Cymbopogon citratus (lemongrass)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Environmental Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- References
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf
Preferred Common Name
- lemongrass
Other Scientific Names
- Andropogon cerifer Hack.
- Andropogon ceriferus Hack.
- Andropogon citratus DC. ex Nees
- Andropogon fragrans C.Cordem.
- Andropogon nardus subsp. ceriferus L. (Hack.) Hack.
- Andropogon roxburghii Nees ex Steud.
- Calamus aromaticus
- Cymbopogon nardus
- Cymbopogon nardus var. citratus (L.) Rendle (DC. ex Nees) Roberty
International Common Names
- English: citron grass; citronella grass; fever grass; lemon grass; West Indian lemongrass
- Spanish: hierba limon; pasto limón; sontol; te limon; yerba luisa; zacate de limón; zacate de té; zacate dete; zacate limón
- French: citronelle; herbe citron; Sitonnèl; verveine des Indes
- Chinese: xiang mao
- Portuguese: cana-cidreira; cana-limão; capim-cidró; capim-santo; erva-cidreira; patchuli-falso
Local Common Names
- Brazil: cana-cidreira; cana-limão; capim-cidró; capim-santo; erva-cidreira; patchuli-falso; yerbaluisa
- Cambodia: slek krey sabou
- Cuba: Caña de limón; Cañita santa; Cañuela; Corta calentura; Hierba de calentura; Hierba de limón; Hierba santa; Yerba de calentura; Yerba de limón; Yerba isleña; Yerba limón; Yerba santa
- Dominican Republic: Citronela, Limoncillo
- Germany: Lemongras; Zitronellgras; Zitronengras
- India: bhustarah; gandhabene; gandhatran; injippullu; khavi; lilacha; majjigehallu; nimmagaddi; vasanapullu
- Indonesia: sereh
- Italy: citronella
- Laos: 'si khai; 'sing khai
- Lesser Antilles: fever grass
- Malaysia: serai; serai dapur; sereh
- Myanmar: sabalin
- Peru: yerba Luisa
- Philippines: balioko; salai; tanglad
- Puerto Rico: Limoncillo; Zorra de limón
- Saint Lucia: sitonnèl
- Sri Lanka: sereh
- Thailand: cha khrai; khrai; soet-kroei
- Vietnam: sa chanh
EPPO code
- CYGCI (Cymbopogon citratus)
- CYGNA (Cymbopogon nardus)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageCymbopogon citratus is a perennial grass that has been intentionally introduced in tropical and subtropical regions of the world for the essential oil extracts from its leaves and to be used as a culinary and medicinal herb. It is a tall grass with rhizomes and densely tufted fibrous roots, which tillers profusely and has the potential to escape from cultivation. Once established it can spread fairly rapidly, becoming weedy and invasive in disturbed areas. Currently it is listed as a weed in Mexico and as an invasive species on the island of St. Lucia. On this island, C. citratus is an invader which, due to its high oil content, has the potential to increase fire risk in areas such as Pigeon Island and Dennery quarry where it forms monotypic stands.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Monocotyledonae
- Order: Cyperales
- Family: Poaceae
- Genus: Cymbopogon
- Species: Cymbopogon citratus
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pagePoaceae is one of the largest Angiosperm families, including 707 genera and about 11,337 species widely distributed in all regions of the world (Stevens, 2016). The genus Cymbopogon comprises 59 species distributed across the tropics and subtropics of Asia, Africa and Australia (Barkworth et al., 2007; Flora of China, 2016). Several Cymbopogon species (i.e., Cymbopogon citratus and Cymbopogon nardus) are cultivated commercially for the aromatic oils that are distilled from their leaves. Cymbopogon is closely related to Andropogon, Chrysopogon and Hyparrhenia, leading to taxonomic complications and frequent misidentification of species within these genera (Flora of China, 2016).
