Cymbopogon citratus
(citronella grass)

Pictures

Picture	Title	Caption	Copyright
Title Habit Caption Cymbopogon citratus (citronella grass or lemon grass); habit. Garden of Eden Keanae, Maui, Hawaii, USA. March, 2011. Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Habit	Cymbopogon citratus (citronella grass or lemon grass); habit. Garden of Eden Keanae, Maui, Hawaii, USA. March, 2011.	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Leaves Caption Cymbopogon citratus (citronella grass or lemon grass); leaves. Olinda, Maui, Hawaii, USA. January, 2007. Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Leaves	Cymbopogon citratus (citronella grass or lemon grass); leaves. Olinda, Maui, Hawaii, USA. January, 2007.	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf

Preferred Common Name

• citronella grass

Other Scientific Names

• Andropogon ceriferus Hack.
• Andropogon citratus DC. ex Nees
• Andropogon nardus subsp. ceriferus L. (Hack.) Hack.
• Andropogon roxburghii Nees ex Steud.
• Calamus aromaticus
• Cymbopogon nardus
• Cymbopogon nardus subvar. citratus (L.) Rendle (DC. ex Nees) Roberty

International Common Names

• English: citron grass; fever grass; lemongrass; West Indian lemongrass
• Spanish: hierba limon; pasto limón; sontol; te limon; zacate de limón; zacate dete; zacate limón
• French: citronelle; herbe citron; verveine des Indes
• Chinese: xiang mao

Local Common Names

• Brazil: cana-cidreira; cana-limão; capim-cidró; capim-santo; erva-cidreira; patchuli-falso; yerbaluisa
• Germany: Lemongras; Zitronellgras; Zitronengras
• India: bhustarah; gandhabene; gandhatran; injippullu; khavi; lilacha; majjigehallu; nimmagaddi; vasanapullu
• Indonesia: sereh
• Italy: citronella
• Myanmar: sabalin
• Peru: yerba Luisa
• Saint Lucia: sitonnèl
• Sri Lanka: sereh
• Vietnam: sa chanh

EPPO code

• CYGCI (Cymbopogon citratus)
• CYGNA (Cymbopogon nardus)

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Monocotyledonae
•                     Order: Cyperales
•                         Family: Poaceae
•                             Genus: Cymbopogon
•                                 Species: Cymbopogon citratus

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Cymbopogon is a very large genus within the grass family Poaceae, consisting of over 500 species that grow in the tropical and sub-tropical regions from mountains to grass lands to arid zones, including the species C. citratus and C. flexuosus.

Cymbopogon species are aromatic and produce commercially important oils, including citronella. Five Cymbopogon species yield three commercially important oils that are traded internationally. They are: lemongrass oil from Cymbopogoncitratus (Indian or West Indian lemongrass) and Cymbopogon flexuosus (East Indian lemongrass from Sri Lanka, India, Thailand, Myanmar); palmarosa oil from Cymbopogon martini and citronella oil from Cymbopogon nardus (Sri Lanka) and Cymbopogon winterianus (Java) (Bertia and Maffei, 2010).

C. citratus is believed to be a native of Malaysia. In English, the herb is commonly known as lemongrass (or lemon grass), citronella grass or fever grass (Ambrose et al., 2016).

Description

Lemongrass is a perennial, tufted, aromatic C4 grass.

Habit: Perennial; caespitose. Rhizomes short. Culms 100-200 cm long. Ligule an eciliate membrane. Leaf-blades tapering towards sheath; 45-90 cm long; 10-20 mm wide; aromatic.

Inflorescence: Synflorescence compound; paniculate; 30-60 cm long; open. Inflorescence composed of racemes; terminal and axillary; subtended by a spatheole; enclosed.

Racemes two; paired; deflexed; 1-2.5 cm long. Rachis fragile at the nodes; semiterete; villous on margins. Rachis hairs 2-3 mm long. Rachis internodes linear. Rachis internode tip transverse; cupuliform. Raceme-bases flattened; subequal.

Spikelets in pairs. Fertile spikelets sessile; one in the cluster. Companion sterile spikelets pedicelled; one in the cluster. Pedicels linear; semiterete; villous; with 2-3 mm long hairs.

Sterile spikelets: Basal sterile spikelets well developed; two in number (lower raceme); 0 in upper raceme; sessile and pedicelled. Basal sterile spikelet pedicels free; linear. Basal sterile spikelets equalling fertile spikelets.

Companion sterile spikelets well developed; male; elliptic; 4-4.5 mm long; shorter than fertile; deciduous with the fertile spikelet. Companion sterile spikelet glumes chartaceous; acute; muticous. Companion sterile spikelet lemmas two; enclosed by glumes.

