Dendroctonus valens (red turpentine beetle)

Pictures

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Picture

Title

Caption

Copyright

Adult, lateral view

Dendroctonus valens (red turpentine beetle); adult, lateral view. USA. Museum set-specimen.

©Erich G. Vallery/USDA Forest Service-SRS-4552/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US

Adult, anterior view

Dendroctonus valens (red turpentine beetle); adult, anterior view of head-capsule. Museum set-specimen.

©Erich G. Vallery/USDA Forest Service-SRS-4552/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US

Larva

Dendroctonus valens (red turpentine beetle); larva, collected from ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) in Shingletown, California, USA.

©Donald Owen/California Department of Forestry & Fire Protection/Bugwood.org - CC BY-NC 3.0 US

Larva

Dendroctonus valens (red turpentine beetle); diagnostic features at posterior end of larva. Collected from ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) in Shingletown, California, USA.

©Donald Owen/California Department of Forestry & Fire Protection/Bugwood.org - CC BY-NC 3.0 US

Damage symptoms

Dendroctonus valens (red turpentine beetle); damage symptoms, showing large pitch tubes at the attack sites. Attacks are usually confined to lower 3 feet of the bole. USA.

©Kenneth E. Gibson, USDA Forest Service, Bugwood.org - CC BY-NC 3.0 US

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Dendroctonus valens Leconte

Preferred Common Name

red turpentine beetle

Other Scientific Names

Dendroctonus beckeri Thatcher
Dendroctonus rhizophagus Thomas & Bright

International Common Names

English: beetle, red turpentine
French: dendroctone rouge de l'epinette; dendroctone rouge de l'épinette

Local Common Names

China: hong zhi da xiao du; qiang da xiao du

EPPO code

DENCVA (Dendroctonus valens)

Summary of Invasiveness

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D. valens was not a known forest pest in China before the outbreak in Shanxi in 1999. However, its pest status in China is steadily increasing due to the beetle's invasive and destructive nature. The State Forestry Administration currently ranks D. valens the second most important forest pest in China and a National Management Project was initiated for the pest in 2000. D. valens continues to spread to new regions near infested areas. In 2001, about 30% of 85,300 ha of Chinese pine forest was infested in eastern Shaanxi with a total of 7% mortality. In 2002, infestation extended into Henan province, but timely response by the State Forestry Administration has decreased D. valens-infested pine stands and mortality overall.

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Metazoa
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Uniramia
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Scolytidae
Genus: Dendroctonus
Species: Dendroctonus valens

Description

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Egg

The eggs are shiny, opaque white, ovoid cylindrical, and about 1 mm long. They are often laid in groups of 10-40 or more, along one side of the gallery away from the area of main beetle activity. The egg masses are covered with compacted frass.

Larva

The larva is grub-like, legless and white, except for a brown head capsule and a small brown area at the hind end. A row of small, pale-brown tubercles become evident along each side of the body as the larva grows. The fully-grown larva can be up to 10-12 mm long.

Pupa

The pupa is white and slightly shorter than the larva. The legs and antennae are held against the body in the pupal or resting stage.

Adult

The adult beetles, which are the largest of the Dendroctonus genus, are typically 6-10 mm long and quite stout, 2.1 times as long as wide. At first, the beetle is called a callow adult and is tan, but it rapidly darkens to a reddish-brown. The frons is moderately convex with three elevations, the upper one just below the end of the epicranial suture and the lower two laterally sited on the median frons. The epistomal process is broad, more than 0.55 times as wide as the distance between the eyes. The arms of the epistomal process are oblique about 20° from horizontal and are prominently and roundly elevated. The surface of the epistomal process is longitudinally and broadly concave. The pronotum is 0.73 times as long as wide, 2.2 times as long as the pronotum. Elytral declivity with all interstriae shining, interstriae 1 not elevated, interstriae 2 neither narrower nor more impressed than interstriae 1 and 3, all declivital interstriae coarsely granulated, granulations distributed sometimes confused and sometimes regularly.