Description
Top of pageThe following description is adapted from Flora of China (2016):
Cymbopogon citratus is a perennial, shortly rhizomatous grass. Culms tufted, robust, up to 2 m tall, 4 mm in diameter, farinose below nodes. Leaf sheaths glabrous, greenish inside; leaf blades glaucous, 30-90 × 0.5-2 cm, both surfaces scabrid, base gradually narrowed, apex long acuminate; ligule 1 mm. Spathate compound panicle large, lax, up to 50 cm, drooping, branches slender; spatheoles reddish or yellowish brown, 1.5-2 cm; racemes 1.5-2 cm; rachis internodes and pedicels 2.5-4 mm, loosely villous on margins; pedicel of homogenous pair not swollen. Sessile spikelet linear-lanceolate, 5-6 × 0.7 mm; lower glume flat or slightly concave toward base, sharply 2-keeled, keels wingless, scabrid, veinless between keels; upper lemma narrow, entire and awnless, or slightly 2-lobed with 0.2 mm mucro. Pedicelled spikelet 4-5 mm.
Distribution
Top of pageCymbopogon citratus is native to India and Sri Lanka (Clayton et al., 2016). It has been introduced and cultivated in Africa, South and Central America, the West Indies, China and South-East Asia (Zuloaga et al., 2003; Clayton et al., 2016; USDA-ARS, 2016).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Feb 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Algeria | Present | Introduced | |||||
Angola | Present | Introduced | |||||
Benin | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cameroon | Present | Introduced | |||||
Central African Republic | Present | Introduced | |||||
Congo, Democratic Republic of the | Present | Introduced | |||||
Congo, Republic of the | Present | ||||||
Côte d'Ivoire | Present | Introduced | |||||
Egypt | Present | Introduced | |||||
Equatorial Guinea | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ethiopia | Present | ||||||
Gambia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ghana | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guinea | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guinea-Bissau | Present | Introduced | |||||
Kenya | Present | ||||||
Liberia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Madagascar | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mauritius | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Rodrigues | Present | Introduced | |||||
Morocco | Present | Introduced | |||||
Nigeria | Present | ||||||
Réunion | Present | Introduced | |||||
Rwanda | Present | Introduced | |||||
Senegal | Present | Introduced | |||||
Seychelles | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Aldabra Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Sierra Leone | Present | Introduced | |||||
Tanzania | Present | ||||||
Zambia | Present | ||||||
Zimbabwe | Present | ||||||
Asia |
|||||||
Bangladesh | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cambodia | Present | Introduced | |||||
China | Present | Original citation: Yang Lei (2005) | |||||
-Fujian | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
-Guangdong | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
-Guizhou | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
-Hainan | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
-Hubei | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
-Zhejiang | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
India | Present | Native | |||||
-Andhra Pradesh | Present | ||||||
-Haryana | Present | Original citation: Tomar Minhas (2004) | |||||
-Himachal Pradesh | Present | Original citation: Srivastava Guleria (2003) | |||||
-Karnataka | Present | Original citation: Krishnamurthy Hemalatha (2003) | |||||
-Tamil Nadu | Present | ||||||
-Uttar Pradesh | Present | ||||||
-West Bengal | Present | Original citation: Mandal De (2005) | |||||
Indonesia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Java | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Sulawesi | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Sumatra | Present | Introduced | |||||
Japan | Present | ||||||
Laos | Present | Introduced | |||||
Malaysia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Myanmar | Present | Introduced | |||||
Nepal | Present | ||||||
Pakistan | Present | ||||||
Philippines | Present | Introduced | |||||
South Korea | Present | ||||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Native | |||||
Taiwan | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Thailand | Present | Introduced | |||||
Vietnam | Present | Introduced | |||||
Europe |
|||||||
Italy | Present | ||||||
United Kingdom | Present | ||||||
North America |
|||||||
Bahamas | Present | Introduced | |||||
Barbados | Present | Introduced | |||||
Belize | Present | Introduced | |||||
Canada | Present | Original citation: Leung Foster (1996) | |||||
Costa Rica | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | |||||
Curaçao | Present | Introduced | |||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | |||||
El Salvador | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guatemala | Present | Introduced | |||||
