Psittacula eupatria
(Alexandrine parakeet)

The Alexandrine parakeet, P. eupatria, is a common, large-sized (±60 cm) parrot species with red shoulder patches. Its native range includes a large part of Southern Asia, from eastern Afghanistan to the Himalayan ridge and through most of lowland forests of South Asia, to Indochina. Since the end of the last century, the Alexandrine parakeet, due to its popularity as a cage species, has established alien populations in Europe, parts of the Middle East and Far East countries such as Japan and Hong Kong. During the ongoing invasion process, the Alexandrine parakeet has considerably increased its ecological niche into colder climates (particularly in Europe), with respect to those attended in the native range. Interspecific facilitation with previously established ring-necked parakeets Psittacula krameri may have helped this niche expansion, as well as the establishment success of the Alexandrine parakeet. Despite this, its spread seems to be lower than that of the ring-necked parakeet in the introduced area. Both in the native and in the introduced range, the Alexandrine parakeet may represent a threat to cultivation, particularly orchards, and it may compete with native cavity-nesting birds. Species Distribution Models predict a high invasion risk across most areas where the species is currently not present, thus suggesting a high potential risk for further invasion and range expansion.

For details of distribution, see tables. Reports of captive parakeets in zoos and aviaries are not included in the tables.

Native Range (Forshaw, 2010 ; BirdLife International, 2017)

Afghanistan

It only occurs in the northeastern part of the country, i.e. around Kabul.

Pakistan

It occurs in the northern and central part of the country.

Nepal

Widespread throughout the country.

Bhutan

Widespread in the southern part of the country.

India

Widespread in the northernmost part of the country (Punjab, Uttar Pradesh), in the western coast, in the central regions and eastwards up to Assam and Manipur.

Sri Lanka

Widespread throughout the country.

Bangladesh

Quite rare, but mostly occurring in the Dhaka and Rajshahi divisions (Sourav et al., 2018).

Myanmar

Mostly present in the eastern and southern parts.

Thailand

Mostly present in the eastern and southern parts.

Cambodia

Only occurring in central and southern areas.

Laos

Only recorded in southernmost part of the country.

Vietnam

Very rare and only occurring only in north and central regions.

Introduced Range (cf. Ancillotto et al., 2016)

Europe

Germany

Psittacula eupatria in Germany occurs in the urban park of Wiesbaden, near Frankfurt, at Cologne, Mainz and Bonn. In Cologne, the population was estimated of near 200 individuals in 2011 (Ancillotto et al., 2016). A single individual has been observed in the surroundings of Berlin in 2021.

United Kingdom

The species is considered as a rare alien in the United Kingdom, occurring only with scattered individuals (1-3) in SE England, apart from a single adult male observed near Birmingham in 2020.

Belgium

Psittacula eupatria in Belgium occurs in Evere and Bruxelles, with an estimated population of several hundreds of birds in 2015 (Ancillotto et al., 2016).

Netherlands

A population of Alexandrine parakeets is well established in an urban park in urban parks of Amsterdam and Groningen (Jonker, 2010 ; Klaassen and Hustings, 2010) and local counts estimated over 200 individuals in 2014 (Kleunen et al., 2014 ; Ancillotto et al., 2016).

Greece

Single individuals recorded in Rethymnon, near Arogi and in Acharnes.

Italy

Psittacula eupatria is present in Italy since 2008. Two reproductive populations are present, the largest one in Reggio Emilia with about 20 individuals (Viviano and Mori, 2021) and the other one in Rome, with 3-4 individuals (Ancillotto et al., 2016). Records of single free–ranging individuals occurred in other localities in northern (Mori et al., 2013) and central Italy, in one case being observed for several consecutive years (Genoa, 1994 -1998), but with no sign of breeding (Borgo et al., 2005).

Spain

In 2015-2016, three hybrid individuals of P. eupatria x P. krameri were recorded in Malaga (Postigo, 2016), suggesting a potential reproduction event. Other single records were detected in Canary Islands (1994) , Barcelona (2003) , Madrid (2005) , in Motril - Granada (a male in 2018 and 2020), in Marbella-Málaga (2019) and in Almeria (2021: JL Postigo, personal communication, 2021).

France

Two Alexandrine parakeets have been observed in Aubagne in the 1990s and in 2015, with no evidence of reproduction (Cottaz, 2016).

Poland

A single individual observed in Kuyavian-Pomeranian in 2016 (Ancillotto et al., 2016).

Switzerland

Two individuals of Alexandrine parakeet observed in 2016-2017, with no evidence of reproduction.

Middle East and North Africa

Turkey

An established population is present in Istanbul with 23 counted nests in 2012 (Șahın and Arslangündoğdu, 2019). Other Alexandrine parakeets observed in Alhanli, Izmir and Ankara, with no reproduction confirmation (Ancillotto et al., 2016).

Israel

Alexandrine parakeets were observed only twice, in the northern part of the country.

Bahrain

Possibly extinct (Jennings, 2004 ; 2010; Lever, 2005 ; Ancillotto et al., 2016).