Distribution

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With the exception of the southern Atlantic Coast and Gulf Coast states, D. valens is common in pine and mixed conifer forests in the continental USA, southern Canada, Mexico and Honduras. The native range of the beetle extends roughly from 15°N to north of 60°N latitude and is concentrated between 30°N and 50°N (Song et al., 2000). The altitudinal range of D. valens in central Mexico is under 3000 m, and in Guatemala is between 1500 and 3000 m (Song et al., 2000).

In China, D. valens is widely distributed in Shanxi province and parts of the adjacent provinces Hebei, Henan and Shaanxi. Heavily attacked forests in Shanxi province are located in the Taihang, Lulang and Zhongtiao Mountains, at 35°12'N to 39°16'N latitude (Zhang et al., 2002). The latitudinal range of D. valens in the Americas corresponds well with that of China's national boundaries and the native pines therein. Extensive areas of pine forests are located on mountains and hills below 3000 m in altitude, so the potential range of D. valens in China is far greater than its current distribution (Song et al., 2000).

D. valens has spread rapidly in China since the first outbreak there in 1999 (Li et al., 2001; Miao et al., 2001). To date, it has been found in 62 counties, eight Forestry Bureaux and many plantations in Shanxi, Shaanxi, Hebei and Henan, and infested over half a million hectares of pine stands.

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 13 May 2022

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Asia
China	Present, Localized	Introduced		Britton and Sun JiangHua (2002) EPPO (2022)	First reported: early 1980s
-Beijing	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Hebei	Present, Localized	Introduced		Britton and Sun JiangHua (2002) EPPO (2022)	First reported: early 1980s
-Henan	Present, Localized	Introduced		Britton and Sun JiangHua (2002) EPPO (2022)	First reported: early 1980s
-Inner Mongolia	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Liaoning	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Shaanxi	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Britton and Sun JiangHua (2002) EPPO (2022)	First reported: early 1980s
-Shanxi	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Britton and Sun JiangHua (2002) EPPO (2022)	First reported: early 1980s
North America
Belize	Present			EPPO (2022)
Canada	Present, Localized	Native		Rappaport et al. (2001) EPPO (2022)
-Alberta	Present			EPPO (2022)
-British Columbia	Present			Safranyik et al. (2004) EPPO (2022)
-Manitoba	Present			EPPO (2022)
-New Brunswick	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Newfoundland and Labrador	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Northwest Territories	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Nova Scotia	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Ontario	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Quebec	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Saskatchewan	Present			EPPO (2022)
Guatemala	Present			EPPO (2022)
Honduras	Present			EPPO (2022)
Mexico	Present, Widespread	Native		Cibrian-Tovar et al. (1995) Tovar et al. (1995) EPPO (2022)
Nicaragua	Present			EPPO (2022)
United States	Present, Widespread	Native		Ross and Arnett (2000) EPPO (2022)
-Arizona	Present			EPPO (2022)
-California	Present, Widespread	Native		Ross and Arnett (2000) EPPO (2022)
-Colorado	Present, Localized	Native		Ross and Arnett (2000) EPPO (2022)
-Connecticut	Present, Localized	Native		Ross and Arnett (2000) EPPO (2022)
-Delaware	Present, Localized	Native		Ross and Arnett (2000) EPPO (2022)
-Florida	Absent, Unconfirmed presence record(s)			EPPO (2022)
-Georgia	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Idaho	Present, Localized	Native	Invasive	Ross and Arnett (2000) EPPO (2022)
-Illinois	Present, Localized	Native		Ross and Arnett (2000) EPPO (2022)
-Indiana	Present, Localized	Native		Ross and Arnett (2000) EPPO (2022)
-Iowa	Present, Localized	Native		Ross and Arnett (2000)
-Kansas	Present, Localized	Native		Ross and Arnett (2000) EPPO (2022)
-Kentucky	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Louisiana	Absent, Invalid presence record(s)			EPPO (2022)
-Maine	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Maryland	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Massachusetts	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Michigan	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Minnesota	Present			Wingfield (1983) EPPO (2022)
-Montana	Present			Six and Skov (2009) EPPO (2022)
-Nebraska	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Nevada	Present			Walker et al. (2007) EPPO (2022)
-New Hampshire	Present			EPPO (2022)
-New Jersey	Present			EPPO (2022)
-New Mexico	Present			Livingston et al. (1983) EPPO (2022)
-New York	Present			Pajares and Lanier (1990) EPPO (2022)
-North Carolina	Present			EPPO (2022)
-North Dakota	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Ohio	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Oklahoma	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Oregon	Present, Few occurrences	Native		Ross and Arnett (2000) EPPO (2022)
-Pennsylvania	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Rhode Island	Present			EPPO (2022)
-South Carolina	Present			EPPO (2022)
-South Dakota	Present			Schmid and Mata (1991) EPPO (2022)
-Tennessee	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Texas	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Utah	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Vermont	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Virginia	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Washington	Present, Widespread	Native		Ross and Arnett (2000) EPPO (2022)
-West Virginia	Present			EPPO (2022)
-Wisconsin	Present, Widespread	Native		Ross and Arnett (2000) EPPO (2022)
-Wyoming	Present			EPPO (2022)