Haiti | Present | Introduced | |||||
Honduras | Present | Introduced | |||||
Jamaica | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mexico | Present | Introduced | Listed as a weed growing in Chiapas, Coahuila, Jalisco, Morelos, Nuevo Leon, Oaxaca, Puebla, Tabasco, Veracruz and Yucatan | ||||
Nicaragua | Present | Introduced | |||||
Panama | Present | Introduced | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | |||||
Saint Lucia | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | Quite rare but presenting a fire and IAS hazard in critical areas e.g. Pigeon Island | |||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Present | Introduced | |||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | St Croix, St Thomas | ||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Indiana | Present | ||||||
-Maryland | Present | ||||||
-New York | Present | ||||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | ||||||
New Zealand | Present | ||||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | ||||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | Introduced | |||||
Bolivia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Brazil | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Acre | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Alagoas | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Amazonas | Present | ||||||
-Ceara | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Distrito Federal | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Espirito Santo | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Goias | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Maranhao | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Mato Grosso | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Mato Grosso do Sul | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Minas Gerais | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Paraiba | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Parana | Present | ||||||
-Pernambuco | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Piaui | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Rio de Janeiro | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Rio Grande do Norte | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Rondonia | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Santa Catarina | Present | ||||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
Chile | Present | Introduced | 1963 | ||||
Colombia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ecuador | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Galapagos Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
French Guiana | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
Guyana | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
Peru | Present | Introduced | |||||
Suriname | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
Uruguay | Present | Introduced | |||||
Venezuela | Present | Introduced |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageAfter the First World War large-scale cultivation of C. citratus began in South and Central America and later in Africa, Madagascar and nearby islands. Cymbopogon citratus is now found cultivated and often naturalized throughout the tropics and warm subtropics. It is very common throughout South-East Asia where it is cultivated as an industrial crop and as a garden ornamental (Oyen, 1999). In the United States, it has been collected in Florida, across the Miami-Dade County (Wunderlin et al., 2016).
In Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, C. citratus appears in herbarium collections made in 1876 and 1860 respectively. In Puerto Rico this species occurs primarily in cultivation in home gardens but is also found naturalized in humid areas (Más and García-Molinari, 2006).
In St Lucia, C. citratus forms monotypic stands in areas such as Pigeon Island and Dennery and has the potential to spread to dry degraded slopes between Vieux Fort and Micoud (Graveson, 2012).
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageThe risk of introduction of C. citratus is very high. This grass has been intentionally introduced in tropical and subtropical regions of the world for its essential oil and as a culinary and medicinal herb and has the potential to escape from cultivation (Oyen, 1999; USDA-ARS, 2016).
Habitat
Top of pageCymbopogon citratus can be found cultivated and naturalized throughout the tropics and warm subtropics, in warm and humid habitats and along roadsides. However, it is predominantly grown in cultivation (Oyen, 1999).
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome number reported for C. citratus is 2n = 40 (Flora of China, 2016).
Reproductive biology
In most places Cymbopogon citratus flowers very rarely or not at all. It mostly reproduces vegetatively (Oyen, 1999).
Physiology and phenology
In China, C. citratus has been recorded flowering and fruiting during summer (Flora of China, 2016).
Longevity
Cymbopogon citratus has a life-span of 4-6 years (Oyen, 1999).