Fertile spikelets: Spikelets comprising one basal sterile florets; one fertile floret; without rachilla extension. Spikelets linear or lanceolate; dorsally compressed; 5-6 mm long; 0.7 mm wide; falling entire; deciduous with accessory branch structures. Spikelet callus pilose; base obtuse; inserted.

Glumes: Glumes dissimilar; exceeding apex of florets; firmer than fertile lemma. Lower glume lanceolate; one times length of spikelet; two-keeled; keeled laterally; wingless. Lower glume intercarinal veins absent. Lower glume surface flat or concave. Lower glume apex emarginate. Upper glume lanceolate; one-keeled. Upper glume apex acute.

Florets: Basal sterile florets barren; without significant palea. Lemma of lower sterile floret hyaline. Fertile lemma lanceolate; hyaline; without keel. Lemma apex entire or dentate; 2-fid; muticous, or mucronate; 1-awned. Palea absent or minute.

Flower: Anthers three.

Seed: Cylindrical to sub-globose caryopsis with basal hilum.

Distribution

C. citratus is believed to be a native of Malaysia. Lemongrass was one of the herbs transported along the spice route from Asia to Europe. It is now found growing in all continents except Antarctica, and is particularly widely distributed in China, India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Pakistan, Thailand, Cameroon, Congo, Egypt, Nigeria, North and Central America, Argentina, Brazil, Venezuela, Italy and Papua New Guinea.

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Biology and Ecology

C. citratus, West Indian lemongrass, is a tropical perennial plant, which yields an aromatic oil.

Climate

C. citratus flourishes in the sunny, warm, humid conditions of the tropics. It grows well between 900 and 1250 m above mean sea level and where the annual rainfall averages 2500-3000 mm. C. citratus is more drought tolerant than C. flexuosus , and in areas where rainfall is poor it can be grown with supplemental irrigation. A day temperature of 25-30°C, with no extreme low night temperatures, is optimum for maximum oil production. Short periods above 30°C have little general effect on C. citratus plants, but severely reduce oil content. Maximum plant height has been recorded during the rainy season and lowest during the second harvest in the non-rainy season. The yield of oil fluctuates greatly with season, condition of plant material, its moisture content and the age of the planting material (Thomas, 1995; Weiss, 1997; Singh, 1999). When the role of environmental factors such as temperature, rainfall, relative humidity and soil moisture on variation of oil content under the agroclimatic conditions of the northeastern region of India was studied, results showed that the monsoon was characterized by higher oil content, whereas winter and autumn were characterized by comparatively lower oil content. However, each environmental factor studied in isolation did not appear to have a direct relationship with oil content. Climatic influence is cumulative. Biomass and essential oil recovery is maximum during the summer. The maximum biomass recorded is 16.1 t/ha (Tomar and Minhas, 2004). Culinary herb production in a retractable roof greenhouse can optimize biomass and quality of lemongrass in a semi-arid climate. Studies at CIMAP, Lucknow, India, showed that cultivation of perennial lemongrass, palmarosa and Indian basil could be suggested for efficient utilization of natural resources and higher economic returns from rainfed areas of subtropical northern India. Lemongrass is a very productive traditional species in agroforestry systems in the Caribbean (Palada et al., 2005).

Soil

Lemongrass flourishes in a wide variety of soils, ranging from rich loam to poor laterite. In sandy loam and red soils it requires good manuring. Calcareous and waterlogged soils are unsuitable for its cultivation, but good drainage is important. Plants growing in sandy soils have higher leaf oil yield and citral content. C. citratus is more commonly grown on soils with higher acidity than C. flexuosus. Lemongrass will grow and produce average herbage and oil yields on highly saline soils. It grows well on poor soils along hill slopes.

Uses

C. citratus is planted in home gardens and has been used as an important aromatic and medicinal plant since ancient times in South and South-East Asia. It is grown for both its essential oil and as a food and beverage flavouring. It is also used in cosmetics and as folk medicine in several regions of the world.

Lemongrass is commonly used as a condiment in Asian cooking (Joy et al., 2007). Freshly ground lemongrass is added to spice pastes in Thailand and Indonesia. It is a popular constituent of many curries. The herb's popularity comes from the mildness of its fragrance, which does not overpower the senses in the way that lime does.

Lemongrass oleoresin is mainly used in flavouring foods, drinks and bakery preparations. Lemongrass is cultivated for its oil, which is used in culinary flavouring. It is used in most major categories of food including alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages, frozen dairy desserts, confectionery, baked foods, gelatins, puddings, meat and meat products, and fats and oils.

