Desmostachya bipinnata (halfa grass)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Growth Stages
- Biology and Ecology
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Vectors
- Plant Trade
- Impact Summary
- Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Impact: Biodiversity
- Social Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pageIdentity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf
Preferred Common Name
- halfa grass
Other Scientific Names
- Briza bipinnata L.
- Desmostachya cynosuroides (Retz.) Stapf ex Mussery
- Eragrostis bipinnata (L.) K. Schum.
- Eragrostis cynosuroides (Retz.) Beauv.
- Leptochloa bipinnata (L.) Hochst
- Poa cynosuroides Retz.
- Stapfiola bipinnata (L.) O. Ktze.
- Uniola bipinnata L.
Local Common Names
- India: daab; dhab; durva; kusa; kush; kusha
EPPO code
- DETBI (Desmostachya bipinnata)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageTaxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Monocotyledonae
- Order: Cyperales
- Family: Poaceae
- Genus: Desmostachya
- Species: Desmostachya bipinnata
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageDescription
Top of pageBhanwara (1986) described the female fertile spikelets as 4-6 mm long, adaxial, compressed laterally, with 6-16 female-fertile florets. Lemmas deltoid, papery and leathery entire, pointed, awnless, hairless, glabrous carinate, 3 nerved. Palea present, relatively long, apically notched and 2 nerved. Lodicules present 2, free, fleshy and glabrous. Stamens are three, which split longitudinally. Anthers are non-penicillate, ovary glabrous and stigmas two. The fruit is free from lemma and pallea, ellipsoid, compressed dorso-ventrally. Hilum is short, pericarp fused, and embryo large, not waisted. Seeds are obliquely ovoid, laterally compressed, 0.5-0.6 mm long. Ovules remain shriveled in the basal five or six florets, whereas terminal florets contain younger stages of ovules and stamens.
Distribution
Top of pageDistribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 21 Jul 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Algeria | Present | Native | |||||
Chad | Present | Native | |||||
Egypt | Present | Native | |||||
Eritrea | Present | Native | |||||
Ethiopia | Present | Native | |||||
Libya | Present | Native | |||||
Mauritania | Present | Native | |||||
Somalia | Present | Native | |||||
Sudan | Present | Native | |||||
Tunisia | Present | Native | |||||
Asia |
|||||||
Afghanistan | Present | Native | |||||
Cambodia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
China | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Guangdong | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Hainan | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Henan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cocos Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
India | Present | Native | Invasive | ||||
-Assam | Present | Native | |||||
-Bihar | Present | Native | |||||
-Delhi | Present | Native | |||||
-Gujarat | Present | Native | |||||
-Haryana | Present | Native | |||||
-Himachal Pradesh | Present | Native | Original citation: Das et al., 1993 | ||||
-Jammu and Kashmir | Present | Native | |||||
-Karnataka | Present | Native | |||||
-Madhya Pradesh | Present | Native | |||||
-Maharashtra | Present | Native | |||||
-Meghalaya | Present | Native | |||||
-Odisha | Present | Native | |||||
-Punjab | Present | Native | |||||
-Rajasthan | Present | Native | Original citation: Bhandari, 1978 | ||||
-Tamil Nadu | Present | Native | |||||
-Uttar Pradesh | Present | Native | |||||
-West Bengal | Present | Native | |||||
Iran | Present | Native | |||||
Iraq | Present | Native | |||||
Israel | Present | Native | |||||
Jordan | Present | Native | |||||
Myanmar | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Nepal | Present | Native | |||||
Pakistan | Present | Native | |||||
Saudi Arabia | Present | Native | |||||
Thailand | Present | Native | |||||
Vietnam | Present | Introduced | |||||
Yemen | Present | Native | Original citation: Al Kouthayri & Hassan, 1998 |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageRisk of Introduction
Top of pageHabitat
Top of pageHabitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Protected agriculture (e.g. glasshouse production) | Present, no further details | |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Present, no further details | |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Deserts | Present, no further details | |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageHost Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pagePlant name | Family | Context | References |
---|---|---|---|
Gossypium hirsutum (Bourbon cotton) | Malvaceae | Main | |
Pennisetum glaucum (pearl millet) | Poaceae | Main | |
Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane) | Poaceae | Main | |
Sorghum bicolor (sorghum) | Poaceae | Main | |
Triticum aestivum (wheat) | Poaceae | Main |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageThe chromosome number is 2n=20 (Mehra et al., 1968; Christopher and Abraham, 1974).
