Sasaki and Matsuzaki (1987)
South Korea	Present	Dhanushka Udayanga et al. (2014) Kim ChangKyun et al. (2012)
Europe
Austria	Present	Dhanushka Udayanga et al. (2014) Gomes et al. (2013)
Croatia	Present	Guarnaccia et al. (2018) Ćosić et al. (2011) Vrandecic et al. (2011) Kaliterna et al. (2012) Vrandečić et al. (2013) Ivić and Novak (2018)
Czechia	Present	Guarnaccia et al. (2018) Dvořák et al. (2006)
France	Present	Guarnaccia et al. (2018) Dhanushka Udayanga et al. (2014) Bastide et al. (2017)
Germany	Present	Langer (2017) Weiler and Kennel (1986) Gomes et al. (2013) Dhanushka Udayanga et al. (2014) Lombard et al. (2014) Gierl and Fischer (2017)
Greece	Present	Thomidis and Michailides (2009)
Hungary	Present	Guarnaccia et al. (2018) Vajna and Rozsnyay (1995) Vajna (2002) Csilla et al. (2014)
Italy	Present	Lorenzini and Zapparoli (2018) Ghillini (1952) Matta et al. (1976) Gomes et al. (2013) Cinelli et al. (2016) Lorenzini et al. (2016) Dissanayake et al. (2017) Prencipe et al. (2017) Bertetti et al. (2018) Guarnaccia et al. (2018) Quaroni et al. (Undated)
-Sicily	Present	CABI Data Mining (Undated)
Latvia	Present	Juhnevica-Radenkova et al. (2016) Gomes et al. (2013)
Lithuania	Present	Stravinskienė et al. (2015) Treigienė (2000) Kačergius and Jovaišienė (2010) Snieškienė et al. (2012) Lombard et al. (2014)
Montenegro	Present	Vemić et al. (2019)
Netherlands	Present	Cardinaals et al. (2018) Kerling (1961) Gomes et al. (2013) Dhanushka Udayanga et al. (2014) Lombard et al. (2014)
Poland	Present	Abramczyk et al. (2018) Przybył (2002) Lombard et al. (2014) Abramczyk and Król (2016) Kowalski et al. (2016) Żółciak et al. (2019)
Portugal	Present	Lucas and Da Camara (1954)
Romania	Present	Florian et al. (2018)
Russia	Present	Gomzhina et al. (2019) Kolomiets et al. (2009) Gomzhina and Gannibal (2020)
Serbia	Present	Ristić et al. (2016) Pavlović et al. (2008) Milijašević (2009) Pavlović et al. (2012) Živković et al. (2012) Petrović et al. (2015)
Spain	Present	León et al. (2020) Díaz et al. (2013) Guarnaccia et al. (2018)
Switzerland	Present	Toti et al. (1993) Sieber and Hugentobler (1987)
Ukraine	Present	Kowalski (2004)
United Kingdom	Present	Guarnaccia et al. (2018) Wehmeyer (1933) Webber and Gibbs (1984)
-England	Present	Wanasinghe et al. (2018) Gomes et al. (2013)
-Scotland	Present	Dhanushka Udayanga et al. (2014) Gomes et al. (2013)
North America
Canada	Present	Ali et al. (2020)
-Nova Scotia	Present	Ali et al. (2020)
-Ontario	Present	Horner (1956)
-Quebec	Present	Baumgartner et al. (2013)
United States	Present	Baumgartner et al. (2013)
-California	Present	Lawrence et al. (2015) Úrbez-Torres et al. (2013)
-Connecticut	Present	Baumgartner et al. (2013) Anagnostakis (2007)
-Maryland	Present	Dhanushka Udayanga et al. (2014) Weaver (1951)
-Massachusetts	Present	Lin Shan et al. (2018) Richmond (1934) Baumgartner et al. (2013)
-Michigan	Present	McTavish et al. (2018)
-Mississippi	Present	Meepagala et al. (2018)
-New Jersey	Present	Dhanushka Udayanga et al. (2014)
-New York	Present	Dhanushka Udayanga et al. (2014) Dodge (1932) Hildebrand (1947) Baumgartner et al. (2013)
-North Carolina	Present	Dhanushka Udayanga et al. (2014)
-Ohio	Present	Lin Shan et al. (2018)
-Oregon	Present	McWHORTER (1935)
-Pennsylvania	Present	Lin Shan et al. (2018)
-South Carolina	Present	Smith and Kamsey (1957)
-Virginia	Present	Dhanushka Udayanga et al. (2014)
-Wisconsin	Present	CABI Data Mining (Undated)
Oceania
Australia	Present	Dhanushka Udayanga et al. (2014)
-New South Wales	Present	Dhanushka Udayanga et al. (2014)
New Zealand	Present	Dhanushka Udayanga et al. (2014) NURSERY STOCK RESEARCH AND EXTENSION COMMITTEE, N.Z. (1956)
South America
Argentina	Present	Catania and Romero (2008) Fernandez Valiela et al. (1954)
Chile	Present	Lombard et al. (2014)
Uruguay	Present	Sessa et al. (2017)