Risk of Introduction

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D. valens is currently listed as an internal quarantine pest in China, with the aim of preventing its further spread. Shanxi, Shaanxi, Hebei and Henan provinces are listed as quarantined areas for D. valens.

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	High altitudes, uplands	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Protected agriculture (e.g. glasshouse production)	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed grasslands (grazing systems)	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Rail / roadsides	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural forests	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural grasslands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Riverbanks	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Wetlands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Deserts	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Littoral		Coastal areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)

Hosts/Species Affected

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D. valens is a common pest of pines in its native range in North and Central America (Eaton and Lara, 1967). Mature ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) are attacked. It is infrequently found in other conifers. It is considered to be a secondary pest and is often associated with other, more aggressive bark beetle species. Tree mortality and outbreaks attributed to D. valens alone are rare in its native range (Smith, 1971; Cibrian-Tovar et al., 1995). However, D. valens has been reported causing tree mortalities in a thinned, subsoiled plantation of P. ponderosa near Ponderosa, California, USA, and in Mexico (Rappaport et al., 2001).

In China, D. valens is a new exotic invasive pest that attacks Pinus tabuliformis and P. bungeana, especially P. tabuliformis. Occasionally, it has been found in Pinus armandii and Picea meyeri, but damage on these hosts has not been confirmed (Zhang et al., 2002). The potential range of D. valens in China is huge as P. tabuliformis is planted widely across much of the country (Britton and Sun, 2002).

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context
Pinus armandii (armand's pine)	Pinaceae	Main
Pinus bungeana (lace bark pine)	Pinaceae	Main
Pinus contorta (lodgepole pine)	Pinaceae	Main
Pinus ponderosa (ponderosa pine)	Pinaceae	Main
Pinus radiata (radiata pine)	Pinaceae	Unknown
Pinus resinosa (red pine)	Pinaceae	Unknown
Pinus tabuliformis (chinese pine)	Pinaceae	Main

Growth Stages

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Post-harvest, Vegetative growing stage

Symptoms

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D. valens mainly attacks the lower trunk and roots of trees. Pitch tubes on the outer surface of bark crevices or on the ground at the base of the tree, and pitch pellets on the ground, indicate attack by the red turpentine beetle.

Resin flowing from the wood, beetle frass and bark borings are mixed in the beetle's gallery and pushed out of the entrance hole. The mixture either adheres to the bark surface, forming a pitch tube, or falls to the ground in pitch pellets of various sizes. The pitch tubes vary in size, texture and colour, depending on the kind of tree and the time of observation. The resin is usually white to yellowish, then becomes dark red or black.

