Cymbopogon citratus (lemongrass)

Pictures

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Picture

Title

Caption

Copyright

Habit

Cymbopogon citratus (citronella grass or lemon grass); habit. Garden of Eden Keanae, Maui, Hawaii, USA. March, 2011.

©Forest & Kim Starr-2011 - CC BY 3.0

Leaves

Cymbopogon citratus (citronella grass or lemon grass); leaves. Olinda, Maui, Hawaii, USA. January, 2007.

©Forest & Kim Starr-2007 - CC BY 3.0

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf

Preferred Common Name

lemongrass

Other Scientific Names

Andropogon cerifer Hack.
Andropogon ceriferus Hack.
Andropogon citratus DC. ex Nees
Andropogon fragrans C.Cordem.
Andropogon nardus subsp. ceriferus L. (Hack.) Hack.
Andropogon roxburghii Nees ex Steud.
Calamus aromaticus
Cymbopogon nardus
Cymbopogon nardus var. citratus (L.) Rendle (DC. ex Nees) Roberty

International Common Names

English: citron grass; citronella grass; fever grass; lemon grass; West Indian lemongrass
Spanish: hierba limon; pasto limón; sontol; te limon; yerba luisa; zacate de limón; zacate de té; zacate dete; zacate limón
French: citronelle; herbe citron; Sitonnèl; verveine des Indes
Chinese: xiang mao
Portuguese: cana-cidreira; cana-limão; capim-cidró; capim-santo; erva-cidreira; patchuli-falso

Local Common Names

Brazil: cana-cidreira; cana-limão; capim-cidró; capim-santo; erva-cidreira; patchuli-falso; yerbaluisa
Cambodia: slek krey sabou
Cuba: Caña de limón; Cañita santa; Cañuela; Corta calentura; Hierba de calentura; Hierba de limón; Hierba santa; Yerba de calentura; Yerba de limón; Yerba isleña; Yerba limón; Yerba santa
Dominican Republic: Citronela, Limoncillo
Germany: Lemongras; Zitronellgras; Zitronengras
India: bhustarah; gandhabene; gandhatran; injippullu; khavi; lilacha; majjigehallu; nimmagaddi; vasanapullu
Indonesia: sereh
Italy: citronella
Laos: 'si khai; 'sing khai
Lesser Antilles: fever grass
Malaysia: serai; serai dapur; sereh
Myanmar: sabalin
Peru: yerba Luisa
Philippines: balioko; salai; tanglad
Puerto Rico: Limoncillo; Zorra de limón
Saint Lucia: sitonnèl
Sri Lanka: sereh
Thailand: cha khrai; khrai; soet-kroei
Vietnam: sa chanh

EPPO code

CYGCI (Cymbopogon citratus)
CYGNA (Cymbopogon nardus)

Summary of Invasiveness

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Cymbopogon citratus is a perennial grass that has been intentionally introduced in tropical and subtropical regions of the world for the essential oil extracts from its leaves and to be used as a culinary and medicinal herb. It is a tall grass with rhizomes and densely tufted fibrous roots, which tillers profusely and has the potential to escape from cultivation. Once established it can spread fairly rapidly, becoming weedy and invasive in disturbed areas. Currently it is listed as a weed in Mexico and as an invasive species on the island of St. Lucia. On this island, C. citratus is an invader which, due to its high oil content, has the potential to increase fire risk in areas such as Pigeon Island and Dennery quarry where it forms monotypic stands.

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Monocotyledonae
Order: Cyperales
Family: Poaceae
Genus: Cymbopogon
Species: Cymbopogon citratus

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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Poaceae is one of the largest Angiosperm families, including 707 genera and about 11,337 species widely distributed in all regions of the world (Stevens, 2016). The genus Cymbopogon comprises 59 species distributed across the tropics and subtropics of Asia, Africa and Australia (Barkworth et al., 2007; Flora of China, 2016). Several Cymbopogon species (i.e., Cymbopogon citratus and Cymbopogon nardus) are cultivated commercially for the aromatic oils that are distilled from their leaves. Cymbopogon is closely related to Andropogon, Chrysopogon and Hyparrhenia, leading to taxonomic complications and frequent misidentification of species within these genera (Flora of China, 2016).