Physiology and Phenology
Flowering and fruiting occurs from May to July, maturing from August to October. On moderately alkaline calcareous soils, the monsoon rains trigger active growth of D. bipinnata in June and plant biomass attains a peak during the rainy season in September (Gupta and Singh, 1982; Sinha et al., 1991). The leaves senesce with the onset of dry weather during winter months from November to February followed by a spurt of growth in summer months due to regeneration of shoots from the perennial rhizomes (Gupta and Singh, 1982). Annual net primary productivity was found to be 1080-2453 g/m² (Gupta and Singh, 1982; Sinha et al., 1991). Being a deep-rooted grass, 52-55% of the root biomass remains concentrated in the top 10 cm of the soil, whereas the rhizomes and roots penetrate deeper than 1.5 m (Gupta and Singh, 1982).
D. bipinnata exhibits a C4 photosynthetic pathway (Aronson, 1989; Malik et al., 1991; Watson and Dallwitz, 1992), as are more grass species found in the moderately temperate and moist Himalayan region near Palampur, India (Das and Vats, 1993). On the basis of acetylene reduction assay and 15N natural abundance, associative nitrogen fixation has been reported in D. bipinnata growing in saline and sodic soils in Lahore, Pakistan (Malik et al., 1991). The occurrence of D. bipinnata has been positively correlated with increased ion exchangeable, notably with increased sodium, chlorine, calcium and magnesium ion content. On sodic soil, the soil alkalinity was found to have little adverse effect on the roots of the D. bipinnata (Joshi et al., 1985). It is considered to have a salt tolerance up to 5.6 dS/m (Aronson, 1989), though seed germination decreased in response to increasing salinity levels from 3-40 dS/m (Mahmood et al., 1996). The presence of polyphenol oxidase activity in alkali soil halophytes including D. bipinnata indicated its significance in the salt resistance of plants (Sharma et al., 1983).
Reproductive Biology
In north Indian populations of D. bipinnata, there are abortive embryo sacs due to female gametophyte degeneration, possibly due to self-incompatibility caused by the failure of the pollen tube to reach the embryo sac (Bhanwara, 1986). This study signifies the importance of understanding further the reproductive biology of D. bipinnata in relation to its widespread occurrence in India, Africa and South-East Asia.
Environmental Requirements
It is widely distributed in arid and semi-arid regions of India having an annual rainfall of 250-750 mm (Dabadghao and Sharkarnarayan, 1973). It is, however, very drought tolerant and known to survive where annual rainfall may be as low as 54 mm, and will also be found in higher rainfall zones, above 1000 mm. It is very tolerant of saline soils (Khan et al., 1989; Mahmood et al., 1994), alkaline and calcareous soils (Gupta and Singh, 1982; Gupta et al., 1990; Sinha et al., 1991) and highly sodic soils (Singh, 1994; Kaur et al., 2002a,b). On alluvial saline soils with restricted water penetration, D. bipinnata constitutes the dominant weed, which occurs in dense patches (Mahmood et al., 1994).
Associations
In the Dudhwa National Park, Uttar Pardesh, India, D. bipinnata occurs commonly as undergrowth in dry deciduous sal (Shorea robusta) forest as well as in mesophyllous grasslands along with other perennial grasses such as Themeda aurndinacea, Saccharum spontaneum, S. bengalensis, Vetiveria zizanioides, Dichanthium annulatum and Echinochloa spp. In degraded forest land in the Siwalik Hills between the rivers Ganga and Yamuna, India, it grows along with Eulaliopsis binata, Arundinella setosa, Phragmites karka, Hetero pogon contortus and Cenchrus ciliaris (Gupta et al., 1996). D. bipinnata has been reported as undergrowth in mixed plantations of Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia nilotica and Eucalyptus camadulensis in Lal Suhanra National Park, Bahawalpur, Pakistan (Hameed et al., 2002).