Attacked trees often show a colour change in the needles, from green to yellowish green, then through shades of yellow and sorrel to red, which indicates that the tree is dying.

List of Symptoms/Signs

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Sign	Life Stages	Type
Leaves / abnormal colours
Leaves / abnormal colours
Leaves / frass visible
Leaves / frass visible
Leaves / yellowed or dead
Leaves / yellowed or dead
Roots / internal feeding
Roots / internal feeding
Stems / internal feeding
Stems / internal feeding
Stems / visible frass
Stems / visible frass
Whole plant / discoloration
Whole plant / discoloration
Whole plant / frass visible
Whole plant / frass visible
Whole plant / internal feeding
Whole plant / internal feeding
Whole plant / plant dead; dieback
Whole plant / plant dead; dieback

Biology and Ecology

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D. valens preferentially attacks large, old, weak or injured trees, and freshly cut logs or stumps. The beetle attacks in small numbers, so repeated attacks are necessary to kill a tree. Tree mortality and outbreaks attributed to D. valens alone are rare in its native range (Smith, 1971; Cibrian-Tovar et al., 1995). D. valens is considered to be a secondary pest, and is often associated with more aggressive bark beetle species. Trees weakened by D. valens attack are more susceptible to fatal attack by other beetles.

In North America, D. valens attacks the tree at ground level burrowing into the bole and root collar (Smith, 1971), forming large, reddish-brown pitch tubes. The galleries of the beetle are short, irregular and usually vertical. Large, fan-shaped galleries are formed by larval feeding. The development time for D. valens can be up to 2 years in cold areas.

The life cycle and behaviour of D. valens are similar in North America and China; however, some notable differences exist. Foremost among these is the beetle's ability to colonize, kill and reproduce in mature P. tabuliformis, resulting in outbreaks occurring in China that have no parallel in the native range of the pest.

In China, D. valens extensively colonizes and overwinters in the roots of trees (Britton and Sun, 2002; Wu et al., 2002). This extensive root colonization, combined with the presence of fungal associates in the roots, may explain the beetle's tree-killing success in China (Owen, 2001). Fungi isolated from D. valens include Leptographium terebrantis, L. procerum, Ophiostoma ips and a species of Graphium (Owen et al., 1987; Klepzig et al., 1991). Of the Ophiostoma fungi carried by Dendroctonus spp. attacking ponderosa pine, L. terebrantis was the most virulent (Owen et al., 1987; Parmeter et al., 1989). This fungus has also been associated with decline and/or mortality of a number of other species of Pinus (Highley and Tattar, 1985; Klepzig et al., 1991; Bannwart et al., 1998). Virtually nothing is known about the fungal complex associated with D. valens in China. However, it appears that the strain introduced into China with D. valens is more virulent than the one associated with the pest in North America, which is a cause of concern as the Chinese D. valens could be re-introduced to North America carrying more virulent fungi with it.

Flight distances of D. valens in North America can exceed 16 km (Smith, 1971). In China, flight distances of up to 35 km have been documented (Zhang et al., 2002). In China, D. valens cannot overwinter at any stage in boles at temperatures below -18°C. Mortality of D. valens larvae and adults is very low in roots, indicating that roots are important for the survival of the pest (Miao et al., 2001) and can serve as a source of beetles in the following year (Wu et al., 2002).

In China, D. valens primarily attacks Pinus tabuliformis and P. bungeana, especially P. tabuliformis. As a major reforestation species in China, P. tabuliformis is widely planted across much of the country, including degraded and marginal sites. Such sites can contribute to tree stress and are therefore likely to favour the activity of the pest (Li et al., 2001). Drought conditions were thought to have contributed greatly to an outbreak of D. valens in China in 1999 (Li et al., 2001). In general, mature and overmature P. tabuliformis forests are infested, whereas younger forests are seldom attacked. D. valens-infested pine forests are also endangered by another beetle, Hylastes parallelus (Wu et al., 2002). The interaction between these two beetle species and the role of H. parallelus in D. valens infestation are unknown.