The aromatic leaves of lemongrass are commonly used for tea and other beverages. The dried leaves are widely used as a lemon flavour ingredient in herbal teas, prepared either by decoction or infusion of 2-3 leaves in 250 or 500 ml of water (Wannamacher et al., 1990) and other formulations (Joy et al., 2006a, b). Lemongrass tea is diuretic.

Lemongrass is used in Chinese medicine to treat a variety of ailments including eczema, colds, headache, stomach ache, abdominal pain and rheumatic pain. In India it is an important Ayurvedic medicine. Lemongrass oil is a stimulant, antiseptic, febrifuge, carminative, diuretic, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, and is useful against rickets. Lemongrass has allelopathic, anthelmintic, anticancer, anticandidal, antidiabetic, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, antimicrobial, antinoceptive, antioxidant, antiplatelet and antiviral activities. It is cytotoxic, which could be exploited for pesticidal or chemotherapeutic agents (Dubey et al., 1997). It has insecticidal, larvicidal, nematicidal, pro-oxidative and repellent activities and is a vasorelaxant. Citral is a well known contact allergen and irritant (Heydorn et al., 2003).

Occasionally lemongrass is planted as soil cover and for erosion control, with the leaves harvested for the distillation of West Indian lemongrass oil (CSIR, 1950; Bose et al., 2001). It is useful for planting on bunds for soil conservation and as a mulch, and is sometimes grown for cellulose and paper production.

Uses List

Environmental

• Erosion control or dune stabilization

Human food and beverage

• Spices and culinary herbs

Materials

• Essential oils
• Lipids
• Pesticide

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

• Traditional/folklore

References

Abe S, Sato Y, Inoue S, Ishibashi H, Maruyama N, Takizawa T, Oshima H, Yamaguchi H, 2003. Anti Candida albicans activity of essential oils including lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) oil and its component, citral. Japanese Journal of Medical Mycology, 44(4):285-291.

Albo GN, Henning C, Ringuelet J, Reynaldi FJ, Giusti MRD, Alippi AM, 2003. Evaluation of some essential oils for the control and prevention of American foul brood disease in honey bees. Apidologie, 34(5):417-427.

Ambrose, D. C. P., Manickavasagan, A., Naik, R., 2016. Leafy medicinal herbs: botany, chemistry, postharvest technology and uses., Leafy medicinal herbs: botany, chemistry, postharvest technology and uses:xiii + 282 pp. http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20163250834

Andrade BOC, Rodriguez POS, 2002. Assessment of efficiency of vegetative barriers as soil conservation systems on steep lands. Bioagro, 14(3):123-133.

Anon, 1981. Annual Report 1980-81. Lucknow, India: Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, 68.

Ashrafuzzaman MH, Khan AR, Howlider AR, 1990. In vitro effect of lemongrass oil and crude extracts of some higher plants on Rhizoctonia solani. Bangladesh Journal of Plant Pathology, 6(1-2):17-18

Balboa JG, Lim-Sylianco CY, 1995. Effect of some medicinal plants on skin tumor promotion. Philippine Journal of Science, 124(2):203-207; 2 ref.

Beech DF, 1990. The effect of carrier and rate of nitrogen application on the growth and oil production of lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) in the Ord Irrigation Area, Western Australia. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 30(2):243-250.

Berlin B, Breedlove DE, Raven PH, 1974. Principles of Tzeltal Plant Classification. An Introduction to the Botanical Ethnography of a Mayan Speaking People of Highland Chiapas. New York, USA: Acad. Press.

Bertea CM, Tesio M, Agostino GD, Buffa G, Camusso W, Bossi S, Mucciarelli M, Scannerini S, Maffei M, 2003. The C4 biochemical pathway and the anatomy of lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus (DC) Stapf. cultivated in temperate climates. Plant Biosystems, 137(2):175-184.

Bidla G, Titanji VPK, Joko B, Ghazali GE, Bolad A, Berzins K, 2004. Antiplasmodial activity of seven plants used in African folk medicine. Indian Journal of Pharmacology, 36(4):245-246.

Bose TK, Kabir J, Das P, Joy PP, 2001. Tropical horticulture. Volume 2. Tropical horticulture. Volume 2, 771 pp.

Cardona VMP, 1999. Rust of lemon grass, a new disease in Colombia and South America. Fitopatologia Colombiana, 23(1/2):43-44.

Chagonda LS, Makanda C, Chalchat JC, 2000. Essential oils of cultivated Cymbopogon winterianus (Jowitt) and of C. citratus (DC) (Stapf) from Zimbabwe. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 12(4):478-480.