It is an important constituent of the Banni grasslands of the Kutch district of Gujarat, India (Sastry et al., 2003), where it occurs in five main associations, Desmostachya/Cenchrus, Desmostachya/Eragrostis, Desmostachya/Heylandia, Sporobolus, and Isleima/Dichanthium (Pandya and Sidha, 1987). D. bipinnata occurs as the most prominent constituent of the grassland sites at Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India (Gupta, 1987). In grassy savannas of Keoladeo National Park, Rajasthan, India, D. bipinnata grows along with Prosopis cineraria, Acacia nilotica, Capparis sepieria, Vetiveria zizanioides and Cynodon dactylon. D. bipinnata has been reported to grow in saline tracts of Delhi, India and grows in association with Sporobolus marginatus and Alhagi maurorum (Maheshwari, 1963).
On the young alluvial soils along river courses subjected to erosion and deposition of soil, D. bipinnata and Phragmites species grow along with Saccharum benghalense, S. spontaneum (Gupta and Saxena, 1972). In the swampy areas of sunderbans, tallgrass patches of Imperata cylindrica, Phragmites karka and Saccharum spontaneum are associated with low forests and tall grasses such as D. bipinnata, Saccharum arundinaceum and Vetiveria zizanioides (Dabadghoa and Shankarnaryan, 1973; Singh and Gupta, 1992). It occurs as a dominant halophyte in saline areas of Peshawar district of Pakistan where it occurs with Sueda fructicosa, Juncellus laevigatus, Saccharum spontaneum and Cynodon dactylon (Sarir et al., 1986). D. bipinnata is often found associated with other serious perennial weeds such as Avena fatua, Cynodon doctylon and Cyperus rotundus in parts of its native range (Al Kouthayri and Hassan, 1998).
Termites are an important group of soil fauna affecting decomposition rates of litter and roots (Gupta et al., 1981). On the decomposition leaf litter of D. bipinnata (kept on the soil surface and buried at 5 cm depth), the predominant species of fungi were Acrophialophora fusispora, Aspergillus spp, Curvurtlaria spp, Penicillium spp. and Pericornia minuisima (Aneja and Mehotra, 1979, 1980). In D. bipinnata grasslands on moderate to highly alkaline soils, the vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhization of roots varied from 14 to 72%, the spore count averaged 507 to 372 spores per 100 g of soil, and belonged to species of Acaulospora, Entrophospora, Endogone, Glomus, Gigaspora and Sclerocystis (Neeraj, 2001; Neeraj et al., 2003). The diazotrophs isolated from the roots of D. bipinnata included Citrobacter freundi and Enterobacter agglomerans (Malik et al., 1991).
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Dry season duration | 0 | 4 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
Mean annual rainfall | 54 | 1016 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
- impeded
- seasonally waterlogged
Soil reaction
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- infertile
- infertile
- saline
- shallow
- sodic
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageMeans of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pagePropagation is mainly vegetative from the underground rhizomes. Short-distance dispersal occurs due to wind, whereas long-distance dispersal is mainly achieved by water. The broken rhizome fragments spread along waterways, as D. bipinnata commonly grows along riverbanks, streams and channels. Under dry conditions, high winds may blow the aerial parts as a 'tumble weed', scattering seed and vegetative fragments along the way.
Agricultural Practices
The roots cut by cultivation equipment form small pieces which can produce plants in new locations.
Accidental Introduction
The contamination of seed crops with D. bipinnata seed could be responsible for long-distance distribution to different countries and continents.