Natural enemies

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Natural enemy	Type	Life stages	Specificity	References	Biological control in	Biological control on
Heterobasidion annosum	Pathogen
Rhizophagus grandis	Predator

Notes on Natural Enemies

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Predators of D. valens are rare in China. Dendrocopos major, Thansimus sp., Labidura sp., Paederus sp., Plgadeus sp., Cryptolestes sp., Raphidia sp., Deretaphrus sp. and Formica sp. have been found in limited numbers. Pathogens of D. valens in China include Beauveria sp. and Metarrhizium sp. (Zhang et al., 2002). Adult Tenebrionidae sp. reared in laboratory were found to be potentially lethal to D. valens adults and Beauveria sp. and Metarrhizium sp. killed the larvae, adults and pupae of D. valens (Wu et al., 2002).

Pathway Vectors

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Vector	Notes	Long Distance
Clothing, footwear and possessions		Yes
Land vehicles		Yes
Soil, sand and gravel	Soil	Yes

Plant Trade

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Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport	Pest stages	Borne internally	Borne externally	Visibility of pest or symptoms
Bark	arthropods/eggs; arthropods/larvae		Yes	Pest or symptoms usually visible to the naked eye
Roots	arthropods/larvae; arthropods/pupae	Yes
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches	arthropods/eggs; arthropods/larvae; arthropods/pupae	Yes	Yes	Pest or symptoms usually visible to the naked eye

Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx
Fruits (inc. pods)
Growing medium accompanying plants
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants
True seeds (inc. grain)
Wood

Wood Packaging

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Wood Packaging liable to carry the pest in trade/transport	Timber type	Used as packing
Solid wood packing material with bark	Pinus ponderosa; P. ayacahuite; P. arizonica; P. douglasiana; P. engelmannii; P. gregii; P. hartwegii; P. herrerai; P. jeffreyi; P. lassoni; P. leiphylla; P. maximinoi; P. michoacana; P. pseudostrobus; P. oocarpa; P. tecote; P. tabulaeformis; P. bungeana; P. armandi	Yes
Solid wood packing material without bark	Ibid	Yes

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Animal/plant collections	None
Animal/plant collections	None
Animal/plant products	None
Animal/plant products	None
Biodiversity (generally)	None
Biodiversity (generally)	None
Crop production	None
Crop production	None
Environment (generally)	None
Environment (generally)	None
Fisheries / aquaculture	None
Fisheries / aquaculture	None
Forestry production	None
Forestry production	None
Human health	None
Human health	None
Livestock production	None
Livestock production	None
Native fauna	None
Native fauna	None
Native flora	None
Native flora	None
Rare/protected species	None
Rare/protected species	None
Tourism	None
Tourism	None
Trade/international relations	None
Trade/international relations	None
Transport/travel	None
Transport/travel	None

Impact

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D. valens is considered to be a secondary pest and is often associated with other, more aggressive bark beetle species. Tree mortality and outbreaks attributed to D. valens alone are rare in its native range (Smith, 1971; Cibrian-Tovar et al., 1995). However, D. valens has been reported causing tree mortalities in a thinned, subsoiled plantation of P. ponderosa near Ponderosa, California, USA, and in Mexico (Rappaport et al., 2001).

