Crotalaria spectabilis (showy rattlepod)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Crotalaria spectabilis Roth.
Preferred Common Name
- showy rattlepod
Other Scientific Names
- Crotalaria altipes Raf.
- Crotalaria cuneifolia (Forssk.) Schrank
- Crotalaria leschenaultii DC.
- Crotalaria macrophylla Wienmann
- Crotalaria retzii Hitchc.
- Crotalaria sericea RETZ.
- Crotalaria spectabilis subsp. spectabilis
International Common Names
- English: cat's bell; rattlebox; rattlepod; showy crotalaria; showy rattlebox; silent rattlepod
- French: crotalaire remarquable
- Chinese: da tuo ye zhu shi dou
Local Common Names
- Cuba: chicharra ; maromera; maruga
- Dominican Republic: maraquita
- Germany: Ansehliche Klapperhuelse
- India: dhundhunia; jhunjhunia; rattle box; sani; showy crotalaria; sonnette; tcha-tcha
- Thailand: mahing men
- USA: showy rattlebox
EPPO code
- CVTSP (Crotalaria spectabilis)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageC. spectabilis is native to tropical Asia and has been widely introduced in many tropical countries around the world. It has escaped from cultivation and can now be found naturalized principally in open and disturbed sites. This species is a serious weed in agricultural land and natural habitats (Randall, 2012). The potential invasiveness of C. spectabilis is very high mainly because this species spreads predominantly as a contaminant in agricultural equipment, crop seeds, forages and hay (Maddox et al., 2011). In the United States, it is listed as a noxious weed in many Mid-South states (e.g., Arkansas), and it has spread rapidly throughout the Southeastern states where it is now considered an invasive species (Maddox et al., 2011; USDA-NRCS, 2015). C. spectabilis is also listed as invasive in Cuba, Australia, New Caledonia and many other islands in the Pacific Ocean (Oviedo Prieto et al., 2012; PIER, 2015; Weeds of Australia, 2015).
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Fabales
- Family: Fabaceae
- Subfamily: Faboideae
- Genus: Crotalaria
- Species: Crotalaria spectabilis
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageFabaceae is one of the most diverse families of flowering plants. Species in the subfamiliy Papilionoideae (also known as Faboideae) are trees, shrubs, and herbs that may be easily recognized by their classical pea-shaped flowers and the frequent occurrence of root nodulation (Stevens, 2012).
The genus Crotalaria includes around 720 species especially distributed in the Southern Hemisphere throughout tropical regions and extending into the subtropics (Roux et al., 2013; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015). The name Crotalaria derives from the Greek krotalos for rattle, refering to the sound dried pods make when shaken: the common name for the genus, rattlebox or rattlepod, also refers to the rattling of seeds in the pods after drying.
A recent molecular systematic study based on nuclear internal transcribed spacer and the plastid markers matK, psbA-trnH and rbcLa showed that Crotalaria is monophyletic (Roux et al., 2013). Crotalaria species are easily recognized by the following combination of characters (Wyk, 2005):
rostrate keel
highly inflated fruit
hairy style
5 + 5 anther configuration
paired callosities on the standard petal
presence of macrocyclic pyrrolizidine alkaloids
Description
Top of pageC. spectabilis is an erect herb 0.6-1.5 m tall. Branches terete, glabrous. Stipules ovate-triangular, approximately 1 cm. Leaves simple; petiole 2-8 mm; leaf blade oblanceolate to narrowly elliptic, 7-15 × 2-5 cm, thin, abaxially appressed silky pubescent, adaxially glabrous, base broadly cuneate, apex obtuse and mucronate. Racemes terminal, 20-30-flowered; bracts ovate-triangular, 7-10 mm. Pedicel 1-1.5 cm; bracteoles inserted at or apical to middle of pedicel, linear, approximately 1 mm. Calyx 2-lipped, 1.2-1.5 cm, glabrous; lobes broadly lanceolate-triangular, longer than tube. Corolla pale yellow; standard veined purplish red, suborbicular to oblong, 1-2 cm, base with 2 appendages, apex obtuse to retuse; wings obovate, approximately 2 cm; keel rounded about middle, with a fairly short and slightly incurved twisted beak beyond calyx. Legume broadly oblong, 2.5-3 × 1.5-2 cm, 20-30-seeded, shortly stipitate, glabrous. Seeds smooth, dark brown, 4.5 mm long (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015).