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Land vehicles | Yes | |||
Plants or parts of plants | Yes | |||
Soil, sand and gravel | Yes |
Plant Trade
Top of pagePlant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport | Pest stages | Borne internally | Borne externally | Visibility of pest or symptoms |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes | ||||
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx | ||||
Fruits (inc. pods) | ||||
Leaves | ||||
Roots | ||||
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Biodiversity (generally) | Positive |
Crop production | Negative |
Environment (generally) | Positive |
Human health | Positive |
Livestock production | Positive |
Native fauna | Positive |
Native flora | Positive |
Tourism | Negative |
Trade/international relations | Negative |
Transport/travel | Negative |
Impact
Top of pageEnvironmental Impact
Top of pageImpact: Biodiversity
Top of pageSocial Impact
Top of pageRisk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Invasive in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Highly mobile locally
- Has high reproductive potential
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Damaged ecosystem services
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Negatively impacts tourism
- Reduced amenity values
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Pest and disease transmission
- Produces spines, thorns or burrs
- Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
- Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
- Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Top of pageUses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Fodder/animal feed
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pagePrevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Cultural ControlIn West Africa, Vetveria zizanioides is used as a border to prevent the spread of D. bipinnata into gardens and cultivated fields (World Bank, 1990).
Mechanical Control
In orchards in Israel, mechanical cultivation after 3-4 weeks has been found to be effective for controlling D. bipinnata (Oren, 1988). Mechanical methods are preferred for controlling D. bipinnata in cotton fields and by manual weeding in fruit orchards in India.
Chemical Control
Applications of herbicides control D. bipinnata on the bunds of rice fields. In orchards in northern India, perennial grasses such as Imperata cylindrica, D. bipinnata and Saccharum munja have been controlled effectively by application of dalapon + paraquat (Joolka et al., 1991). On non-cultivated land, an application of imazarpyr during winter effectively controlled D. bipinnata during the following summer (Anon., 1985). In vineyards, citrus and other fruit orchards, glufosinate controlled many invasive weeds including D. bipinnata (Bhat, 1985).
References
Top of pageAhmad R; Ismail S; Bodla MA; Chaudhry MR; Squires VR; Ayoub AT, 1994. Potentials for cultivation of halophytic crops on saline wastelands and sandy deserts in Pakistan to overcome feed gap for grazing animals. Halophytes as a resource for livestock and for rehabilitation of degraded lands. Proceedings of a international workshop on halophytes for reclamation of saline wastelands and as a resource for livestock problems and prospects, Nairobi, Kenya, 22-27 November 1992, 223-230.
Al Kouthayri GR; Hassan AA, 1998. Survey of major weeds in Hadramout Valley, Yemen. Arab Journal of Plant Protection, 16(1):19-26.
Alam SM, 2002. Utilization of salt-lands: salinity poses distinct physiological threat to plants. Gulf Pakistan Economist, 16-22 September, 2002.
Ambasht RS; Tothill JC; Mott JC, 1986. Primary productivity and soil and nutrient stability of an Indian savanna land. Ecological and management of the world's savannas, 217-219.
Aneja KR; Mehrotra RS, 1980. Studies on microorganisms decomposing aboveground parts of "the grass' (Desmostachya bipinnata). Proceedings of National Academy of Science, India, 50:12-20.
Aneja; KR; Mehrotra RS, 1979. Qualitative and quantitative changes in the microflora on Desmostachya bipinnata litter buried in soil. Botanical Progress, 2:50-54.
Anon., 1985. Imazapyr - a new herbicide for weed control on non-cultivated land. Phytoparasitica, 13:238.
Aronson JA, 1989. Haloph, a Database of Salt Tolerant Plants of the World. University of Arizona, Tucson, USA: Office of Arid Land Studies.
Bamber CJ, 1916. Plants of Punjab. Punjab, India: Superintendent Government Printing.
Bhandari MM, 1990. Flora of the Indian Desert. Jodhpur, India: MPS Repros.
Bhanwara RK, 1986. Abortive embryo sacs in Desmostachya bipinnata (Poaceae). Current Science, 55:1033-1034.
Bhat A, 1985. Glufosinate ammonium for general weed control in vineyards, citrus and other fruit orchards, and uncultivated areas. Phytoparasitica, 13:3-4, 239.
Bor LN, 1960. The Grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India and Pakistan. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press.
Chand N; Agnihotri MP, 1993. Mechanical characteristics of kusha grass fibre. Indian Textile Journal, 103:58-60.
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Gupta RK; Saxena SK, 1972. Potential grassland types and their ecological succession in Rajasthan desert. Annals of Arid zone, 11:198-211.