Environmental requirements
Cymbopogon citratus grows best under sunny, warm and humid conditions at elevations below 750 m, with mean annual temperatures ranging from 23°C to 30°C and mean annual rainfall between 2500-3000 mm. It is adapted to grow on a wide variety of soils types, but prefers well-drained soils with pH ranging from 5.5 to 7.5. However, this species has been recorded growing in Australia on clay soils with pH=9.6. It does not tolerate saline soils or frosty conditions (Oyen, 1999)
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 2500 | 3000 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
Soil reaction
- acid
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cochliobolus cymbopogonis | Pathogen | Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Cochliobolus lunatus | Pathogen | Other|All Stages | not specific |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageIn Guatemala, Helminthosporium cymbopogi [Cochliobolus cymbopogonis] causes a serious leaf-spot disease in Cymbopogon species resulting in significant damage. Curvularia lunata [Cochliobolus lunatus] causes another leaf disease, starting with elongated, discolored lesions that ultimately become brown with a paler border. Brown-tip disease is a physiological disorder in C. citratus, resulting from a low water content of the leaves at the end of the dry season (Oyen, 1999).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageCymbopogon citratus rarely produces seeds, and it spreads mostly vegetatively by rhizomes and tillers (Oyen, 1999).
Intentional introduction
Cymbopogon citratus has been actively introduced in tropical and subtropical regions around the world where it is cultivated as a culinary and medicinal herb, garden ornamental and as an industrial crop to extract essential oils from its leaves (Oyen, 1999; USDA-ARS, 2016).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Crop production | Cultivated as an industrial crop for its essential oils | Yes | Yes | Oyen (1999) |
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Rhizomes, tillers and plant fragments escaped from cultivation | Yes | Yes | Oyen (1999) |
Garden waste disposal | Rhizomes, tillers and plant fragments escaped from cultivation | Yes | Yes | Oyen (1999) |
Industrial purposes | Essential oils | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2016) |
Medicinal use | Medicinal herb | Yes | Yes | Oyen (1999) |
Ornamental purposes | Cultivated as an ornamental in gardens and along roadsides | Yes | Yes | Oyen (1999); USDA-ARS (2016) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Debris and waste associated with human activities | Rhizomes, tillers and plant fragments escaped from cultivation | Yes | Yes | Oyen (1999) |
Plants or parts of plants | Leaves and shoots are distributed commercially | Yes | Yes | Oyen (1999) |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Positive |
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Human health | Positive |
Environmental Impact
Top of pageAs weedy grass, C. citratus tillers strongly and may quickly invade new habitats, forming monotypic stands that displace native vegetation (Oyen, 1999). It is a tall grass with rhizomes and densely tufted fibrous roots that, once established, is very difficult to remove (Gilman, 1999).
On the island of St Lucia, C. citratus is listed as invasive species as, due to the high oil content of the leaves, it has the potential to increase the risk of fires in natural areas such as Pigeon Island and Dennery quarry where it forms monotypic stands (Graveson, 2012).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Capable of securing and ingesting a wide range of food
- Highly mobile locally
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Gregarious
- Reproduces asexually
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Modification of fire regime
- Modification of successional patterns
- Monoculture formation
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Rapid growth
- Rooting
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
- Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Top of pageEconomic value
Essential oil extracts from Cymbopogon are used in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and perfumery. C. citratus is commercially cultivated in Africa and Asia, but the leading exporter of this species is Guatemala, trading about 250,000 kg per year (Avoseh et al., 2015).
Social benefit
Cymbopogon citratus is used in traditional medicine for the treatment of gastrointestinal disturbances, fevers and hypertension. It is commonly used in the form of tea as a “homemade remedy” for cough, flu, gingivitis, digestive problems and stomachache (Avoseh et al., 2015).
Environmental services
Cymbopogon citratus is planted in gardens and on bunds for soil conservation (Oyen, 1999).
Uses List
Top of pageEnvironmental
- Amenity
- Erosion control or dune stabilization
- Soil conservation
Human food and beverage
- Beverage base
- Spices and culinary herbs
- Vegetable
Materials
- Essential oils
- Lipids
- Pesticide
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
References
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Dr. Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany, Smithsonian NMNH
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