History of Introduction and Spread

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Diaporthe eres is a minor pathogen causing leaf spots, stem cankers and diseases of woody plants, mostly in temperate regions worldwide (Udayanga et al., 2014). This species was first reported on the twigs of Ulmus sp. (Ulmaceae) collected in Germany by Nitschke in 1870. Since then, several other reports used either this name or the name of related species as a synonym. Information about the asexual morph of D. eres, Phomopsis velata, from branches of Tilia europaea L. (Malvaceae) collected in Italy was given by Traverso in 1906. D. eres is considered a pathogen with plant health inspection and quarantine significance (Cline and Farr, 2006; Udayanga et al., 2014).

Risk of Introduction

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Diaporthe eres is an endophyte, plant pathogen and saprobe of several plant species from a variety of families (e.g. Fagaceae, Juglandaceae, Malvaceae, Rutaceae, Ulmaceae, Vitaceae among others). This fungal species can be considered a risk because of the ecology, life form and relationships with several hosts: the endophytic life stage, for example, might not be visible in simple analyses of plant tissues, seeds and fruits. The distribution range that is mostly limited to temperate regions might form a natural climate barrier preventing further spread. In 2006, D. eres was included in a list of regulated plant pests of concern to the USA, developed by the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) of the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) (Cline and Farr, 2006). The list includes more than 50 species of fungi that have the potential to cause severe economic or environmental damage; the fungi on the APHIS Regulated Plant Pest List are said to represent some of the most significant threats to US agriculture (Cline and Farr, 2006).

Habitat

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Reports of D. eres are mainly from temperate regions worldwide (Udayanga et al., 2014). Hosts of D. eres are found in forestry and crop areas in 17 Chinese provinces (Fan et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2018, Manawasinghe et al., 2019), in crops in Europe (Gomes et al., 2013; Udayanga et al., 2014; Lorenzini and Zapparoli, 2018), in the USA (Baumgartner et al., 2013; Udayanga et al., 2014). In addition, two D. eres hosts have been reported in Australia and New Zealand (Udayanga et al., 2014) and there are a few records from fruit trees in Uruguay and Chile (Lombard et al., 2014; Sessa et al., 2017). To date, only one host (Diospyros kaki) has been reported in South Africa (Moyo et al., 2016). D. eres is primarily related to forest trees in natural areas and fruit crops in traditional or commercial areas in the Northern Hemisphere; there are very few records in countries from the Southern Hemisphere.

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Protected agriculture (e.g. glasshouse production)	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Rail / roadsides	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details	Natural

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context	References
Diospyros kaki (persimmon)	Ebenaceae	Main
Fagus sylvatica (common beech)	Fagaceae	Main
Helianthus annuus (sunflower)	Asteraceae	Other	Gomzhina and Gannibal (2020)
Hypericum perforatum (St John's wort)	Clusiaceae	Other	Pavlović et al. (2008)
Malus domestica (apple)	Rosaceae	Main	Gierl and Fischer (2017); Sessa et al. (2017)
Photinia fraseri	Rosaceae	Unknown	Song et al. (2019)
Picea (spruces)	Pinaceae	Main
Picea abies (common spruce)	Pinaceae	Main
Picea pungens (blue spruce)	Pinaceae	Main
Podocarpus macrophyllus (Long-leaf podocarpus)	Podocarpaceae	Unknown	Zheng et al. (2020)
Prunus armeniaca (apricot)	Rosaceae	Main
Prunus avium (sweet cherry)	Rosaceae	Other
Prunus domestica (plum)	Rosaceae	Main
Prunus dulcis (almond)	Rosaceae	Main
Prunus persica (peach)	Rosaceae	Main	Prencipe et al. (2017)
Pyrus communis (European pear)	Rosaceae	Main	Bertetti et al. (2018); Sessa et al. (2017)
Pyrus pyrifolia (Oriental pear tree)	Rosaceae	Main
Vitis vinifera (grapevine)	Vitaceae	Other	Cinelli et al. (2016)
Ziziphus jujuba (common jujube)	Rhamnaceae	Unknown	Zhang et al. (2018)