Description

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The following description is adapted from Flora of China (2016):

Cymbopogon citratus is a perennial, shortly rhizomatous grass. Culms tufted, robust, up to 2 m tall, 4 mm in diameter, farinose below nodes. Leaf sheaths glabrous, greenish inside; leaf blades glaucous, 30-90 × 0.5-2 cm, both surfaces scabrid, base gradually narrowed, apex long acuminate; ligule 1 mm. Spathate compound panicle large, lax, up to 50 cm, drooping, branches slender; spatheoles reddish or yellowish brown, 1.5-2 cm; racemes 1.5-2 cm; rachis internodes and pedicels 2.5-4 mm, loosely villous on margins; pedicel of homogenous pair not swollen. Sessile spikelet linear-lanceolate, 5-6 × 0.7 mm; lower glume flat or slightly concave toward base, sharply 2-keeled, keels wingless, scabrid, veinless between keels; upper lemma narrow, entire and awnless, or slightly 2-lobed with 0.2 mm mucro. Pedicelled spikelet 4-5 mm.

Plant Type

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Grass / sedge
Perennial
Seed propagated
Vegetatively propagated

Distribution

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Cymbopogon citratus is native to India and Sri Lanka (Clayton et al., 2016). It has been introduced and cultivated in Africa, South and Central America, the West Indies, China and South-East Asia (Zuloaga et al., 2003; Clayton et al., 2016; USDA-ARS, 2016).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 10 Feb 2022