Chandra V, Singh B, Singh A, 1970. Observation on growth and yield of oil of C. winterianus at Lucknow. Indian Perfumer, 14:32-35.

Chisowa EH, Hall DR, Farman DI, 1998. Olatile constituents of the essential oil of Cymbopogon citratus Stapf grown in Zambia. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 13(1):29-30.

Cimanga K, Apers S, Bruyne Tde, Miert Svan, Hermans N, TottT J, Pieters L, Vlietinck AJ, Kambu K, Tona L, 2002. Chemical composition and antifungal activity of essential oils of some aromatic medicinal plants growing in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 14(5):382-387; 34 ref.

Cimanga K, Kambu K, Tona L, Apers S, Bruyne T, Hermans N, Totte J, Pieters L, Vlietinck AJ, 2002. Correlation between chemical composition and antibacterial activity of essential oils of some aromatic medicinal plants growing in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 79(2):213-220.

Covich AP, Nickerson NH, 1966. Studies of cultivated plants in Choco dwelling clearings, Darien, Panama. Econ. Bot., 20, 285-301.

CSIR, 1950. The Wealth of India. A dictionary of Indian raw materials and industrial products. (Raw Materials 2. New Delhi, India: Council Scientific Industrial Research.

Detpiratmongkol S, Ubolkerd T, Yousukyingsatapron S, 2005. Effects of irrigation frequencies and amounts on growth and yield of local lemongrass cultivar. Proceedings of 43rd Kasetsart University Annual Conference, Thailand, 1-4-February, Subject: Plants, 632-640.

Dfaz Castellanos M, Herrera Isla L, 1995. Puccinia purpurea Cooke, a causal agent of rust of lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) (D.C.) Stapf. in Cuba. Centro Agrícola, 22(3):87-88; 3 ref.

Dubey NK, Kishore N, Varma J, Lee SY, 1997. Cytotoxicity of the essential oils of Cymbopogon citratus and Ocimum gratissimum. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 59(5):263-264.

Duhan SPS, Gulati BC, 1973. Chemical weed control studies in Cymbopogon winterianus citronella java type: Effect of 2, 4-D on control of weeds, herb and oil yield. Indian Perfumer, 17:1-9.

Duke JA, Vasquez R, 1994. Amazonian ethnobotanical dictionary. Boca Raton, Florida, USA: CRC Press.

Dumri K, Lertsiri S, 2005. Pro-oxidative activity in some Thai spices, Acta Horticulturae, (680):25-29.

Edris AE, Mahmoud SYM, 2003. Relationship between certain volatile components of lemongrass oil and its antiviral activities against bean yellow mosaic potyvirus. Bulletin of the National Research Centre Cairo, 28(3):289-299.

Esquivel M, Castiñeiras L, Knüpffer H, Hammer K, 1989. A checklist of cultivated plants of Cuba. Kulturpflanze 37, 211-357.

Farooqi AA, Khan MM, Vasundhara M, 1999. Production Technology of Medicinal and Aromatic crops, Bangalore, India: Natural Remedies Pvt Ltd.

Farooqi AA, Sreeramu BS, 2001. Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic Crops. Hyderabad, India: Universities Press (India) Ltd.

Figueiredo RO, Delachiave MEA, Ming LC, 2002. Effect of growth regulators on citral content in lemongrass in different seasons. Acta Horticulturae, (569):47-50.

Figueiredo RO, Delachiave MEA, Ming LC, 2006. Growth regulators in biomass production and essential oil in Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf, in different seasons. Revista Brasileira de Plantas Medicinais, 8(3):31-35.

Gade DW, 1975. Plants, man and the land in the Vilcanota Valley of Peru. (Biogeographica 6). The Hague, Netherlands: Junk Publ.

Gomes EC, Negrelle RRB, limao C, 2006. Cymbopogon citratus (D.C.) Stapf: subsidy to improvement of quality in the crop, industrialization and marketing in Parana State. Scientia Agraria, 7(1/2):119-120.

Graveson RS, 2012. Survey of invasive alien plant species on Gros Piton, Saint Lucia. Survey of invasive alien plant species on Gros Piton, Saint Lucia. Castries, Saint Lucia: Department of Forestry.

Hammer K, Dzae RJ, Hoang HD, 1990. Additional notes to the check-list of Korean cultivated plants (4). Kulturpflanze 38, 173-190.

Handa SS, Kaul MK, 1997. Supplement to cultivation and utilization of aromatic plants, India: CSIR, RRL, Jammu-Tawi.

Handique AK, Gupta RK, et al, 1984. Variations of oil content in lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus) as influenced by seasonal changes and its genetic aspects. Indian Perfumer, 28(1):54-63.