Distribution
Top of pageC. spectabilis is native to tropical Asia (ILDIS, 2015; USDA-ARS, 2015). It is also cultivated and naturalized throughout the tropics (see Distribution Table for details).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 17 Dec 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Madagascar | Present | Introduced | |||||
Malawi | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mozambique | Present | Introduced | |||||
Réunion | Present | Introduced | |||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Introduced | |||||
Asia |
|||||||
Bangladesh | Present | Native | |||||
China | Present | Native | |||||
-Anhui | Present | Native | |||||
-Fujian | Present | Native | |||||
-Guangdong | Present | Native | |||||
-Guangxi | Present | Native | |||||
-Hunan | Present | Native | |||||
-Jiangsu | Present | Native | |||||
-Jiangxi | Present | Native | |||||
-Yunnan | Present | Native | |||||
India | Present | Native | |||||
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands | Present | Native | |||||
-Andhra Pradesh | Present | Native | |||||
-Arunachal Pradesh | Present | Native | |||||
-Bihar | Present | Native | |||||
-Delhi | Present | Native | |||||
-Goa | Present | Native | |||||
-Gujarat | Present | Native | |||||
-Haryana | Present | Native | |||||
-Himachal Pradesh | Present | Native | |||||
-Jammu and Kashmir | Present | Native | |||||
-Karnataka | Present | Native | |||||
-Kerala | Present | Native | |||||
-Madhya Pradesh | Present | Native | |||||
-Maharashtra | Present | Native | |||||
-Manipur | Present | Native | |||||
-Odisha | Present | Native | |||||
-Punjab | Present | Native | |||||
-Rajasthan | Present | Native | |||||
-Sikkim | Present | Native | |||||
-Tamil Nadu | Present | Native | |||||
-Tripura | Present | Native | |||||
-Uttar Pradesh | Present | Native | |||||
-West Bengal | Present | Native | |||||
Malaysia | Present | Native | |||||
Myanmar | Present | Native | |||||
Nepal | Present | Native | |||||
Pakistan | Present | Native | |||||
Philippines | Present | ||||||
Taiwan | Present | Native | |||||
Thailand | Present | Native | |||||
North America |
|||||||
Bahamas | Present | Introduced | |||||
Barbados | Present | Introduced | |||||
Belize | Present | Introduced | |||||
Bonaire, Saint Eustatius and Saba | |||||||
-Saba | Present | Introduced | |||||
Costa Rica | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Dominica | Present | Introduced | |||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guadeloupe | Present | Introduced | |||||
Haiti | Present | Introduced | |||||
Honduras | Present | Introduced | |||||
Jamaica | Present | Introduced | |||||
Martinique | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mexico | Present | Introduced | |||||
Panama | Present | Introduced | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | |||||
Saint Lucia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | Introduced | |||||
United States | Present | ||||||
-Alabama | Present | Introduced | Weed | ||||
-Arkansas | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Noxious weed | |||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Georgia | Present | Introduced | Weed | ||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Louisiana | Present | Introduced | Weed | ||||
-Mississippi | Present | Introduced | Weed | ||||
-Missouri | Present | Introduced | Weed | ||||
-North Carolina | Present | Introduced | Weed | ||||
-Oklahoma | Present | Introduced | Weed | ||||
-South Carolina | Present | Introduced | Weed | ||||
-Tennessee | Present | Introduced | Weed | ||||
-Texas | Present | Introduced | Weed | ||||
-Virginia | Present | Introduced | Weed | ||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-New South Wales | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Queensland | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Federated States of Micronesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Guam | Present | Introduced | |||||
Kiribati | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Nauru | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
New Caledonia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Palau | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Solomon Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Tonga | Present | Introduced | |||||
South America |
|||||||
Brazil | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Amazonas | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Bahia | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Ceara | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Espirito Santo | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Maranhao | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Mato Grosso | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Minas Gerais | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Para | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Parana | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Rio de Janeiro | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Rio Grande do Sul | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Roraima | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Santa Catarina | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Sao Paulo | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Colombia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Peru | Present | Introduced |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageC. spectabilis has been widely introduced throughout the tropics to be used as fodder, green manure, for soil conservation, and as a soil improver and ornamental. However, the use of this species has been abandoned because of the toxic alkaloids that it contains (Francis, 2004). In the United States, it was introduced from the Indo-Malaysian area (Maddox et al., 2011). In the West Indies, C. spectabilis appears in herbarium collections made in 1937 in Dominica, in 1939 in Martinique, and in Cuba in 1950 (US National Herbarium).