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Africa
Algeria	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Angola	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Benin	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Cameroon	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016) Nguefack et al. (2004) Ntonifor et al. (2006)
Central African Republic	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Congo, Democratic Republic of the	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Congo, Republic of the	Present				Cimanga et al. (2002a) Cimanga et al. (2002)
Côte d'Ivoire	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Egypt	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016) Moawad (2003)
Equatorial Guinea	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Ethiopia	Present				Guteta Negasu et al. (2016)
Gambia	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Ghana	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Guinea	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Guinea-Bissau	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Kenya	Present				Kokwaro (1979)
Liberia	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Madagascar	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Mauritius	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
-Rodrigues	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Morocco	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Nigeria	Present				Oparaeke (2006)
Réunion	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Rwanda	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Senegal	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Seychelles	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
-Aldabra Islands	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Sierra Leone	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Tanzania	Present				Williams (1949)
Zambia	Present				Chisowa et al. (1998)
Zimbabwe	Present				Chagonda et al. (2000)
Asia
Bangladesh	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016) Ashrafuzzaman et al. (1990)
Cambodia	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
China	Present				CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Yang Lei (2005)
-Fujian	Present	Introduced			Flora of China Editorial Committee (2016)	Cultivated
-Guangdong	Present	Introduced			Flora of China Editorial Committee (2016)	Cultivated
-Guizhou	Present	Introduced			Flora of China Editorial Committee (2016)	Cultivated
-Hainan	Present	Introduced			Flora of China Editorial Committee (2016)	Cultivated
-Hubei	Present	Introduced			Flora of China Editorial Committee (2016)	Cultivated
-Zhejiang	Present	Introduced			Flora of China Editorial Committee (2016)	Cultivated
India	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016) CABI (Undated a)
-Andhra Pradesh	Present				Mamatha et al. (2002)
-Haryana	Present				CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Tomar Minhas (2004)
-Himachal Pradesh	Present				CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Srivastava Guleria (2003)
-Karnataka	Present				CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Krishnamurthy Hemalatha (2003)
-Tamil Nadu	Present				Soosairaj et al. (2005)
-Uttar Pradesh	Present				Devendra Singh et al. (2002) Mishra et al. (2002) Devendra Singh et al. (2003)
-West Bengal	Present				CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Mandal De (2005)
Indonesia	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016) CABI (Undated)
-Java	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
-Sulawesi	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
-Sumatra	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Japan	Present				Albo et al. (2003)
Laos	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Malaysia	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Myanmar	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Nepal	Present				Singh et al. (1980)
Pakistan	Present				Maryam Mirza et al. (2005) Somia Khattak et al. (2005)
Philippines	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016) CABI (Undated)
South Korea	Present				Hammer et al. (1990)
Sri Lanka	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
Taiwan	Present	Introduced			Flora of China Editorial Committee (2016) Seebens et al. (2017)	Cultivated
Thailand	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016) Detpiratmongkol et al. (2005) CABI (Undated)
Vietnam	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016) CABI (Undated)
Europe
Italy	Present				Bertea et al. (2003)
United Kingdom	Present				Humphrey (1973)
North America
Bahamas	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Barbados	Present	Introduced			Broome et al. (2007)
Belize	Present	Introduced			Zuloaga et al. (2003)
Canada	Present				CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Leung Foster (1996)
Costa Rica	Present	Introduced			Zuloaga et al. (2003) Pohl (1980)
Cuba	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012) Esquivel et al. (1989)
Curaçao	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Dominican Republic	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
El Salvador	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
Guatemala	Present	Introduced			Zuloaga et al. (2003)
Haiti	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Honduras	Present	Introduced			Zuloaga et al. (2003)
Jamaica	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Mexico	Present	Introduced			Sánchez-Ken et al. (2012) Berlin et al. (1974)	Listed as a weed growing in Chiapas, Coahuila, Jalisco, Morelos, Nuevo Leon, Oaxaca, Puebla, Tabasco, Veracruz and Yucatan
Nicaragua	Present	Introduced			Zuloaga et al. (2003)
Panama	Present	Introduced			Zuloaga et al. (2003) CABI (Undated)
Puerto Rico	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Saint Lucia	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Graveson (2012a) Graveson (2012)	Quite rare but presenting a fire and IAS hazard in critical areas e.g. Pigeon Island
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	Present	Introduced			Broome et al. (2007)
U.S. Virgin Islands	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)	St Croix, St Thomas
United States	Present				CABI (Undated a) Ploetz et al. (2014)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Florida	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2016) Ploetz et al. (2014)
-Hawaii	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
-Indiana	Present				Rozzi et al. (2002)
-Maryland	Present				Noel et al. (2002)
-New York	Present				Williamson et al. (1996)
Oceania
Australia	Present				Beech (1990) Shivas et al. (1999)
New Zealand	Present				CABI (Undated b)
Papua New Guinea	Present				Wossa et al. (2004)
South America
Argentina	Present	Introduced			Zuloaga et al. (2003) Albo et al. (2003) CABI (Undated)
Bolivia	Present	Introduced			Zuloaga et al. (2003) Moore et al. (2007)
Brazil	Present	Introduced			Filgueiras (2015)	Naturalized
-Acre	Present	Introduced			Filgueiras (2015)	Naturalized
-Alagoas	Present	Introduced			Filgueiras (2015)	Naturalized
-Amazonas	Present				Duke and Vasquez (1994)
-Ceara	Present	Introduced			Filgueiras (2015)	Naturalized
-Distrito Federal	Present	Introduced			Filgueiras (2015)	Naturalized
-Espirito Santo	Present	Introduced			Filgueiras (2015)	Naturalized
-Goias	Present	Introduced			Filgueiras (2015)	Naturalized
-Maranhao	Present	Introduced			Filgueiras (2015)	Naturalized
-Mato Grosso	Present	Introduced			Filgueiras (2015)	Naturalized
-Mato Grosso do Sul	Present	Introduced			Filgueiras (2015)	Naturalized
-Minas Gerais	Present	Introduced			Filgueiras (2015)	Naturalized
-Paraiba	Present	Introduced			Filgueiras (2015)	Naturalized
-Parana	Present				Gomes and Negrelle (2006) CABI (Undated)
-Pernambuco	Present	Introduced			Filgueiras (2015)	Naturalized
-Piaui	Present	Introduced			Filgueiras (2015)	Naturalized
-Rio de Janeiro	Present	Introduced			Filgueiras (2015) Leal et al. (2003) Silva et al. (2006)	Naturalized
-Rio Grande do Norte	Present	Introduced			Filgueiras (2015)	Naturalized
-Rondonia	Present	Introduced			Filgueiras (2015)	Naturalized
-Santa Catarina	Present				Salerno et al. (2004) CABI (Undated)
-Sao Paulo	Present	Introduced			Filgueiras (2015) Figueiredo et al. (2002) Valarini et al. (2003)	Naturalized
Chile	Present	Introduced	1963		Seebens et al. (2017) Zuloaga et al. (2003)
Colombia	Present	Introduced			Zuloaga et al. (2003) Pardo-Cardona (1999)
Ecuador	Present	Introduced			Zuloaga et al. (2003)
-Galapagos Islands	Present	Introduced			Clayton et al. (2016)
French Guiana	Present	Introduced			Funk et al. (2007)	Naturalized
Guyana	Present	Introduced			Funk et al. (2007)	Naturalized
Peru	Present	Introduced			Zuloaga et al. (2003) Gade (1975)
Suriname	Present	Introduced			Funk et al. (2007)	Naturalized
Uruguay	Present	Introduced			Zuloaga et al. (2003)
Venezuela	Present	Introduced			Zuloaga et al. (2003) CABI (Undated)

History of Introduction and Spread

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After the First World War large-scale cultivation of C. citratus began in South and Central America and later in Africa, Madagascar and nearby islands. Cymbopogon citratus is now found cultivated and often naturalized throughout the tropics and warm subtropics. It is very common throughout South-East Asia where it is cultivated as an industrial crop and as a garden ornamental (Oyen, 1999). In the United States, it has been collected in Florida, across the Miami-Dade County (Wunderlin et al., 2016).

In Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, C. citratus appears in herbarium collections made in 1876 and 1860 respectively. In Puerto Rico this species occurs primarily in cultivation in home gardens but is also found naturalized in humid areas (Más and García-Molinari, 2006).

In St Lucia, C. citratus forms monotypic stands in areas such as Pigeon Island and Dennery and has the potential to spread to dry degraded slopes between Vieux Fort and Micoud (Graveson, 2012).

Risk of Introduction

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The risk of introduction of C. citratus is very high. This grass has been intentionally introduced in tropical and subtropical regions of the world for its essential oil and as a culinary and medicinal herb and has the potential to escape from cultivation (Oyen, 1999; USDA-ARS, 2016).

Habitat

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Cymbopogon citratus can be found cultivated and naturalized throughout the tropics and warm subtropics, in warm and humid habitats and along roadsides. However, it is predominantly grown in cultivation (Oyen, 1999).

Biology and Ecology

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Genetics

The chromosome number reported for C. citratus is 2n = 40 (Flora of China, 2016).

Reproductive biology

In most places Cymbopogon citratus flowers very rarely or not at all. It mostly reproduces vegetatively (Oyen, 1999).

Physiology and phenology

In China, C. citratus has been recorded flowering and fruiting during summer (Flora of China, 2016).

Longevity

Cymbopogon citratus has a life-span of 4-6 years (Oyen, 1999).

Environmental requirements

Cymbopogon citratus grows best under sunny, warm and humid conditions at elevations below 750 m, with mean annual temperatures ranging from 23°C to 30°C and mean annual rainfall between 2500-3000 mm. It is adapted to grow on a wide variety of soils types, but prefers well-drained soils with pH ranging from 5.5 to 7.5. However, this species has been recorded growing in Australia on clay soils with pH=9.6. It does not tolerate saline soils or frosty conditions (Oyen, 1999)

Climate

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Climate	Status	Description
Af - Tropical rainforest climate	Preferred	> 60mm precipitation per month
Am - Tropical monsoon climate	Preferred	Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25]))
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer	Preferred	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate	Preferred	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])

Air Temperature

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit
Mean annual temperature (ºC)	23	30

Rainfall

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit	Description
Mean annual rainfall	2500	3000	mm; lower/upper limits

Rainfall Regime

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Bimodal
Uniform

Soil Tolerances

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Soil drainage

free

Soil reaction

acid
alkaline
neutral

Soil texture

heavy
light
medium

Natural enemies

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Natural enemy	Type	Life stages	Specificity	References	Biological control in	Biological control on
Cochliobolus cymbopogonis	Pathogen	Other\|All Stages	not specific
Cochliobolus lunatus	Pathogen	Other\|All Stages	not specific

Notes on Natural Enemies

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In Guatemala, Helminthosporium cymbopogi [Cochliobolus cymbopogonis] causes a serious leaf-spot disease in Cymbopogon species resulting in significant damage. Curvularia lunata [Cochliobolus lunatus] causes another leaf disease, starting with elongated, discolored lesions that ultimately become brown with a paler border. Brown-tip disease is a physiological disorder in C. citratus, resulting from a low water content of the leaves at the end of the dry season (Oyen, 1999).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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Cymbopogon citratus rarely produces seeds, and it spreads mostly vegetatively by rhizomes and tillers (Oyen, 1999).

Intentional introduction

Cymbopogon citratus has been actively introduced in tropical and subtropical regions around the world where it is cultivated as a culinary and medicinal herb, garden ornamental and as an industrial crop to extract essential oils from its leaves (Oyen, 1999; USDA-ARS, 2016).

Pathway Causes

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Cause	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Crop production	Cultivated as an industrial crop for its essential oils	Yes	Yes	Oyen (1999)
Escape from confinement or garden escape	Rhizomes, tillers and plant fragments escaped from cultivation	Yes	Yes	Oyen (1999)
Garden waste disposal	Rhizomes, tillers and plant fragments escaped from cultivation	Yes	Yes	Oyen (1999)
Industrial purposes	Essential oils	Yes	Yes	USDA-ARS (2016)
Medicinal use	Medicinal herb	Yes	Yes	Oyen (1999)
Ornamental purposes	Cultivated as an ornamental in gardens and along roadsides	Yes	Yes	Oyen (1999); USDA-ARS (2016)