Heydorn S, Menne T, Andersen KE, Bruze M, Svedman C, White IR, Basketter DA, 2003. Citral a fragrance allergen and irritant. Contact Dermatitis, 49(1):32-36.

Humphrey AM, 1973. The chromatography of the spice oils. Proc. Info. Conf. Spices, London, Tropical Prod. Inst., 123-128.

Husain A, Virmani OP, Sharma A, Kumar A, Misra LN, 1988. Major essential oil-bearing plants of India. Lucknow, India; Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, 237 pp.

Jagadishchandra KS, 1975. Recent studies on Cymbopogon Spreng. (aromatic grasses) with special reference to Indian taxa cultivation and ecology. A review. Journal of Plantation Crops, 3:1-5.

Jagadishchandra KS, 1975. Recent studies on Cymbopogon Spreng. (aromatic grasses) with special reference to Indian taxa. taxonomy, cytogenetics, chemistry, and scope. Journal of Plantation Crops, 3:43-57.

Joy PP, Mathew S, Skaria BP, Mathew G, 2007. Development of lemongrass oleoresin for flavouring. Final Report of ICAR Cess Fund Scheme, Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Research Station, Odakkali, Asamannoor PO, Kerala, India.

Joy PP, Skaria BP, l Mathew S, Mathew G, Joseph A, Sreevidya PP, 2006. Lemongrass. Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Research Station, Odakkali, Asamannoor, Kerala, India.

Joy PP, Skaria BP, Mathew S, Mathew G, Joseph A, 2006. Lemongrass. The fame of Cochin. Indian Journal of Arecanut, Spices and Medicinal Plants, 8(2):55-64.

Joy PP, Thomas J, Mathew S, Jose G, Joseph J, 2001. Aromatic plants. In: Bose TK, Kabir J, Das P, Joy PP, eds. Tropical Horticulture. Vol. 2. Calcutta, India: Naya Prokash, 633-733.

Khan, 1979. Integrated Plantation and Propagation to Expedite Development of Export Oriented Agro-based Industries. Chittagong, Bangladesh: BCSIR Laboratories.

Khattak S, RehmanS, Shah HU, Khan T, Ahmad M, 2005. In vitro enzyme inhibition activities of crude ethanolic extracts derived from medicinal plants of Pakistan. Natural Product Research, 19(6):567-571.

Khosla SN, 1979. Chemical weeding with Gramoxone and 2,4-D in Cymbopogon pendulus Wats. Nees ex Steud, (Jammu lemongrass or RRL-16). Indian Perfumer, 23(2):125-127

Koike ST, Molinar RH, 1999. Rust disease on lemongrass in California. Plant Disease, 83(3):304; 2 ref.

Kokwaro JO, 1979. Classification of East African Crops. Nairobi, Kenya: Kenya Literature Bureau.

Krishnamurthy YL, Hemalatha TV, 2003. Isolation of endophytic fungi from some grasses. Journal of Mycology and Plant Pathology, 33(2):305-306.

Leal TCAB, Freitas SP, Silva JF, Carvalho AJC, 2003. Production of biomass and essential oil in plants of lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus (DC) Stapf) of various ages. Revista Brasileira de Plantas Medicinais, 5(2):61-64.

Leung AY, Foster S, 1996. Encyclopedia of Common Natural Ingredients Used in Food, Drugs and Cosmetics, Canada. A Wiley Interscience Publication, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Luize PS, Tiuman TS, Morello LG, Maza PK, Nakamura TU, Filho BPD, Cortez DAG, Mello JCP, Nakamura CV, 2005. Effects of medicinal plant extracts on growth of Leishmania (L.) amazonensis and Trypanosoma cruzi. Revista Brasileira de Ciencias Farmaceuticas, 41(1):85-94.

Madia M, Gaetan S, 2004. Aromatic Poaceae, hosts of Phoma sorghina in Argentina. Fitopatologia, 39(3):119-125.

Mamatha M, Nagamani A, Monoharachary C, Bhadraiah B, 2002. New host record for Bipolaris specifera (Bainier) Subram. Journal of Mycology and Plant Pathology, 32(1):115-116; 6 ref.

Mandal D, De GC, 2005. Studies on herbal herbicides in controlling weeds in rapeseed and mustard. Journal of Interacademicia, 9(2):292-295.

Mar Mar Nyein, Win Myint, Mu Mu Sein Myint, Mya Bwin, Tin Aye, 1996. Antibacterial properties of essential oils from six medicinal plants. Myanmar Health Sciences Research Journal, 8(2):62-65; 12 ref.