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageThe risk of introduction of C. spectabilis is high. This species has been actively introduced to be used as green manure, forage and ground cover, and consequently the risk of new introductions as well as the probability of escape from cultivation is high, principally in disturbed areas (Wagner et al., 1999; Maddox et al., 2011; USDA-NRCS, 2015).
Habitat
Top of pageC. spectabilis grows as a weed in crops, pastures, and roadsides. It prefers sites that are open and disturbed, but as a legume these sites tend to be poor nutritionally. It is often found on roadside or pasture slopes that may be more or less eroded (Maddox et al., 2011). In China, it occurs in open locations along forest margins and as a weed in cultivated fields, from sea level up to 1500 m altitude (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015). In the West Indies and Florida, it can be found growing at the edge of mangroves (Liogier, 1988). It is also common along stream banks in deciduous forests in India (Francis, 2004).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Littoral | Mangroves | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Littoral | Mangroves | Present, no further details | Natural |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageC. spectabilis is a common weed in maize and soyabean plantations in the United States. It is also a weed in active and abandoned pastures (Maddox et al., 2011).
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pagePlant name | Family | Context | References |
---|---|---|---|
Oryza sativa (rice) | Poaceae | Unknown |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome number reported for C. spectabilis is 2n = 16 (Almada, 2006).
Reproductive Biology
Flowers of C. spectabilis are visited by bees and other insects. As in other Crotalaria species, extensive cross-pollination occurs and self-pollination only takes place after the stigmatic surface is stimulated by insects or other mechanism (Francis, 2004; Maddox et al., 2011; PROTA, 2015).
Physiology and Phenology
C. spectabilis is an annual fast-growing legume. It may reach heights of about 1 metre by one year old. In Puerto Rico, it behaves as a biennial and plants appear to live 2 or 3 years (Francis, 2004).
In China, C. spectabilis has been recorded flowering from August to October and fruiting from October to December (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015). In India, it flowers between November and January and fruits are produced from December to February. In the Americas, it has been recorded blooming all year long in Florida, and flowering in April and May and fruiting in October in Nicaragua (Francis, 2004).
Associations
C. spectabilis has root nodules that support nitrogen fixing bacteria and therefore it is often used as a green manure crop, particularly where rotation for control of nematodes is important (Francis, 2004).