Gupta SR; Rajvanshi R; Singh JS, 1981. The role of the termite Odontotermes gurdaspurensis (Isoptera: Termitidae) in plant decomposition in a tropical grassland. Pedobiologia, 22:254-261.
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Hameed M; Chaudhry AA; Mann MA; Gill AH, 2002. Diversity of plant species in Lal Suhanra National Park, Bhaglpur, Pakistan. On line Journal of Biological sciences, 2:267-274.
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Malik KA; Bilal R; Rasul G; Mahmood K; Sajjad MI, 1991. Associative N2-fixation in plants growing in saline-sodic soils and its relative quantification based on 15N natural abundance. Plant and Soil, 137:67-74.
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Neeraj; Gupta SR; Malik V; Parkash V, 2003. Tree-based systems for restoring the fertility of a sodic soil in northwestern India. In international conference on Ecorestoration 14-21 October 2003, Dehradun and New Delhi, India.
Oren Y, 1988. A new approach to weed control in orchards. Phytoparasitica, 16(4):386
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Parker C, 1973. Weeds in Arabia. PANS, 19:345-352.
Peet NB; Watkinson AR; Bell DJ; Sharma UR, 1999. The conservation management of Imperata cylindrical grassland in Nepal with fire and cutting: an experimental approach. Journal of Applied Ecology, 36:374-387.
Qureshi R; Bhatti GR; Ghanghro AS, 2001. Survey of weed communities of sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum Linn.) crop in district Sukkur, Sindh, Pakistan. Hamdard Medicus, 44:107-11.
Sarir MS; Marwat KB; Khattak JK, 1986. Studies on some halophytes of Peshwar district. Pakistan Journal of Science, 38:39-42.
Sastry CS; Kavathekar KY, 1990. Plants for Reclamation of Wastelands. New Delhi, India: CSIR Publication and Information Directorate.
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Sharma SK; Bal AR; Joshi YC, 1983. Polyphenol oxidase activity in glycophytes and alkali halophytes under salt stress. Current Agriculture, 7:71-74.
Shukla U, 1996. The Grasses of North-Eastern India. Jodhpur, India: Scientific Publishers, 325 pp.
Singh JS; Gupta SR, 1992. Grasslands of Southern Asia. In: Coupland RT, ed. Natural Grasslands. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., 83-123.
Singh Y; Wadhwani AM; Johri BM, 1990. Dictionary of Economic Plants of India. New Delhi, India: Indian Council of Agricultural Research.
Sinha A; Rana RS; Gupta SR, 1991. Growth patterns, net primary production and energy transfers in two grassland communities of sodic soils. Tropical Ecology, 32:105-116.
USDA-ARS, 2003. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
Vats LK; Kaushal BR, 1981. Population dynamics, Secondary productivity and energy budget of Parahieroglyphus bilineatus Bol. (Orthopetra: Acridiae: Catantopinae). Acta Oecologia/Oecologia Generalis, 2:355-369.
World Bank, 1990. Vetiver Newsletter. Newsletter of the Vetiver information network, ASTAG, 4:61-64.
Distribution References
Bamber CJ, 1916. Plants of Punjab., Punjab, India: Superintendent Government Printing.
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Dabadghao PM, Shankarnarayan KA, 1973. The Grass Cover of India., New Delhi, India: Indian Council of Agricultural Research.
Feinburn N, 1986. (Flora Palaestina. Part IV)., Jerusalem, Israel: Israel Academy of Sciences.
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2003. Flora of China Web., Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Harvard University Herbaria. http://flora.huh.harvard.edu/china/
Maheshwari JK, 1963. The Flora of Delhi., New Delhi, India: CSIR.
Mitra J N, 1958. Flowering plants of Eastern India. Calcutta, India: The World Press Private Ltd.
Shukla U, 1996. The Grasses of North-Eastern India., Jodhpur, India: Scientific Publishers. 325 pp.
Singh JS, Gupta SR, 1992. Grasslands of Southern Asia. In: Natural Grasslands, [ed. by Coupland RT]. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co. 83-123.
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