McKenzie EHC, Dingley JM, 1996. New plant disease records in New Zealand: miscellaneous fungal pathogens III. New Zealand Journal of Botany, 34(2):263-272; 10 ref.

Mirza M, Rizwani GH, Yaseen Z, Qadri RB, Ahmad M, Mehmood S, 2005. Pharmacognostic studies of some diuretic medicinal plants of Pakistan. Hamdard Medicus, 48(2):178-194.

Mishra LN, Pathak RA, Pandey AK, Pratap B, 2001. Effect of various mulches on the conservation of soil moisture in aonla + guava cropping system. South Indian Horticulture, 49(Special):367-369.

Mishra LN, Pathak RA, Pandey AK, Pratap B, Singh SK, 2002. Effect of various mulches on the physico-chemical properties of the sodic soil under aonla+guava cropping system. Annals of Agricultural Research, 23(3):377-380.

Moawad SS, 2003. Effect of intercropping potato crop with some medicinal and ornamental plants on insect infestations. Bulletin of the National Research Centre, Cairo, 28(3):337-346.

Moore SJ, Davies CR, Hill N, Cameron MM, 2007. Are mosquitoes diverted from repellent-using individuals to non-users? Results of a field study in Bolivia. Trop Med Int Health, 12(4):532-9.

Muhammad Saleem, Nighat Afza, Anwar MA, Hai SMA, Ali MS, Shahida Shujaat, Atta-ur-Rahman, 2003. Chemistry and biological significance of essential oils of Cymbopogon citratus from Pakistan. Natural Product Research, 17(3):159-163; 19 ref.

Nair EVG, Nair KC, Chinnamma MP, 1979. Field Experiments with micronutrients on the yield of grass, oil and citral content of oil of East Indian lemongrass (C. flexuosus var. OD-19). Indian Perfumer, 23:55-58.

Nair RV, Sing K, et al, 1984. Genetic variability, trait relationships and plant type concept in lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexousus). Indian perfumer, 28(3-4):129-132.

Nelkin JB, Schuch UK, 2004. Retractable roof greenhouse production of basil (Ocimum basilicum) and lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) in a semi-arid climate. Acta Horticulturae, 659(1):113-120.

Nguefack J, Budde BB, Jakobsen M, 2004. Five essential oils from aromatic plants of Cameroon:their antibacterial activity and ability to permeabilize the cytoplasmic membrane of Listeria innocua examined by flow cytometry. Lett Appl Microbiol, 39(5):395-400.

Nguefack J, Leth V, Zollo PHA, Mathur SB, 2004. Evaluation of five essential oils from aromatic plants of Cameroon for controlling food spoilage and mycotoxin-producing fungi. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 94(3):329-334.

Nguefack J, Somda I, Mortensen CN, Zollo PHA, 2005. Evaluation of five essential oils from aromatic plants of Cameroon for controlling seed-borne bacteria of rice (Oryza sativa L.). Seed Science and Technology, 33(2):397-407.

Nham, Thoi N, 1993. Medicinal and aromatic plants in Vietnam. In: Chomchalow N, Henle HV, eds. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Asia: Breeding and Improvement. Lebanon: Science Publ., RAPA Publication 1993/19, 185-196.

Noel B, Amrine J, Kovacs A, 2002. Organic treatment IPM for honey bee mites. American Bee Journal, 142(5):359-361; 16 ref.

Ntonifor NN, Ngufor CA, Kimbi HK, Oben BO, 2006. Traditional use of indigenous mosquito-repellents to protect humans against mosquitoes and other insect bites in a rural community of Cameroon. East African Medical Journal, 83(10):553-558.

Oparaeke AM, 2006. Field screening of nine plant extracts for the control of post-flowering insect pests of cowpea, Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection, 39(3):225-230.

Osman SM, Radwan OM, 2004. Isolation and identification of active components in some plant extracts and their effect on Agrotis ipsilon (Hufn.). Egyptian Journal of Biological Pest Control, 14(1):181-185.

Palada MC, Mitchell JM, Becker BN, Nair PKR, 2005. The integration of medicinal plants and culinary herbs in agroforestry systems for the Caribbean:a study in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Acta Horticulturae, 676:147-153.

Pareek SK, Gupta R, 1985. On the status of agronomic research in Cymbopogon grasses in India with projections on future work. Indian Perfumer, 29 (3/4), 215-224.

Pauli FF, Opazo MAU, N=brega LHP, 2002. The study of the effects of repellent plants to insects in the corn seeds physiological quality stored in corn-cob through a statistic longitudinal analysis. Revista Brasileira de Produtos Agroindustriais, 4(2):167-174; 7 ref.