Since the first outbreak of D. valens in northern China in 1999, this exotic invasive pest has spread rapidly from Shanxi province to three adjacent provinces (Hebei, Henan and Shaanxi) and infested over half of a million hectares of pine forest, causing extensive mortality. More than 6 million Pinus tabuliformis trees have been killed, as well as other species of pine including Pinus bungeana (Li et al., 2001; Miao et al., 2001). D. valens was introduced to China in the early 1980s when unprocessed logs were imported from the west coast of the USA (Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China, unpublished report). Several consecutive years of drought conditions stressed the primary host (P. tabuliformis) and contributed greatly to the outbreak in 1999 (Li et al., 2001). As pines are a major reforestation species in China, and P. tabuliformis is widely planted across a large portion of the country, the potential range of, and damage by, this invasive bark beetle is overwhelming (Britton and Sun, 2002).

Economic Impact

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D. valens is considered to be a secondary pest and is often associated with other, more aggressive bark beetle species. Tree mortality and outbreaks attributed to D. valens alone are rare in its native range (Smith, 1971; Cibrian-Tovar et al., 1995). However, D. valens has been reported causing tree mortalities in a thinned, subsoiled plantation of P. ponderosa near Ponderosa, California, USA, and in Mexico (Rappaport et al., 2001).

Since the first outbreak of D. valens in northern China in 1999, this exotic invasive pest has spread rapidly from Shanxi province to three adjacent provinces (Hebei, Henan and Shaanxi) and infested over half of a million hectares of pine forest, causing extensive mortality. More than 6 million Pinus tabuliformis trees have been killed, as well as other species of pine including Pinus bungeana (Li et al., 2001; Miao et al., 2001). D. valens was introduced to China in the early 1980s when unprocessed logs were imported from the west coast of the USA (Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China, unpublished report). Several consecutive years of drought conditions stressed the primary host (P. tabuliformis) and contributed greatly to the outbreak in 1999 (Li et al., 2001). As pines are a major reforestation species in China, and P. tabuliformis is widely planted across a large portion of the country, the potential range of, and damage by, this invasive bark beetle is overwhelming (Britton and Sun, 2002).

Environmental Impact

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The potential environmental impact of D. valens in China is huge. The beetle has become a primary pine killer in most of its distribution range and, when coupled with drought, can cause ecological disaster in some areas, especially where regeneration is not feasible economically and ecologically. Pinus tabuliformis, the primary host of D. valens in China, is widely planted across the country, so the potential range of the pest is great, and the potential ecological impact of the beetle is unthinkable if further spread cannot be contained or managed effectively. D. valens was ranked the second most important forest pest in China in a National Control Project initiated by the State Forestry Administration in 2000.

Detection and Inspection

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The response of introduced D. valens to host semiochemicals in Shanxi, China, was distinctly different from that reported in studies conducted in the western part of the pests's native range in the central Sierra Nevada, California, USA, suggesting that there may be regional variation in response to host volatiles. In the Chinese population of D. valens, 3-carene was the most attractive host monoterpene tested in studies using multiple funnel traps suspended in a Pinus tabuliformis stand. It attracted significantly more beetles than any other single semiochemical or any of the ternary or quaternary blends tested, including the standard D. valens lure used in North America (a 1:1:1 blend of (+)-a-pinene, (-)-ß-pinene and (+)-3-carene). (+)-a-pinene and (-)-ß-pinene, presented individually, were not significantly more attractive than controls. Adding limonene to the standard lure decreased the response of D. valens, but not significantly. A new type of semiochemical release vial was tested using a range of release rates of a 1:1:1 blend of (+)-a-pine, (-)-ß-pinene and (+)-3-carene. The rates ranged from 150 to 210 mg/day, and these were compared with the standard North American lure, which releases ca 110 mg/day. The most attractive of these vials, which released ca 150 mg/day, captured significantly more beetles than the standard release device, but increasing the release rate beyond 150 mg/day did not further increase the trap catch.