Pathway Vectors

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Vector	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Debris and waste associated with human activities	Rhizomes, tillers and plant fragments escaped from cultivation	Yes	Yes	Oyen (1999)
Plants or parts of plants	Leaves and shoots are distributed commercially	Yes	Yes	Oyen (1999)

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Cultural/amenity	Positive
Economic/livelihood	Positive and negative
Environment (generally)	Positive and negative
Human health	Positive

Environmental Impact

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As weedy grass, C. citratus tillers strongly and may quickly invade new habitats, forming monotypic stands that displace native vegetation (Oyen, 1999). It is a tall grass with rhizomes and densely tufted fibrous roots that, once established, is very difficult to remove (Gilman, 1999).

On the island of St Lucia, C. citratus is listed as invasive species as, due to the high oil content of the leaves, it has the potential to increase the risk of fires in natural areas such as Pigeon Island and Dennery quarry where it forms monotypic stands (Graveson, 2012).

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Proved invasive outside its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Is a habitat generalist
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Capable of securing and ingesting a wide range of food
Highly mobile locally
Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
Long lived
Fast growing
Gregarious
Reproduces asexually

Impact outcomes

Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Modification of fire regime
Modification of successional patterns
Monoculture formation
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of native species

Impact mechanisms

Competition - monopolizing resources
Rapid growth
Rooting

Likelihood of entry/control

Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Difficult/costly to control

Uses

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Economic value

Essential oil extracts from Cymbopogon are used in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and perfumery. C. citratus is commercially cultivated in Africa and Asia, but the leading exporter of this species is Guatemala, trading about 250,000 kg per year (Avoseh et al., 2015).

Social benefit

Cymbopogon citratus is used in traditional medicine for the treatment of gastrointestinal disturbances, fevers and hypertension. It is commonly used in the form of tea as a “homemade remedy” for cough, flu, gingivitis, digestive problems and stomachache (Avoseh et al., 2015).

Environmental services

Cymbopogon citratus is planted in gardens and on bunds for soil conservation (Oyen, 1999).

Uses List

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Environmental

Amenity
Erosion control or dune stabilization
Soil conservation

Human food and beverage

Beverage base
Spices and culinary herbs
Vegetable

Materials

Essential oils
Lipids
Pesticide

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
Traditional/folklore

References

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Abe S, Sato Y, Inoue S, Ishibashi H, Maruyama N, Takizawa T, Oshima H, Yamaguchi H, 2003. Anti Candida albicans activity of essential oils including lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) oil and its component, citral. Japanese Journal of Medical Mycology, 44(4):285-291

Acevedo-Rodríguez, P., Strong, M. T., 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies, Washington, DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution.1192 pp. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm

Albo GN, Henning C, Ringuelet J, Reynaldi FJ, Giusti MRD, Alippi AM, 2003. Evaluation of some essential oils for the control and prevention of American foul brood disease in honey bees. Apidologie, 34(5):417-427

Ambrose, D. C. P., Manickavasagan, A., Naik, R., 2016. Leafy medicinal herbs: botany, chemistry, postharvest technology and uses, CABI.xiii + 282 pp. http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20163250834 doi:10.1079/9781780645599.0000

Andrade BOC, Rodriguez POS, 2002. Assessment of efficiency of vegetative barriers as soil conservation systems on steep lands. Bioagro, 14(3):123-133

Anon, 1981. Annual Report 1980-81. Lucknow, India: Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, 68

Ashrafuzzaman MH, Khan AR, Howlider AR, 1990. In vitro effect of lemongrass oil and crude extracts of some higher plants on Rhizoctonia solani. Bangladesh Journal of Plant Pathology, 6(1-2):17-18

Avoseh, O., Oyedeji, O., Rungqu, P., Nkeh-Chungag, B., Oyedeji, A., 2015. Cymbopogon species; ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry and the pharmacological importance. Molecules, 20(5), 7438-7453. doi: 10.3390/molecules20057438

Balboa JG, Lim-Sylianco CY, 1995. Effect of some medicinal plants on skin tumor promotion. Philippine Journal of Science, 124(2):203-207; 2 ref

Barkworth, M. E., Capels, K. M., Long, S., Anderton, L. K., Piep, M. B., 2007. Grass manual on the Web. In: Grass manual on the Web . Logan, Utah, USA: Utah State University.http://herbarium.usu.edu/webmanual/

Beech DF, 1990. The effect of carrier and rate of nitrogen application on the growth and oil production of lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) in the Ord Irrigation Area, Western Australia. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 30(2):243-250

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