Environmental Requirements
C. spectabilis principally grows in areas from sea level up to 1500 m altitude with annual rainfall of 900-2800 mm and a mean annual temperature of 12-28°C (Niyomdham, 1997). In Florida and Puerto Rico, it grows on coastal sands and limestone rubble in areas receiving about 1650 mm of annual precipitation (Francis, 2004). This species has the capability to thrive on a wide range of soils, including heavy soils, with pH ranging from 4.8 to 8.0 (Niyomdham, 1997). It grows well in alkaline soils and at least tolerates moderate soil salinity. It is also drought-tolerant (Francis, 2004; Maddox et al., 2011; PROTA, 2015).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
BS - Steppe climate | Tolerated | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Tolerated | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 900 | 2800 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
Soil reaction
- acid
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- saline
- shallow
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageIn Puerto Rico, plants of C. spectabilis are often parasitized by Cuscuta species (Francis, 2004).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageC. spectabilis spreads by seeds. Seeds are primarily dispersed as a contaminant of soil, agricultural equipment, crop seeds and hay (Maddox et al., 2011). The species is intentionally planted in cultivated lands where is used as a green manure and for erosion control (Niyomdham, 1997).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Crop production | Contaminant in crop seeds | Yes | Yes | Maddox et al. (2011) |
Disturbance | Weed on disturbed sites and along roadsides | Yes | Yes | Francis (2004) |
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Seeds as contaminant in crop seeds, forage, hay and agricultural equipment | Yes | Yes | Maddox et al. (2011) |
Forage | Contaminant in forage and hay | Yes | Yes | Maddox et al. (2011) |
Habitat restoration and improvement | Often planted for erosion control and soil improvement | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2015) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Debris and waste associated with human activities | Seeds as contaminant in crop seeds, forage, hay and agricultural equipment | Yes | Yes | Maddox et al. (2011) |
Machinery and equipment | Seeds as contaminant in agricultural equipment | Yes | Yes | Maddox et al. (2011) |
Soil, sand and gravel | Seeds as contaminant in soil | Yes | Yes | Maddox et al. (2011) |
Land vehicles | Seeds as contaminant in agricultural equipment | Yes | Yes | Maddox et al. (2011) |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Positive and negative |
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Economic Impact
Top of pageLike other Crotalaria species, C. spectabilis contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids, which are present in greatest quantity in the seeds. Therefore, C. spectabilis can be poisonous to all livestock including poultry (chickens, turkeys and quail), horses, goats and dogs, particularly when seeds are consumed (Francis, 2004; Maddox et al., 2011). This species is also a weed negatively impacting maize and soyabean plantations and pastures (Niyomdham, 1997; Francis, 2004; Maddox et al., 2011).
Environmental Impact
Top of pageC. spectabilis has escaped from cultivation and naturalized in disturbed areas, roadsides, waste ground, grasslands, disturbed forests, and mangrove edges (Liogier, 1988; Wagner et al., 1999; Francis, 2004; Maddox et al., 2011). Once naturalized,this species grows as a weed and may become invasive, displacing native vegetation (ILDIS, 2015; USDA-NRCS, 2015). As with many other Crotalaria species, C. spectabilis is a nitrogen-fixing species and consequently it has the capacity to alter chemical soil conditions, nutrient cycling and trophic levels in invaded ecosystems, with negative effects on native vegetation principally in nutrient-poor ecosystems that did not previously contain nitrogen-fixing residents (Levine et al., 2003).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Highly mobile locally
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Gregarious
- Altered trophic level
- Damaged ecosystem services
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Loss of medicinal resources
- Modification of nutrient regime
- Modification of successional patterns
- Monoculture formation
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Negatively impacts animal health
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - smothering
- Poisoning
- Rapid growth
- Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
- Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
- Difficult to identify/detect in the field
Uses
Top of pageC. spectabilis is used as a green manure, for erosion control and for soil improvement in the tropics and in the USA. It serves as a nurse species during early reforestation. Its use as forage and fodder has ceased because of its toxicity. It is also planted as an ornamental (Niyomdham, 1997). This species is also used in Asian traditional medicine. Extracts of the whole plant are used to treat impetigo and scabies, as an antiseptic for cuts, and to treat intestinal worms (Parrotta 2001; Francis, 2004).
Uses List
Top of pageEnvironmental
- Agroforestry
- Amenity
- Erosion control or dune stabilization
- Soil conservation
- Soil improvement
Human food and beverage
- Honey/honey flora
Materials
- Green manure
- Poisonous to mammals
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Ornamental
- Propagation material
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Movement Control
Small patches of C. spectabilis can be removed by hand, but it could be labour intensive. Plants should be removed prior to fruit ripening to avoid seed dispersal. In pastures, trimming can be an effective method of weed management to minimize exposure of grazing animals to plants that are toxic. Repeat as necessary to minimize likelihood of consumption by livestock and seed production. Care should be taken to prevent contamination of forages, hay or silage. In grain crops, such as maize or soyabean, care should be taken to avoid contamination of harvested grains with C. spectabilis seed. Sanitation should be used to prevent the movement of seed on tillage or harvest equipment from one field to other fields (Maddox et al., 2011).