United Arab Emirates

Two pairs of P. eupatria started breeding in Abu Dhabi in early 1990s (Jennings, 2010). Scattered individuals repeatedly observed in Dubai (since 1984), Fujairah (since 2005), Sharjah (since 2004), Zabeel (since 2004) and Ra’s al-Khaimah (in 2006).

Qatar

A breeding population is known for Ar Rayyan since 2012 (Ancillotto et al., 2016).

Saudi Arabia

The Alexandrine parakeet is recorded as a breeding species in the city of Jeddah, with individuals occurring up to Makkah (Jennings, 2004 ; Lever, 2005).

Oman

Psittacula eupatria is rare in Oman (Jennings, 2010). Records of single individuals occur from the cities of Al Batinah (2008) , Ash Sharqiyah (2009) and Masqat (2012) .

Yemen

Possibly currently extinct (BirdLife International, 2017).

Kuwait

Possibly currently extinct (Jennings, 2010).

Iran

Alexandrine parakeet is well established in the area of Tehran, being reported in numerous parks and green areas, with a local population of some hundreds of individuals (Khaleghizadeh, 2004 ; Ancillotto et al., 2016).

Iraq

The Alexandrine parakeet has been observed for the first time in the wild in Iraq in 2019, in the Babylon archaeological site (Abed et al., 2020).

Algeria

Few individuals were observed since early 2000s and 3-4 breeding pairs present in the metropolitan area of Algiers (Ancillotto et al., 2016).

Egypt

In 2021, a single male adult individual has been recorded in the northernmost part of Il Cairo.

Far East

Japan

First documented breeding of P. eupatria dates back to 2000, in Central Honshu (Lever, 2005 ; Kawakami and Kanouchi, 2012), where it is still present (Shiels and Kalodimos, 2019).

Hong Kong

Psittacula eupatria is present and breeding in Kowloon Park, Hong Kong, since at least 2008 (Shiels and Kalodimos, 2019).

China

An individual of P. eupatria was recorded in 2006 at Nongmo Hu (Ruili Lake).

Oceania

Australia

Occasional records the Australian subcontinent, mostly from the State of Victoria, possibly referring to single escaped individuals.

America

USA

Single records in 1959 (California), 1947 (Michigan), 1990 (Hawaii) (Runde et al., 2007). Recent records of single individuals occurred in 2002-2016, with no evidence of reproduction (Uehling et al., 2019).

The pet trade is the main pathway of introduction of P. eupatria. It can intentionally or unintentionally escape during transport, as well as from aviaries or cages. All these escapes may lead to the establishment of free-ranging populations, as happened in the city of Groningen, although most information of escapes from cages and aviaries derives from similar species, e.g. Psittacula krameri (Cardador et al., 2016; 2017). With regard to the possibility of spread from currently established populations: in the introduced range, there are still few established P. eupatria populations. However, Species Distribution Models by Ancillotto et al. (2016) predicted a high invasion risk across most areas outside the native range where the species is currently not present, therefore suggesting a potential high risk for further invasion and range expansion. The increasing popularity of free flying pet parrots, indicated by growing numbers of videos (e.g. on YouTube) showing this, may make their accidental release and spread more likely.

Psittacula eupatria is a typical species of forests and woodlands (including degraded ones), but it also occurs in cultivated areas and mangroves, as well as in urban and peri-urban parks, mostly below 900 m but locally up to 1600 m above sea level (Juniper and Parr, 1998; BirdLife International, 2017; Sourav et al., 2018).

Genetics

The genus Psittacula seems to represent a paraphyletic assemblage and P. eupatria may belong to the different genus Palaeornis (Braun et al., 2019), together with the extinct Seychelles parakeet Psittacula wardi , and it represents the sister group of Psittacula krameri . The Andamane Alexandrine parakeet P. eupatria magnirostris seems to be the first subspecies to diverge within this species, whereas the Siamese and the nominal subspecies represent well-supported sister groups (Braun et al., 2019). Hybridization between P. eupatria and P. krameri may occur, at least in the introduced range and at least F1 hybrids are fertile and show intermediate phenotypic features (Krause, 2004 ; Ancillotto et al., 2016 ; Postigo, 2016).

Reproductive Biology

Psittacula eupatria is known to nest in tree cavities and, very rarely, also in wall crevices and holes (Ali and Ripley, 1983 ; Angelici and Fiorillo, 2015). In Turkey, the most used plant species for breeding are Platanus acerifolia , Pinus pinea and Celtis australis (Șahın and Arslangündoğdu, 2019). Alexandrine parakeets use cavities higher than those used by the ring-necked parakeets, where coexisting (Șahın and Arslangündoğdu, 2019).

Physiology and Phenology

Psittacula eupatria attains sexual maturity at about 3 years of age and generally breeds from November to April, depending on geographic location, although in the introduced range the reproduction may occur also in late spring-early summer (Ali and Ripley, 1983 ; Ancillotto et al., 2016 ; Șahın and Arslangündoğdu, 2019). Inspections of tree cavities in the native range occurs in August-September and fledging in April (Sourav et al., 2018).

Longevity

The life expectancy of P. eupatria is about 20-30 years (in captivity). No data are available for longevity in nature.