Pohl RW, 1980. Flora costaricensis. Fam. 15. Gramineae. Fieldiana, Bot. N.S. 4.

Prasad LK, Rao MSS, 1986. Effect of spacing and nitrogen on herbs yield of Cymbopogon citratus and Cymbopogon flexuosus. Indian Perfumer, 30(4):457-460.

Pratibha G, Korwar GR, 2003. Crop diversification through medicinal, aromatic and dye yielding plants for sustainability in semi-arid regions. In: Mathur AK et al., eds. Proceedings of First National Interactive Meet on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, 129-132.

Purseglove JW, 1972. Tropical Crops. Monocotyledons. Volume 1, Part 2. London, UK: Longman.

Ram M, Singh R, et al, 1997. Effect of salicylic acid on the yield and quality of essential oil in aromatic crops. journal of Medicinal and Aromatic plant Sciences, 19(1):24-27.

Ranade GS, 2004. Essential oil (Lemongrass oil). FAFAI J., 6(3):89.

Rao BRR, Chand S, Bhattacharya AK, Kaul PN, Singh CP, Singh K, 1998. Response of lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexousus) cultivars to spacings and NPK fertilizers under irrigated and rainfed conditions in semi- arid tropics. Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences, 20(2):407-412.

Rao GN, Rao SJ, Ananthanarayanan K, Shahi SK, Patra M, Shukla AC, Dikshit A, 2005. Antifungal activity of some chemicals against human pathogenic fungi (Dermatophytes). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences India Section B, Biologica Sciences, 75(4):288-293.

Rao P, Rao G, Puttanna, Ramesh S, 2005. Significance of harvest intervals on oil content and citral accumulation in variety Krishna of Lemongrass. Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences, 27(2):1-3.

Ravindran, P. N., 2017. Encyclopedia of herbs and spices

Rozzi NL, Phippen W, Simon JE, Singh RK, 2002. Supercritical fluid extraction of essential oil components from lemon scented botanicals. Lebensmittel Wissenschaft und Technologie, 35(4):319-324.

Sahoo S, Debata BK, 1995. Recent advances in breeding and biotechnology of aromatic plants. Cymbopogon species. Plant Breeding Abstracts, 65(12):1721-1731.

Salerno AR, Rebelo AM, 2006. Experimental cultivation and production of essential oils of aromatic species in Itajai, SC. Agropecuaria Catarinense, 19(2):47-49.

Salerno AR, Rebelo AM, Silva AA Jr, 2004. Aromatic plants for cultivation in Santa Catarina. Agropecuaria Catarinense, 17(2):46-49.

Sarma TC, Tridip Goswami, Goswami T, 1993. Plantation of certain fastgrowing tree species under short-rotation agro-forestry system for production of biomass for paper pulp. Advances in Forestry Research in India, 9: 19-34; 15 ref.

Sevignani A, Jacomassi E, 2003. Survey of medicinal plants and their application in the country village "Serra dos Dourados" - Umuarama/PR. Arquivos de Ciencias da Saude da UNIPAR, 7(1):27-31.

Shiva A, 1998. Methods of sustainable harvesting and value addition for economic uplift and biodiversity conservation. MFP News, 8(3):19-20.

Shivas RG, White JF, Irwin JAGJr, Blatch AJ, Whittle PJL, 1999. First record in Australia of Myriogenospora atramentosa on lemongrass and sugarcane. Australasian Plant Pathology, 28(4):336; 4 ref.

Silva AI, Santana CS, Pivato SCL, Maria CAB, Moreira RFA, 2006. Chlorogenic acid profile of commercial Brazilian herbal infusions. Sciences des Aliments, 26(2):173-180.

Silva PA, Blank AF, Arrigoni BMF, Barretto MCV, 2003. Effects of the organic and mineral fertilization on lemongrass [Cymbopogon citratus (D.C.) Stapf. Revista Ciencia Agronomica, 34(1): 92-96.

Singh D, Singh B, Kumar P, Singh A, 2003. Effects of SAR of irrigation water on nutrient content and uptake in lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus). Progressive Agriculture, 3(1/2):36-39.

Singh D, Singh B, Singh A, 2002. Effects of SAR of irrigation water on the yield and quality attributes of lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus). Progressive Agriculture, 2(2):160-162.

Singh M, 1997. Growth, herbage, oil yield, nitrogen uptake and nitrogen utilization efficiency of different cultivars of lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexousus) as affected by water regimes. Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic plant Sciences, 19(3):695-699.