Chemical Control
The herbicides suggested for controlling C. spectabilis are diuron, dicamba, hexazinone, triclopyr, flumioxazin, paraquat, glyphosate, and 2,4-D. These herbicides have been used with positive results in pastures and cultivated areas (Maddox et al., 2011).
References
Top of pageAcevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, no. 98. Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, Washington DC, 1192 pp. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
Almada RD, 2006. Karyotype analysis and chromosome evolution in southernmost South American species of Crotalaria (Leguminosae)., Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 150:329-341
Braz GBP, Oliveira Júnior RS de, Constantin J, Takano HK, Godinho FB, 2016. Selectivity of herbicides applied in post-emergence of showy crotalaria., Revista Caatinga, 29(4):918-926
Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.htm
Correa A, Galdames MDC, Stapf MNS, 2004. Catalogue of vascular plants of Panama (Catalogo de Plantas Vasculares de Panama.). Panama: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute. 599 pp.
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015. Flora of China. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2
Florence J, Chevillotte H, Ollier C, Meyer JY, 2013. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP) (Botanical database of the Nadeaud Herbarium of French Polynesia). http://www.herbier-tahiti.pf
Flores AS, 2015. Crotalaria in Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB82990
Florida Natural Areas Inventory, 2014. Crotalaria spectabilis, Showy rattlebox. http://fnai.org/Invasives/Crotalaria_spectabilis_FNAI.pdf
Francis JK, 2004. Wildland shrubs of the United States and its territories: thamnic descriptions: volume 1. Gen. Tech. Rep. IITF-GTR-26, 1. San Juan, Puerto Rico: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, International Institute of Tropical Forestry, and Fort Collins, CO: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, 830 pp. http://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/wildland_shrubs.htm
Herrera K, Lorence DH, Flynn T, Balick MJ, 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Allertonia. Lawai, Hawaii, USA: National Tropical Botanical Garden, 146 pp.
ILDIS, 2015. International Legume Database and Information Service. Reading, UK: School of Plant Sciences, University of Reading. http://www.ildis.org/
Levine JM, Vila M, D’Antonio CM, Dukes JS, Grigulis K, Lavorel S, 2003. Mechanisms underlying the impacts of exotic plant invasions., Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 270:775-781
Liogier HA, 1988. Descriptive flora of Puerto Rico and adjacent islands, Spermatophyta. Vol. 2. Río Piedras, Puerto Rico: Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico. 481 pp..
MacKee HS, 1994. Catalogue of introduced and cultivated plants in New Caledonia. (Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie.) Paris, France: Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, unpaginated
Maddox V, Westbrooks R, Byrd JD Jr., 2011. Showy rattlebox. Online resources Mississippi State University, Geosystems Research Institute. https://www.gri.msstate.edu/ipams/FactSheets/Showy_rattlebox.pdf
Niyomdham C, 1997. Crotalaria spectabilis Roth. Record from Proseabase. In: Faridah Hanum I, Maesen LJG van der, Eds. PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org
Oviedo Prieto R, Herrera Oliver P, Caluff MG, et al. , 2012. National list of invasive and potentially invasive plants in the Republic of Cuba - 2011. (Lista nacional de especies de plantas invasoras y potencialmente invasoras en la República de Cuba - 2011). Bissea: Boletín sobre Conservación de Plantas del Jardín Botánico Nacional de Cuba, 6(Special Issue 1):22-96.
Parrotta JA, 2001. Healing plants of Peninsular India. Wallingford, Oxon, UK: CABI Publishing. 917 pp.
PIER, 2015. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.htm
Polhill RM, 1982. Crotalaria in Africa and Madagascar. Rotterdam, the Nethelands: Balkema. 389 pp.