Symptoms

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As plant pathogens, Diaporthe species mainly cause cankers, diebacks and leaf spot diseases. The initial symptoms appear at the petiole, the leaf or a branch with discoloured areas. On leaves or petioles, streak lesions that are enlarged beyond the lesion margin sometimes produce black pycnidia on dead tissues. The inner bark and the bark above the infected cambium on branches may appear sunken and split along the canker margin. Thereafter, the fungus quickly kills branches and twigs, producing several prominent black pycnidia erupted through the bark, sometimes forming long neck-like rostrates. Perithicia are subsequently commonly found on diseased overwintering branches.

List of Symptoms/Signs

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Sign	Life Stages	Type
Leaves / fungal growth
Stems / canker on woody stem
Stems / dieback

Biology and Ecology

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Reproductive Biology

The reproductive strategy of D. eres includes sexual and asexual morphs. The sexual morph produces a perithecial ascomata and asci with eight ascospores. The asexual morph is a coelomycetous fungus producing a pycnidial conidiomata having at least two types of conidia described as alpha and beta conidia. The two reproductive morphs are associated with tissues in several plant species (mainly with branches for phytopathogens and with leaves for endophytes). The sexual and asexual morphs occur primarily in temperate regions.

Environmental Requirements

Diseases caused by D. eres are mainly reported in temperate regions.

Climate

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Climate	Status	Description
C - Temperate/Mesothermal climate	Preferred	Average temp. of coldest month > 0°C and < 18°C, mean warmest month > 10°C
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer	Preferred	Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter	Preferred	Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters)
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year	Preferred	Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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Diaporthe eres is associated with plant tissues, mainly branches and leaves and causes cankers, diebacks and leaf spot diseases. The fungus may be naturally dispersed in association with plant tissues, or dispersed by abiotic factors, such as water and wind, based on the morphological structures, including sexual and asexual spores.

Pathway Causes

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Cause	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Crop production	Associated with grapevine dieback; from apple rootstocks; from Vitis vinifera wood cankers; from different fruit trees such as apple, pear, cherry and plum	Yes	Yes	Kaliterna et al. (2012); Udayanga et al. (2014); Lorenzini et al. (2016); Sessa et al. (2017); Abramczyk et al. (2018); Lorenzini and Zapparoli (2018); Ali et al. (2020)
Food	From apples stored under different conditions; on Castanea sativa (chestnuts in store)	Yes	Yes	Udayanga et al. (2014); Juhnevica-Radenkova et al. (2016); Florian et al. (2018)
Forestry	Several plant species	Yes	Yes
Horticulture	Umbel browning and stem necrosis on carrot	Yes	Yes	Bastide et al. (2017)

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Economic/livelihood	Negative
Environment (generally)	Negative

Economic Impact

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The most common plant host diseases caused by D. eres are cankers, diebacks and leaf spot diseases. Diaporthe species infection has resulted in the loss of crops and forest areas (Udayanga et al., 2011; Udayanga et al., 2014; Manawasinghe et al., 2019). D. eres has been reported as a pathogen of forest trees, fruits such as grapes (Vitis vinifera) and apples (Malus domestica), chestnuts (Castanea sativa) and flowers in Europe, Canada, China and the USA (Udayanga et al., 2014; Abramczyk et al., 2018; Fan et al., 2018; Guarnaccia et al., 2018; Wanasinghe et al., 2018; Gomzhina et al. 2019; Zhu et al. 2019; Ali et al., 2020). This species also infected stored apples in Latvia and Romania (Juhnevica-Radenkova et al., 2016; Florian et al., 2018) and stored chestnuts in Australia (Udayanga et al., 2014). The D. eres species complex has also been reported for the first time in Serbia, causing seed decay in soyabeans (Glycine max) (Petrović et al., 2015).