Activity Patterns

Outside the breeding period, Alexandrine parakeets roost in common roosting areas in trees at night, gathering together at dusk and leaving at dawn. Breeding individuals feed chicks regularly between 10:00 to 17:30 once every 10-35 min by both the male and the female (Sourav et al., 2018). At night, only the female feeds the chicks, whereas males join other individuals at shared night-time roosts (Sourav et al., 2018). Non-breeding individuals spend the morning and the early evening close to nests. Nocturnal roosts may be peacefully shared with ring-necked parakeets both in the native and in the introduced ranges (Sourav et al., 2018 ; Viviano and Mori, 2021). The same roosting area may be used for tens of years (Sourav et al., 2018).

Population Size and Density

Very little is known on population size and density, as the Alexandrine parakeets use the same roost site as ring-necked parakeets, it is difficult to make reliable estimates. The species is classified as ‘declining’ in its native range. The district of Dhaka hosts about 70 individuals of P. eupatria (BirdLife International, 2017). Over 950 individuals currently occur in Europe and over 750 in the Middle East.

Nutrition

Alexandrine parakeets may feed on a wide range of wild and cultivated seeds, flowers, buds, nectar, grain, fruit and vegetables (Ali and Ripley, 1983 ; Juniper and Parr, 1998). In Pakistan, it is considered a serious crop pest with about 70% of its local diet in farmed areas (Juniper and Parr, 1998). In Bangladesh, Sourav et al. (2018) identified 16 tree species where parakeets foraged, preferring the Bengal almond (Terminalia catappa) and the ber (Ziziphus mauritiana). Seven species were consumed daily (Ziziphus mauritiana , Polyalthia longifolia , Spathodea campanulata , Acacia moniliformis [ Acacia auriculiformis ], Albizia saman [ Samanea saman ], T. catappa and Gmelina arborea), six were used often (two to four times in a week) (Neolamarckia cadamba , Putranjiva roxburghii , Melia azedarach , Tectona grandis , Albizia richardiana [ Albizia niopoides ] and Senna siamea) and three were rarely consumed (Lagerstroemia indica , Leucaena leucocephala and Psidium guajava). In this area, Alexandrine parakeets mostly feed on seeds taken from fruits, followed by flower buds. In Iran, the diet of introduced P. eupatria was mostly composed by seeds of Pinus pinea, Platanus orientalis , Cupressus sempervirens , Cydonia oblonga, Diospyros kaki and Pyrus communis (Khaleghizadeh, 2004). Persimmons (D. kaki) are also widely consumed in Italy (Viviano and Mori, 2021). Both in the native and in the introduced range, P. eupatria feeds together with P. krameri apparently without competition (Sourav et al., 2018 ; Viviano and Mori, 2021).

Very little is known about natural enemies. In the native range, the house crow Corvus splendens represents an effective predator of chicks of P. eupatria (Sourav et al., 2018), whereas in the introduced areas, P. eupatria may be preyed on by peregrine falcons Falco peregrinus (E. Mori, unpublished).

General

• Botanical garden/zoo
• Pet/aquarium trade

Psittacula eupatria: A less-experienced observer may confuse P. eupatria with P. krameri, but the former is larger in size and it is the only green-headed Psittacula with black stripes across the lower cheek patch and pink collar markings showing red shoulder patches.

Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Prevention

Psittacula eupatria is listed within the CITES Annex 2. Further trade limitation (e.g. increases of costs, permission requirements) up to trade ban would reduce the potential of local escapes. Education campaigns should be organized to promote responsible pet ownership.

Eradication

A rapid response to the invasion of the Alexandrine parakeet would improve the success of any management practice (Postigo, 2016). When the first individuals are observed, immediate removal is recommended to prevent the establishment of any expanding population. For any eradication program, the general public should be well-informed on the negative effects of alien species and on the importance of these drastic management operations.

Control

Limitation of food provisioning by humans in urban parks may also limit the establishment success of this species. However, given the high appreciation of parakeets in European cities (Berthier et al., 2017 ; Mori et al., 2020 ; Ribeiro et al., 2021), this management strategy proposal would show poor success.

Monitoring and Surveillance (incl. remote sensing)

This lack of ecological information on Alexandrine parakeet in the introduced range may limit effective biosecurity surveillance and decision-making efforts. Passive and active surveillance methods should be used together in a combined approach with Species Distribution Models. Passive methods (included remote sensing) are useful to assess geographic variables to be used to predict parakeet invasion. Surveillance of high establishment areas also identified by Species Distribution Models (Ancillotto et al., 2016), e.g. those in the vicinity of human settlements (Viviano and Mori, 2021), where free ranging Alexandrine parakeets may affect agricultural production. At the same time, active surveillance by local researchers should be targeted to the areas of highest predicted potential risk.

Evidence of competition between introduced P. eupatria and native species, e.g. cavity nesting birds, are still lacking and would require further field investigations, particularly at the start of the breeding season or at the start of the local invasion process.

Similarly, most data on impacts on agriculture and human well-being in the introduced range derives from available information on the similar Psittacula krameri. Thus, further studies particularly for the largest introduced populations of the Alexandrine parakeet should be required.