PROTA, 2015. PROTA4U web database. Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp
Randall RP, 2012. A Global Compendium of Weeds. Perth, Australia: Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia, 1124 pp. http://www.cabi.org/isc/FullTextPDF/2013/20133109119.pdf
Roux MM, Boatwright JS, Wyk BE van, 2013. A global infrageneric classification system for the genus Crotalaria (Leguminosae) based on molecular and morphological evidence., Taxon, 62:957-971
Space JC, Lorence DH, LaRosa AM, 2009. Report to the Republic of Palau: 2008 update on invasive plant species. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 227 pp. http://www.hear.org/pier/pdf/Palau_report_2008.pdf
Stevens PF, 2012. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
Thaman RR, Fosberg FR, Manner HI, Hassall DC, 1994. The flora of Nauru. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin, 392: 1-223. http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections/atollresearchbulletin/issues/00392.pdf
USDA-ARS, 2015. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, USA. http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl
USDA-NRCS, 2015. The PLANTS Database. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov/
Wagner WL, Herbst DR, Sohmer SH, 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: University of Hawaii Press/Bishop Museum Press. 1919 pp.
Weeds of Australia, 2015. Weeds of Australia, Biosecurity Queensland Edition. http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/03030800-0b07-490a-8d04-0605030c0f01/media/Html/search.html?zoom_query=
Wyk BE van, 2005. Tribe Crotalarieae. In: Lewis G, Schrire B, Mackinder B, Lock M, eds. Legumes of the World. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens, pp. 273–281.
Zamora N, 2010. Fabaceae. In: Hammel BE, Grayum MH, Herrera C, Zamora N, Eds. Manual de Plantas de Costa Rica 119(5): 395–775. St. Louis, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden.
Distribution References
Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database., Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.htm
Correa A, Galdames MDC, Stapf MNS, 2004. Catalogue of vascular plants of Panama. (Catalogo de Plantas Vasculares de Panama)., Panama: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute. 599 pp.
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015. Flora of China., St. Louis, Missouri; Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2
Florence J, Chevillotte H, Ollier C, Meyer JY, 2013. Botanical database of the Nadeaud Herbarium of French Polynesia. (Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP))., http://www.herbier-tahiti.pf
Flores AS, 2015. (Crotalaria in Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil)., Brazil: Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB29569
Florida Natural Areas Inventory, 2014. Crotalaria spectabilis, Showy rattlebox., http://fnai.org/Invasives/Crotalaria_spectabilis_FNAI.pdf
Herrera K, Lorence DH, Flynn T, Balick MJ, 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. In: Allertonia, Lawai, Hawaii, USA: National Tropical Botanical Garden. 146 pp.
ILDIS, 2015. International Legume Database and Information Service., Reading, UK: School of Plant Sciences, University of Reading. http://www.ildis.org/
PIER, 2015. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.htm
Polhill RM, 1982. Crotalaria in Africa and Madagascar., Rotterdam, Netherlands: Balkema. 389 pp.
PROTA, 2015. PROTA4U web database., Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp
Thaman RR, Fosberg FR, Manner HI, Hassall DC, 1994. The flora of Nauru. In: Atoll Research Bulletin, 392 Washington, Smithsonian Institution. 1-223. http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections/atollresearchbulletin/issues/00392.pdf
USDA-ARS, 2015. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
USDA-NRCS, 2015. The PLANTS Database. Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: National Plant Data Team. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov
Weeds of Australia, 2015. Weeds of Australia, Biosecurity Queensland Edition., http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/03030800-0b07-490a-8d04-0605030c0f01/media/Html/search.html?zoom_query=
Zamora N, 2010. Fabaceae. In: Manual de Plantas de Costa Rica, 119 (5) [ed. by Hammel BE, Grayum MH, Herrera C, Zamora N]. St. Louis, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. 395-775.
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
International Legume Database & Information Service | http://www.ildis.org |
Contributors
Top of page03/05/16 Original text by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
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