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Abundant in its native range
Tolerant of shade
Reproduces asexually

Impact outcomes

Damaged ecosystem services
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Host damage
Negatively impacts agriculture
Negatively impacts forestry
Negatively impacts animal/plant collections
Damages animal/plant products
Negatively impacts trade/international relations

Impact mechanisms

Pathogenic

Likelihood of entry/control

Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
Difficult to identify/detect in the field

Detection and Inspection

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Detection and Inspection Methods

The inspection of petioles, leaves and branches with discoloured areas is an essential step for the detection of D. eres infection. The leaves and petioles should be examined for streak lesions enlarged beyond the lesion margin that occasionally produce black pycnidia on dead tissues. On branches, the inner bark and the bark above the infected cambium may appear sunken and split along the canker margin. The fungus eventually kills branches and twigs, producing black pycnidia erupted through the bark, sometimes forming a long neck-like rostrate. Perithicia can subsequently be commonly found on diseased overwintering branches.

Diagnosis

Diaporthe eres infection can be observed in a transverse section of conidiomata or perithecia growing on or in the host plant tissue. A mucoid spore mass is removed from the conidiomata and the suspension spread on the surface of culture media (Yang et al., 2018). Thereafter, morphological and phylogenetic analyses are performed using DNA sequences data to identify the fungal pathogen (Fan et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2018).

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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Diaporthe eres belongs to a complex of several species (D. eres, D. helicis, D. pulla, D. phragmitis, D. maritima, D. bicincta, D. celastrina, D. alleghaniensis, D. vaccini [Phomopsis vaccini], D. padina, D. chensiensis, D. betulina and D. alnea) (Fan et al., 2018). Six species were recently determined as synonyms of D. eres by Fan et al. (2018), based on phylogenetic analyses using DNA sequences from five genes: D. biguttusis, D. ellipicola, D. longicicola and D. mahothocarpus (Gao et al., 2015), D. momicola (Dissanayake et al., 2017) and D. camptothecicola (Yang et al., 2017). Udayanga et al. (2014) list other synonyms of D. eres in the Index Fungorum (http://www.indexfungorum.org/) and MycoBank (http://www.mycobank.org/) databases. According to Fan et al. (2018), the plasticity of morphological features and the diverse host association of D. eres do not contribute to the accurate identification of species in the D. eres complex (see Wehmeyer, 1933; Udayanga et al., 2011; Gomes et al., 2013; Du et al., 2016; Gao et al., 2016; Tanney et al., 2016). Fan et al. (2018) suggested the use of at least three genes (calmodulin, translation elongation factor EF-1 alpha and tubulin) for the determination of species in the D. eres complex.

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

SPS Measures

Diaporthe eres is reported as a pathogen with plant health inspection and quarantine significance (Cline and Farr, 2006; Udayanga et al., 2014).

References

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Abramczyk, B. A., Król, E. D., Zalewska, E. D., Zimowska, B., 2018. Morphological characteristics and pathogenicity of Diaporthe eres isolates to the fruit tree shoots. Acta Scientiarum Polonorum - Hortorum Cultus, 17(6), 125-133. doi: 10.24326/asphc.2018.6.13

Ali, S, Renderos, W, Bevis, E, Hebb, J, Abassi, PA, 2020. Diaporthe eres causes stem cankers and death of young apple rootstocks in Canada. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology, 42(2), 218-227. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07060661.2019.1653377

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Cinelli, T., Mondello, V., Marchi, G., Burruano, S., Alves, A., Mugnai, L., 2016. First report of Diaporthe eres associated with cane blight of grapevine (Vitis vinifera) in Italy. Plant Disease, 100(2), 532. doi: 10.1094/PDIS-08-15-0872-PDN

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Distribution References

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08/12/2019 Original text by:

Jadson Diogo Pereira Bezerra, Tropical Pathology and Public Health Institute (IPTSP), Federal University of Goiás, Brazil

Xinlei Fan, The Key Laboratory for Silviculture and Conservation of the Ministry of Education, Beijing Forestry University, China

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Diaporthe eres (apple leaf, branch and fruit fungus)

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