Singh M, 1999. Effect of irrigation and nitrogen on herbage, oil yield and water use of lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexousus) on alfisols. Journal of agricultural science, 132(2):201-206.

Singh M, Rao RSG, Ramesh S, 1997. Irrigation and Nitrogen requirement of lemongrass on a red sandy loam soil under semiarid tropical conditions. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 9(5):569-574.

Singh MP, Malla SB, Rajbhandari SB, Manandhar A, 1980. Medicinal plants of Nepal - retrospects and prospects. Econ. Bot., 33, 185-198.

Singh RS, 2000. Revegetation of coal mine overburden dump (OBD) slopes by aromatic grasses. Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences, 22(1B):506-509.

Singh SA, Singh et al, 1999. Resource utilization efficiency, productivity and economics of traditional agricultural crops and aromatic crops under rain fed conditions of sub tropical North India. Journal of Medicinal and aromatic plant sciences, 21(4):972-977.

Skaria BP, Joy PP, Joseph A, Joseph R, 2007. Aromatic Plants. In: Peter KV, eds. Horticulture Science Series – I. New Delhi, India: New India Publishing Agency, 270 pp.

Skaria BP, Joy PP, Mathew S, Mathew G, 2006. Lemongrass. In: Peter KV, eds. Handbook of Spices. Vol.3. Cambridge, UK : Woodhead Pub. Pvt. Ltd., 400-419.

Soosairaj S, Britto SJ, Balaguru B, Natarajan D, Nagamurugan N, 2005. Habitat similarity and species distribution analysis in tropical forests of eastern ghats, Tamilnadu. Tropical-Ecology, 46(2):183-191.

Srivastava A, Guleria S, 2003. Evaluation of botanicals for mustard aphid, Lipaphis erysimi (Kalt.) control in Brassica. Himachal Journal of Agricultural Research, 29(1/2):116-118.

Subrahmanyam KV, Gajanana TM, 2001. Economics of lemongrass cultivation and production of oil in Kerala. Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic. Plant Sciences, 23(2):5-9.

Suyamto, Howeler RH, 2004. Cultural practices for soil erosion control in cassava-based cropping systems in Indonesia. In: Barker DH, Watson AJ, Sombatpanit S, Northcutt B, Maglinao AR, eds. Ground and Water Bioengineering for Erosion Control and Slope Stabilization. Enfield, New Hampshire, USA: Science Publishers, Inc, 291-297.

Thomas J, 1995. Lemongrass. In: Chadha KL, Rajendra Guptha. Advances in Horticulture Vol. II- Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. New Delhi, India: Malhotra Publishing House, 726.

Tomar OS, Minhas PS, 2004. Relative performance of aromatic grasses under saline irrigation. Indian Journal of Agronomy, 49(3):207-208.

Valarini PJ, Melo IS, Morsoletto RV, 2003. Alternative control of root rot of common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Summa Phytopathologica, 29(4):334-339.

Vida JB, Carvalho AAJr, Verzignassi JR, 2006. First report of the lemongrass rust fungi caused by Puccinia cymbopogonis in Brazil. Summa Phytopathologica, 32(1):89-91.

Wannmacher I, Fuchs FD, Pali CL, Gianlupi A, Fillmann AL, Lanca E, Marques A, 1990. Plants employed in the treatment of anxiety and insomnia: I. An ethnopharmacological survey in Porto Alegre, Brazil. Fitoterapia, 61(5):445-448.

Weiss EA, 1997. Essential oil crops. Essential oil crops., xi + 600 pp.; [ref. at ends of chapters].

Williams L, Home V, 1995. A comparative study of some essentials oils for potential use in topical applications for the treatment of the yeast Candida albicans. Australian Journal of Medical Herbalism, 7(3):57-62; 7 ref.

Williams RO, 1949. The useful and ornamental plants in Zanzibar and Pemba. Zanzibar Protectorate. 1949. pp. ix + 497 + 18 plates. 10 refs. Price £1. 0s. 0d.

Williamson EM, Okpako DT, Evans FJ, 1996. Selection, Preparation and Pharmacological Evaluation of Plant Material. New York, UK: John Wiley & Sons.

Wossa SW, Rali T, Leach DN, 2004. Analysis of essential oil composition of some selected spices of Papua New Guinea. Papua New Guinea Journal of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 47(1/2):17-20.

Yadava AK, Singh K, 1996. Performance of the lemongrass Cymbopogon flexousus under poplar based agro forestry systems .Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences, 18(2):290-294.

Yang SY, Lei Y, 2005. Antimicrobial activity of Cymbopogon citratus against utilized bacteria and fungus. Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University Agricultural Science, 23(4):374-376, 382.

Distribution Maps