These results provide a new, more effective, single-component lure for use in monitoring and trapping of D. valens in China. This lure is being tested in other parts of the range of D. valens, partly to maximize trapping efficacy in North America and partly to determine the original source(s) of introduction of D. valens from North America to Asia. Such knowledge is often helpful in optimizing biological control and semiochemical control programmes, because they incorporate factors that may vary regionally within a species. It is useful to know that D. valens responds most strongly to 3-carene as an attractant because of the expense of pheromone-grade monoterpenes. The knowledge that the single component lure is three times as effective as the ternary blend will result in considerable savings in large-scale programmes, such as that planned for China in 2002-2004 (Sun et al., 2004).

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Monitoring and Prevention

As D. valens is a new exotic invasive beetle in China, effective monitoring is key to effective management. There is an immediate need to slow down or prevent the spread of the beetle in China. Artificial spread is an important means of dispersal in areas where pine stands are widely separated. Restrictions on unauthorized tree harvesting and the movement of infested material must be strictly enforced. Any pine material with intact bark could potentially harbour the red turpentine beetle. Strict quarantine measures must be enforced at ports, along roads, railways and the boundaries of infested areas. Harvesting green trees creates a breeding habitat for D. valens in stumps, potentially initiating or aggravating outbreaks, and harvesting dying, infested trees may facilitate the spread of the beetle.

Long-term solutions must address tree and stand susceptibility to D. valens. Historical records and protected natural areas can, to a certain extent, serve as models for stand rehabilitation, with D. valens considered a significant input into ecological processes. Stand susceptibility is likely to be a driving force behind the management of affected forests for many years to come. A better understanding of the interaction between D. valens and forest stand attributes will enable managers to devise silvicultural treatments that will produce stands more resistant to beetle attack. It is important to recognize that other insect pests and diseases can affect tree susceptibility to D. valens and that the desired stand condition and health will depend upon the response of all potential pests to treatment.

The inherent susceptibility of P. tabuliformis and other Chinese species of Pinus to attack by D. valens requires further investigation. Reforestation efforts could benefit from the use of resistant genotypes and resistant species mixes. The role of fungi in the success of D. valens needs to be determined, including identification of the fungi carried by the beetle in China. It is important to know whether any variability exists among individual trees or between tree species in response to fungal inoculation and, if so, whether this correlates with the success of the pest.

Chemical Control

Fumigation of boles with phosphine under plastic cover, and spraying insecticides (such as cypermethrin, phoxim) onto boles during the flight period are all effective in killing beetles (90-98% mortality) (Shanxi Forestry Bureau, China, unpublished data). However, fumigation is difficult and costly to apply. It has never been proved to be effective in controlling beetle populations over large areas, and can cause environmental contamination and reduce natural enemy populations.

Cultural Control

Manual control, such as felling and digging out dying or recently dead trees and eliminating any exposed roots and stumps, can be used to eliminate beetles but is too labour-intensive for practical management of the pest.

Trapping

The use of semiochemicals to manipulate beetle populations is a promising management tool for D. valens. The use of lure traps with semiochemicals (host volatiles) is a labour-saving and environmentally friendly method that can be used in all seasons of D. valens activity throughout the year. It attracts both male and female beetles, and studies have shown its effectiveness in reducing tree mortality. Mass-trapping programmes have been used over a 2-year period in China with satisfactory results (Sun et al., 2004).

Biological Control

It is not known to what degree natural enemies regulate D. valens populations in its native range and in China. The introduction of exotic natural enemies to China must be carried out with adequate safeguards to prevent unwanted impacts on native fauna and flora. Sub-cortical insects are known to vector a wide range of organisms that could accidentally be introduced with unknown consequences (Owen, 2001). However, the introduction and establishment of exotic natural enemies could potentially provide long-term regulation of D. valens populations and reduce the need for other treatments.

Integrated Pest Management

A combination of chemical and manual control, and the use of semiochemicals decreased the area of Shanxi province infested by D. valens from 255,720 ha in 1999 to 178,000 ha in 2002.

References

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Distribution References

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Links to Websites

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Website	URL	Comment
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway	https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS)	http://griis.org/	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.

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Dendroctonus valens (red turpentine beetle)

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